Cognitive vulnerabilities to the development of PTSD: A review of four vulnerabilities and the proposal of an integrative vulnerability model

Clinical Psychology Review

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 87-100

  Elwood, Lisa S ^a   Hahn, Kathryn S ^b,d   Olatunji, Bunmi O ^c   Williams, Nathan L ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI ST LOUIS   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MISSISSIPPI MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ARKANSAS   (United States)

Author keywords

Anxiety sensitivity; Attribution; Diathesis stress; Looming cognitive style; PTSD; Rumination; Vulnerability

Indexed keywords

ACUTE STRESS DISORDER; ANXIETY DISORDER; COGNITION; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; DYSTHYMIA; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; HUMAN; LIFE EVENT; MAJOR DEPRESSION; PANIC; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOTRAUMA; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SEXUAL CRIME; STRESS; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; THEORETICAL MODEL;

AFFECT; COGNITION; COMORBIDITY; HUMANS; RISK FACTORS; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC;

EID: 57549105051     PISSN: 02727358     EISSN: 18737811     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.cpr.2008.10.002     Document Type: Review

References (191)

1. Abramson L.Y., Alloy L.B., Hogan M.E., Whitehouse W.G., Donovan P., Rose D.T., et al. Cognitive vulnerability to depression: Theory and evidence. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 13 (1999) 5-20
2. Abramson L.Y., Metalsky G.I., and Alloy L.B. Hopelessness depression: A theory-based subtype of depression. Psychological Review 96 (1989) 358-372
3. Alloy L.B., Abramson L.Y., Hogan M.E., Whitehouse W.G., Rose D.T., Robinson M.S., et al. The Temple-Wisconsin cognitive vulnerability to depression project: Lifetime history of Axis I psychopathology in individuals at high and low cognitive risk for depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109 (2000) 403-418
4. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 3rd Ed. (1980), American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
5. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th Ed. (1994), American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC
6. Asmundson G.J.G., and Carleton R.N. Fear of pain is elevated in adults with co-occurring trauma-related stress and social anxiety symptoms. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 34 (2005) 245-255
7. Asmundson G.J.G., Norton G.R., Allerdings M.D., Norton P.J., and Larsen D.K. Posttraumatic Stress Disorder and work-related injury. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 12 (1998) 57-69
8. Asmundson G.J.G., and Stapleton J.A. Associations between dimensions of anxiety sensitivity and PTSD symptom clusters in active-duty police officers. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 37 (2008) 66-75
9. Barlow D.H., Allen L.B., and Choate M.L. Toward a unified treatment for emotional disorders. Behavior Therapy 35 (2004) 205-230
10. Beck A.T. Depression: Clinical, Experimental, and Cognitive Aspects (1967), Harper and Row, New York, NY
11. Beck A.T., and Clark D.A. An information processing model of anxiety: Automatic and strategic processing. Behaviour Research and Therapy 35 (1997) 49-58
12. Beck G.J., Coffey S.F., Palyo S.A., Gudmundsdottir B., Miller L.M., and Colder C.R. Psychometric properties of the posttraumatic cognitions inventory (PTCI): A replication with motor vehicle accident survivors. Psychological Assessment 16 (2004) 289-298
13. Bernstein A., Zvolensky M.J., Feldner M.T., Lewis S.F., Fauber A.L., Leen-Feldner E.W., et al. Anxiety sensitivity taxon and trauma: Discriminant associations for posttraumatic stress and panic symptomatology among young adults. Depression and Anxiety 22 (2005) 138-149
14. Bernstein A., Zvolensky M.J., Feldner M.T., Lewis S.F., and Leen-Feldner E.W. Anxiety sensitivity taxonicity: A concurrent test of cognitive vulnerability for Posttraumatic Stress symptomatology among young adults. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 34 (2005) 229-241
15. Blais M.A., Otto M.W., Zucker B.G., McNally R.J., Schmidt N.B., Fava M., et al. The Anxiety Sensitivity Index: Item analysis and suggestions for refinement. Journal of Personality Assessment 77 (2001) 272-294
16. Bloom S.L. Our hearts and our hopes are turned to peace: Origins of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies. In: Shalev A.Y., Yehuda R., and McFarlane A.C. (Eds). International handbook of human response to trauma (2000), Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Netherlands 27-50
17. Bonin M.F., Norton G.R., Asmundson G.J.G., Dicurzio S., and Pidlubney S. Drinking away the hurt: the nature and prevalence of PTSD in substance abuse patients attending a community-based treatment program. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 31 (2000) 55-66
