Vitamin D and Multiple Sclerosis

Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Volumn 52, Issue 11, 2012, Pages 980-987

  Ho, Swui Ling ^a   Alappat, Lini ^a   Awad, Atif B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY AT BUFFALO   (United States)

Author keywords

diet; environment; genetics; immune cells; mechanism

Indexed keywords

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS; DIETARY COMPONENTS; ENVIRONMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS; GENETIC FACTORS; GENETICS; HIGH ALTITUDE; IMMUNE CELLS