18. Bowman M.L., and Yehuda R. Risk factors in the adversity-stress model. In: Rosen G.M. (Ed). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Issues and controversies (2004), John Wiley and Sons, Ltd, New York, NY 15-38
19. Brady K.T., Killeen T.K., Brewerton T., and Lucerini S. Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 61 (2000) 22-32
20. Brewin C.R., Andrews B., and Valentine J.D. Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in traumatized adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 68 (2000) 748-766
21. Broman-Fulks J.J., Green B.A., Berman M.E., Olatunji B.O., Arnau R.C., Deacon B.J., et al. The latent structure of anxiety sensitivity - Revisited. Assessment 15 (2008) 188-203
22. Brown E.J., and Kolko D.J. Child victims' attributions about being physically abused: An examination of factors associated with symptom severity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 27 (1999) 311-322
23. Brown T.A., Chorpita B.F., and Barlow D.H. Structural relationships among dimensions of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders and dimensions of negative affect, positive affect, and autonomic arousal. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107 (1998) 179-192
24. Brown T.A., Campbell L.A., Lehman C.L., Grisham J.R., and Mancill R.B. Current and lifetime comorbidity of the DSM-IV anxiety and mood disorders in a large clinical sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110 (2001) 585-599
25. Bryant R.A., and Panasetis P. Panic symptoms during trauma and Acute Stress Disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (2001) 961-966
26. Buckley T.C., Blanchard E.B., and Neill W.T. Information processing and PTSD: A review of the empirical literature. Clinical Psychology Review 20 (2000) 1041-1065
27. Calmes C.A., and Roberts J.E. Repetitive thought and emotional distress: Rumination and worry as prospective predictors of depressive and anxious symptomatology. Cognitive Therapy and Research 30 (2007) 343-356
28. Clark L.A., and Watson D. Tripartite model of anxiety and depression: Psychometric evidence and taxonomic implications. Journal of Abnormal Psychology; Special issue: Diagnoses, dimensions, and DSM-IV: The science of classification 100 (1991) 316-336
29. Clohessy S., and Ehlers A. PTSD symptoms, response to intrusive memories, and coping in ambulance service workers. British Journal of Clinical Psychology 38 (1999) 251-265
30. Collimore K.C., McCabe R.E., Carleton R.N., and Asmundson G.J.G. Media exposure and dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: Differential associations with PTSD symptom clusters. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 22 (2008) 1021-1028
31. Conley C.S., Haines B.A., Hilt L.M., and Metalsky G.I. The Children's Attributional Style Interview: Developmental tests of cognitive diathesis-stress theories of depression. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 29 (2001) 445-463
32. Conway M., Csank P.A., Holm S.L., and Blake C.K. On individual differences in rumination on sadness. Journal of Personality Assessment 75 (2000) 404-425
33. Corr P.J., and Gray J.A. Structure and validity of the Attributional Style Questionnaire: A cross-sample comparison. The Journal of Psychology 130 (1996) 645-657
34. Cutrona C.E., Russell D., and Jones R.D. Cross-situational consistency in causal attributions: Does attributional style exist?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 47 (1985) 1043-1058
35. Dalgleish T., and Power M.J. Emotion-specific and emotion-non-specific components of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Implications for a taxonomy of related psychopathology; Special issue: Festschrift special issue for John Teasdale. Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 1069-1088
36. Davis R.N., and Nolen-Hoeksema S. Cognitive inflexibility among ruminators and nonruminators. Cognitive Therapy and Research 24 (2000) 699-711
37. Dixon A., Howie P., and Starling J. Trauma exposure, Posttraumatic Stress, and psychiatric comorbidity in female juvenile offenders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 44 (2005) 798-806
38. Ehlers A., and Clark D.M. A cognitive model of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Research and Therapy 38 (2000) 319-345
39. Ehlers A., Mayou R.A., and Bryant B. Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 107 (1998) 508-519
40. Ehlers A., Mayou R.A., and Bryant B. Cognitive predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder in children: Results of a prospective longitudinal study. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003) 1-10
41. Ehlers A., and Steil R. Maintenance of intrusive memories in posttraumatic stress disorder: A cognitive approach. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 23 (1995) 217-249
42. Ehring T., Ehlers A., and Glucksman E. Contribution of cognitive factor to the prediction of post-traumatic stress disorder, phobia and depression after motor vehicle accidents. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44 (2006) 1699-1716
43. Elklit A., and Brink O. Acute stress disorder as a predictor of post-traumatic stress disorder in physical assault victims. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 19 (2004) 709-726
44. Elwood L.S., Williams N.L., Olatunji B.O., and Lohr J.M. Interpretation biases in victims and non-victims and their relation to symptom development. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 21 (2007) 554-567
45. Engelhard I.M., Huijding J., van den Hout M.A., and de Jong P.J. Vulnerability associations and symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder in soldiers deployed to Iraq. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 (2007) 2317-2325
46. Engelhard I.M., and van den Hout M.A. Preexisting neuroticism, subjective stressor severity, and posttraumatic stress in soldiers deployed to Iraq. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 52 (2007) 505-509
47. Engelhard I.M., van den Hout M.A., and Kindt M. The relationship between neuroticism, pre-traumatic stress, and post-traumatic stress: a prospective study. Personality and Individual Difference 35 (2003) 381-388
48. Engelhard I.M., van den Hout M.A., and Schouten E.G.W. Neuroticism and low educational level predict the risk of posttraumatic stress disorder in women after miscarriage or stillbirth. General Hospital Psychiatry 28 (2006) 414-417
49. Epstein S. Impulse control and self-destructive behavior. In: Lipsitt L.P., and Mitnick L.L. (Eds). Self-regulatory behavior and risk takings: Causes and consequences (1991), Ablex, Norwood, NJ 273-284
50. Eysenck H.J. AddedThe Biological Basis of Personality (1967), Eysenck, H.J.: Thomas, Springfield, IL
51. Fairbrother N., and Rachman S. Feelings of mental pollution subsequent to sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy 42 (2004) 173-189
52. Falsetti S.A., and Resick P.A. Causal attributions, depression, and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in victims of crime. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 25 (1995) 1027-1042
53. Fedoroff I.C., Taylor S., Asmundson G.J.G., and Koch W.J. Cognitive factors in traumatic stress reactions: Predicting PTSD symptoms from anxiety sensitivity and beliefs about harmful events. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 28 (2000) 5-15
54. Feiring C., Taska L., and Chen M. Trying to understand why horrible things happen: Attribution, shame, and symptom development following sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment 7 (2002) 26-41
55. Feiring C., Taska L., and Lewis M. Adjustment following sexual abuse discovery: The role of shame and attributional style. Developmental Psychology 38 (2002) 79-92
56. Feiring C., Taska L., and Lewis M. The role of shame and attributional style in children's and adolescent's adaptation to sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment 3 (1998) 129-142
57. Feldner M.T., Babson K.A., Zvolensky M.J., Monson C.M., Bonn-Miller M.O., and Gibson L.E. An examination of anxiety sensitivity as a moderator of the relationship between smoking level and posttraumatic stress symptoms among trauma-exposed adults. Cognitive Therapy and Research 32 (2008) 116-132
58. Feldner M.T., Leen-Feldner E.W., Trainor C., Blanchard L., and Monson C.M. Smoking and posttraumatic stress symptoms among adolescents: Does anxiety sensitivity matter?. Addictive Behaviors 33 (2008) 1470-1476
59. Feldner M.T., Lewis S.F., Leen-Feldner E.W., Schnurr P.P., and Zvolensky M.J. Anxiety sensitivity as a moderator of the relation between trauma exposure frequency and Posttraumatic Stress symptomatology. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly 20 (2006) 201-213
60. Feldner M.T., Zvolensky M.J., and Schmidt N.B. Prevention of anxiety psychopathology: A critical review of the empirical literature. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 11 (2004) 405-424
61. Feldner M.T., Zvolensky M.J., Schmidt N.B., and Smith R.C. A prospective test of anxiety sensitivity as a moderator of the relation between gender and posttraumatic symptom maintenance among high anxiety sensitive young adults. Depression and Anxiety 25 (2008) 190-199
62. Foa E.B., Ehlers A., Clark D.M., Tolin D.F., and Orsillo S.M. The posttraumatic cognitions inventory (PTCI): Development and validation. Psychological Assessment 11 (1999) 303-314
63. Foa E.B., and Riggs D.S. Posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims. In: Oldham J., Riba M.B., and Tasman A. (Eds). American psychiatric press review of psychiatry Vol. 12 (1993), American Psychiatric Press, Washington, D.C. 273-303
64. Foa E.B., and Rothbaum B.O. Treating the trauma of rape: Cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD (1999), Guilford Press, New York
65. Foa E.B., Steketee G., and Rothbaum B.O. Behavioral/cognitive conceptualizations of posttraumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy 20 (1989) 155-176
66. Friedman M.J., and Yehuda R. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and comorbidity: Psychobiological approaches to differential diagnosis. In: Friedman M.J., Charney D.S., and Deutch A.Y. (Eds). Neurobiological and clinical consequences of stress: From normal adaptation to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (1995), Lippincott-Raven Publishers, Philadelphia, PA 429-446
67. Gladstone T.R.G., and Kaslow N.G. Depression and attributions in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 23 (1995) 597-606
68. Golin S., Sweeney P.D., and Schaeffer D.E. The causality of causal attributions in depression: A cross-lagged panel correlational analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 90 (1981) 14-22
69. Grant D.M., Beck J.G., and Davila J. Does anxiety sensitivity predict symptoms of panic, depression, and social anxiety?. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 (2007) 2247-2255
70. Gray M.J., and Lombardo T.W. Life event attributions as a potential source of vulnerability following exposure to a traumatic event. Journal of Loss and Trauma 9 (2004) 59-72
71. Gray M.J., Pumphrey J.E., and Lombardo T.W. The relationship between dispositional pessimistic attributional style versus trauma-specific attributions and PTSD symptoms. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 17 (2003) 289-303
72. Greening L., Stoppelbein L., and Docter R. The mediating effects of attributional style and event-specific attributions of postdisaster adjustment. Cognitive Therapy and Research 26 (2002) 261-274
73. Hankin B.L., and Abramson L.Y. Measuring cognitive vulnerability to depression in adolescence: Reliability, validity, and gender differences. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 31 (2002) 491-504
74. 2C receptor is involved in the enhanced anxiety in rats after single-prolonged stress. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 89 (2008) 11-16
75. Harris P.W., Pepper C.M., and Maack D.J. The relationship between maladaptive perfectionism and depressive symptoms: The mediating role of rumination. Personality and Individual Differences 44 (2008) 150-160
76. Harvey A.G., and Bryant R.A. Memory for acute stress disorder symptoms: A two-year prospective study. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 188 (2000) 602-607
77. Hewitt A.K., Foxcroft D.R., and MacDonald J. Multitrait-multimethod confirmatory factor analysis of the attributional style questionnaire. Personality and Individual Differences 37 (2004) 1483-1491
78. Hickling E.J., Blanchard E.B., Buckley T.C., and Taylor A.E. Effects of attribution for motor vehicle accidents on severity of PTSD symptoms, ways of coping, and recovery over six months. Journal of Traumatic Stress 12 (1999) 345-353
79. Hinton D.E., Pich V., Safren S.A., Pollack M.H., and McNally R.J. Anxiety sensitivity in traumatized Cambodian refugees: A discriminant function and factor analytic investigation. Behaviour Research and Therapy 43 (2005) 1631-1643
80. Ingram R.E., Miranda J., and Segal Z.V. Cognitive vulnerability to depression (1998), Guilford Press, New York, NY
81. Ingram R.E., and Price J.M. Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the lifespan (2001), The Guilford Press, New York: NY
82. Janoff-Bulman R. Shattered assumptions (1992), The Free Press, New York
83. Joiner T.E., and Metalsky G.I. Factorial construct validity of the extended Attributional Style Questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research 23 (1999) 105-113
84. Joiner T.E., and Wagner K.D. Attribution style and depression in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review 15 (1995) 777-798
85. Joseph S.A., Brewin C.R., Yule W., and Williams R. Causal attributions and psychiatric symptoms in survivors of the Herald of Free Enterprise Disaster. British Journal of Psychiatry 159 (1991) 542-546
86. Just N., and Alloy L.B. The response styles theory of depression: Tests and an extension of the theory. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 106 (1997) 221-229
87. Kasch K.L., Klein D.N., and Lara M.E. A construct validation study of the Response Styles Questionnaire Rumination Scale in participants with recent-onset major depressive episode. Psychological Assessment 13 (2001) 375-383
88. Kashdan T.B., Uswatte G., Steger M.F., and Julian T. Fragile self-esteem and affective instability in posttraumatic stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44 (2006) 1609-1619
89. Keane T.M., and Kaloupek D.G. Comorbid psychiatric disorders in PTSD: Implications for research. In: Yehuda R., and McFarlane A.C. (Eds). Psychobiology of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (1997), New York Academy of Sciences, New York, NY, US 24-34
90. Keogh E., Ayers S., and Francis H. Does anxiety sensitivity predict post-traumatic stress symptoms following childbirth? A preliminary report. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 31 (2002) 145-155
91. Kessler R.C., Sonnega A., Bromet E., Hughes M., and Nelson C.B. Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 52 (1995) 1048-1060
92. Kilic E.Z., Kilic C., and Yilmaz S. Is anxiety sensitivity a predictor of PTSD in children and adolescents?. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 65 (2008) 81-86
93. Kleim B., and Ehlers A. Reduced autobiographical memory specificity predicts depression and posttraumatic stress disorder after recent trauma. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 76 (2008) 231-242
94. Kleim B., Ehlers A., and Glucksman E. Early predictors of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in assault survivors. Psychological Medicine 37 (2007) 1457-1467
95. Kozlovsky N., Matar M.A., Kaplan Z., Kotler M., Zohar J., and Cohen H. The immediate early gene Arc is associated with behavioral resilience to stress exposure in an animal model of posttraumatic stress disorder. European Neuropsychopharmacology 18 (2008) 107-116
96. Kuyken W., and Brewin B. The relation of early abuse to cognition and coping in depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research 23 (1999) 665-677
97. Lang A.J., Kennedy C.M., and Stein M.B. Anxiety sensitivity and PTSD among female victims of intimate partner violence. Depression and Anxiety 16 (2002) 77-83
98. Leen-Feldner E.W., Feldner M.R., Reardon L.E., Babson K.A., and Dixon L. Anxiety sensitivity and posttraumatic stress among traumatic event-exposed youth. Behaviour Research and Therapy 46 (2008) 548-556
99. Maller R.G., and Reiss S. Anxiety sensitivity in 1984 and panic attacks in 1987. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 6 (1992) 241-247
100. Marcus D.K., Hughes K.T., and Arnau R.C. Health anxiety, rumination, and negative affect: A meditational analysis. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 64 (2008) 495-501
101. Marshall G.N., and Schell T.L. Reappraising the link between peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD symptom severity: Evidence from a longitudinal study of community violence survivors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111 (2002) 626-636
102. Mayou R.A., Ehlers A., and Bryant B. Posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicles accidents: 3-year follow-up of a prospective longitudinal study. Behaviour Research and Therapy 40 (2002) 665-675
103. McCann I., and Pearlman L.A. Psychological trauma and the adult survivor: Theory, therapy, and transformation (1990), Brunner/Mazel, New York
104. McKee L., Zvolensky M.J., Solomon S.E., Bernstein A., and Leen-Feldner E. Emotional-vulnerability and mindfulness: A preliminary test of associations among negative affectivity, anxiety sensitivity, and mindfulness skills. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 36 (2007) 91-101
105. McKeever V.M., and Huff M.E. A diathesis-stress model of posttraumatic stress disorder: Ecological, biological, and residual stress pathways. Review of General Psychology 7 (2003) 237-250
106. McNally R.J. Experimental approaches to cognitive abnormality in posttraumatic stress disorder. Clinical Psychology Review 18 (1998) 971-982
107. McNally R.J. Vulnerability to anxiety disorders in adulthood. In: Ingram R.E., and Price J.M. (Eds). Vulnerability to psychopathology: Risk across the Lifespan (2001) 304-321
108. Meehl P.E. Specific etiology and other forms of strong influence: Some quantitative meanings. Journal of Medicine and Philosophy 2 (1977) 33-53
109. Meehl P.E. Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia. American Psychologist 17 (1962) 827-838
110. Metalsky G.I., and Joiner T.E. Vulnerability to depressive symptomatology: A prospective test of the diathesis-stress and causal mediation components of the hopelessness theory of depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (1992) 667-675
111. Michael T., Halligan S.L., Clark D.M., and Ehlers A. Rumination in posttraumatic stress disorder. Depression and Anxiety 24 (2007) 307-317
112. Mikulincer M., and Solomon Z. Attributional style and combat-related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 97 (1988) 308-313
113. Miller M.W. Personality and the etiology and expression of PTSD: A three-factor model perspective. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 10 (2003) 373-393
114. Miller M.W., Kaloupek D.G., Dillon A.L., and Keane T.M. Externalizing and Internalizing Subtypes of Combat-Related PTSD: A Replication and Extension Using the PSY-5 Scales. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 113 (2004) 636-645
115. Miller M.W., and Resick P.A. Internalizing and externalizing subtypes in female sexual assault survivors: Implications for the understanding of complex PTSD. Behavior Therapy 38 (2007) 58-71
116. Miranda R., and Nolen-Hoeksema S. Brooding and reflection: Rumination predicts suicidal ideation at 1-year follow-up in a community sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 (2007) 3088-3095
117. Moulds M.L., Kandris E., Starr S., and Wong A.C.M. The relationship between rumination, avoidance, and depression in a non-clinical sample. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 (2007) 251-261
118. Muris P., Roelefs J., Rassin E., Franken I., and Mayer B. Mediating effects of rumination and worry on the links between neuroticism, anxiety, and depression. Personality and Individual Differences 39 (2005) 1105-1111
119. Murray J., Ehlers A., and Mayou R.A. Dissociation and post-traumatic stress disorder: Two prospective studies of road traffic accident survivors. British Journal of Psychiatry 180 (2002) 363-368
120. Nixon R.D.V., and Bryant R.A. Are negative cognitions associated with severe acute trauma responses?. Behaviour Change 22 (2005) 22-28
121. Nixon R.D.V., and Bryant R.A. Peritraumatic and persistent panic attacks in acute stress disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003) 1237-1242
122. Nolen-Hoeksema S. The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 109 (2000) 504-511
123. Nolen-Hoeksema S. Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100 (1991) 569-582
124. Nolen-Hoeksema S., and Davis C.G. 'Thanks for sharing that': Ruminators and their social support networks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 801-814
125. Nolen-Hoeksema S., Larson J., and Grayson C. Explaining the gender differences in depressive symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 1061-1072
126. Nolen-Hoeksema S., and Morrow J. Effects of rumination and distraction on naturally occurring depressed mood. Cognition and Emotion 7 (1991) 561-570
127. Nolen-Hoeksema S., Parker L.E., and Larson J. Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994) 92-104
128. Nolen-Hoeksema S., Stice E., Wade E., and Bohon C. Reciprocal relations between rumination and bulimic, substance abuse, and depressive symptoms in female adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116 (2007) 198-207
129. Olatunji B.O., Elwood L.S., Williams N.L., and Lohr J.M. Feelings of mental pollution and PTSD symptoms in victims of sexual assault: The mediating role of PTSD cognitions. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy: An International Quarterly 22 (2008) 37-47
130. Orth U., Cahill S.P., Foa E.B., and Maercker A. Anger and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in crime victims: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 76 (2008) 208-218
131. Owens G.P., and Chard K.M. Cognitive distortions among women reporting childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 16 (2001) 178-191
132. Owens G.P., Pike J.L., and Chard K.M. Treatment effects of cognitive processing therapy on cognitive distortions of female child sexual abuse survivors. Behavior Therapy 32 (2001) 413-424
133. Ozer E.J., Best S.R., Lipsey T.L., and Weiss D.S. Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults. Psychological Bulletin 129 (2003) 52-73
134. Palker-Corell A., and Marcus D.K. Partner abuse, learned helplessness, and trauma symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 23 (2004) 445-462
135. Peterson R.C., and Plehn K. Measuring anxiety sensitivity. In: Taylor S. (Ed). Sensitivity: Theory, research, and treatment of the fear of anxiety (1999), Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey 61-81
136. Peterson R.C., and Reiss. Anxiety Sensitivity Index Revised test manual (1993), ISD Publishing Corporation, Worthington, OH
137. Peterson C., and Seligman M.E.P. Causal explanations as a risk factor for depression: Theory and evidence. Psychological Review 91 (1984) 347-374
138. Peterson C., Semmel A., von Baeyer C., Abramson L.Y., Metalsky G.I., and Seligman M.E.P. The attributional style questionnaire. Cognitive Therapy and Research 6 (1982) 287-300
139. Peterson C., and Villanova P. An Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 97 (1988) 87-89
140. Plehn K., and Peterson R.A. Anxiety sensitivity as a predictor of the development of panic symptoms, panic attacks, and panic disorder: A prospective study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 16 (2002) 455-474
141. Power M.J., and Dalgleish T. Two routes to emotion: Some implications of multi-level theories of emotion for therapeutic practice. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy 27 (1999) 129-141
142. Reardon J., and Williams N.L. The specificity of cognitive vulnerabilities to emotion disorders; anxiety sensitivity, looming vulnerability, and explanatory style. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 21 (2007) 625-643
143. Reijntjes A., Dekovic M., Vermande M., and Telch M.J. Predictive validity of the Children's Attributional Styles Questionnaire: Linkages with reactions to an in vivo peer evaluation manipulation. Cognitive Therapy and Research 32 (2008) 247-260
144. Reiss S. Expectancy model of fear, anxiety, and panic. Clinical Psychology Review 11 (1991) 141-153
145. Reiss S., Peterson R.A., Gursky M., and McNally R.J. Anxiety sensitivity, anxiety frequency, and the prediction of fearfulness. Behaviour Research and Therapy 24 (1986) 1-8
146. Resick P.A., and Schnicke M.K. Cognitive processing therapy for rape victims (1996), Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA
147. Riskind J.H. Looming vulnerability to threat: A cognitive paradigm for anxiety. Behavior Research and Therapy 35 (1997) 793-802
148. Riskind J.H., and Alloy L.B. Cognitive vulnerability to psychological disorders: Overview of theory, design, and methods. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Special issue: Cognitive vulnerability to psychological disorders 25 (2006) 705-725
149. Riskind J.H., and Williams N.L. The looming cognitive style and generalized anxiety disorder: Distinctive danger schemas and cognitive phenomenology. Cognitive Therapy and Research 29 (2005) 7-27
150. Riskind J.H., and Williams N.L. Specific cognitive content of anxiety and catastrophizing: Looming vulnerability and the looming maladaptive style. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 13 (1999) 41-54
151. Riskind J.H., Williams N.L., Gessner T., Chrosniak L.D., and Cortina J. The looming maladaptive style: Anxiety, danger and schematic processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 79 (2000) 837-852
152. Roelofs J., Muris P., Huibers M., Peeters F., and Arntz A. On the measurement of rumination: A psychometric evaluation of the ruminative response scale and the rumination on sadness scale in undergraduates. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 37 (2006) 299-313
153. Rothbaum B.O., Foa E.B., Riggs D., Murdock T., and Walsh W. A prospective examination of posttraumatic stress disorder in rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress 5 (1992) 455-475
154. Rueger S.Y., and Malecki C.K. Group administration of the Children's Attributional Style Interview. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology 36 (2007) 476-482
155. Runyon M.K., and Kenny M.C. Relationship of attributional style, depression, and posttrauma distress among children who suffered physical or sexual abuse. Child Maltreatment 7 (2002) 254-264
156. Sanjuán P., Pérez A., Rueda B., and Ruiz A. Interactive effects of attributional styles for positive and negative events on psychological distress. Personality and Individual Differences 45 (2008) 187-190
157. Schmidt N.B., Eggleston A.M., Woolaway-Bickel K., Fitzpatrick K.K., Vasey M.W., and Richey J.A. Anxiety sensitivity amelioration training (ASAT): A longitudinal primary prevention program targeting cognitive vulnerability. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 21 (2007) 302-319
158. Schmidt N.B., Lerew D.R., and Jackson R.J. The role of anxiety sensitivity in the pathogenesis of panic: Prospective evaluation of spontaneous panic attacks during acute stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 106 (1997) 355-364
159. Schmidt N.B., Zvolensky M.J., and Maner J.K. Anxiety sensitivity: Prospective prediction of panic attacks and Axis I pathology. Journal of Psychiatric Research 40 (2006) 691-699
160. Schönfeld S., and Ehlers A. Overgeneral memory extends to pictorial retrieval cues and correlates with cognitive features in posttraumatic stress disorder. Emotion 6 (2006) 611-621
161. Smári J., Erlendsdóttir G., Björgvinsdóttir A., and Ágústsdóttir V.R. Anxiety sensitivity and trait-symptom measures of anxiety and depression. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping 16 (2003) 375-386
162. Solomon Z., Mikulincer M., and Waysman M. Delayed and immediate onset Posttraumatic Stress Disorder II. The role of battle experiences and personal resources. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 26 (1991) 8-13
163. Steil R., and Ehlers A. Dysfunctional meaning of posttraumatic intrusions in chronic PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy 38 (2000) 537-558
164. Stewart S.H., Conrod P.J., Samoluk S.B., Pihl R.O., and Dongier M. Posttraumaic Stress Disorder symptoms and situation-specific drinking in women substance abusers. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly 18 (2000) 31-47
165. Sweeney P.D., Anderson K., and Bailey S. Attributional style in depression: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 50 (1986) 974-991
166. Taylor S. Anxiety sensitivity and its implications for understanding and treating PTSD. In: Taylor S. (Ed). Advances in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder: Cognitive behavioral perspectives. (2004), Springer Publishing Co, New York, NY
167. Taylor S. Anxiety sensitivity and its implications for understanding and treating PTSD. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 17 (2003) 179-186
168. Taylor S., and Cox B.J. An expanded Anxiety Sensitivity Index: Evidence for a hierarchic structure in a clinical sample. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 12 (1998) 463-483
169. Taylor S., and Cox B.J. Anxiety sensitivity: Multiple dimensions and hierarchic structure. Behaviour Research and Therapy 36 (1998) 37-51
170. Taylor S., Koch W.J., and McNally R.J. How does anxiety sensitivity vary across the anxiety disorders?. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 6 (1992) 249-259
171. Taylor S., Zvolensky M., Cox B., Deacon B., Heimberg R., Ledley D.R., et al. Robust dimensions of anxiety sensitivity: Development and initial validation of the anxiety sensitivity index-3 (ASI-3). Psychological Assessment 19 (2007) 176-188
172. Tennen H., and Herzberger S. Depression, self-esteem, and the absence of self-protective attributional biases. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1987) 72-80
173. Thompson M., Kaslow N.J., Weiss B., and Nolen-Hoeksema S. Children's Attributional Style Questionnaire-Revised: Psychometric examination. Psychological Assessment 10 (1998) 166-170
174. Treynor W., Gonzalez R., and Nolen-Hoeksema S. Rumination reconsidered: A psychometric analysis. Cognitive Therapy and Research 27 (2003) 247-259
175. Trull T.J., and Sher K.J. Relationship between the five-factor model of personality and Axis I disorders in a nonclinical sample. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103 (1994) 350-360
176. Tull M.T., Barrett H.M., McMillan E.S., and Roemer L. A preliminary investigation of the relationship between emotion regulation difficulties and posttraumatic stress symptoms. Behavior Therapy 38 (2007) 303-313
177. van den Hout M.A., and Engelhard I.M. Pretrauma neuroticism, negative appraisals of intrusions, and severity of PTSD symptoms. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 26 (2004) 181-183
178. Vujanovic A.A., Zvolensky M.J., and Bernstein A. Incremental associations between facets of anxiety sensitivity and posttraumatic stress and panic symptoms among trauma-exposed adults. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 37 (2008) 76-89
179. Wald J., and Taylor S. Responses to interoceptive exposure in people with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): A preliminary analysis of induced anxiety reactions and trauma memories and their relationship to anxiety sensitivity and PTSD symptom severity. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 37 (2008) 90-100
180. Watson D., and Clark L.A. Negative affectivity: The disposition to experience aversive emotional states. Psychological Bulletin 96 (1984) 465-490
181. Weems C.F., Hayward C., Killen J., and Taylor C.B. A longitudinal investigation of anxiety sensitivity in adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 111 (2002) 471-477
182. Wenniger K., and Ehlers A. Dysfunctional cognitions and adult psychological functioning in child sexual abuse survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress 11 (1998) 281-300
183. Wheeler M.A., Stuss D.T., and Tulving E. Toward a theory of episodic memory: The frontal lobes and autonoetic consciousness. Psychological Bulletin 121 (1997) 331-354
184. Williams W.H., Evans J.J., Needham P., and Wilson B.A. Neurological, cognitive and attributional predictors of Posttraumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Traumatic Stress 15 (2002) 397-400
185. Williams A.D., and Moulds M.L. Cognitive avoidance of intrusive memories: Recall vantage perspective and associations with depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy 45 (2007) 1141-1153
186. Williams N.L., Shahar G., Riskind J.H., and Joiner T.E. The looming maladaptive style predicts shared variance in anxiety disorder symptoms: Further support for a cognitive model of vulnerability of anxiety. Journal of Anxiety Disorders 19 (2005) 157-175
187. Zinbarg R.E., Mohlman J., and Hong N.N. Dimensions of anxiety sensitivity. In: Taylor S. (Ed). Anxiety Sensitivity: Theory, Research, and Treatment of the Fear of Anxiety (1999), Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey 83-114
188. Zoellner L.A., Sacks M.B., and Foa E.B. Stability of emotions for traumatic memories in acute and chronic PTSD. Behaviour Research and Therapy 39 (2001) 697-711
189. Zubin J., and Spring B. Vulnerability: A new view of schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 86 (1977) 103-126
190. Zvolensky M.J., Arrindell W.A., Taylor S., Bouvard M., Cox B.J., Stewart S.H., Sandin B., et al. Anxiety sensitivity in six countries. Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003) 841-859
191. Zvolensky M.J., Schmidt N.B., Bernstein A., and Keough M.E. Risk factor research and prevention programs for anxiety disorders: A translational research framework. Behaviour Research and Therapy 44 (2006) 1219-1239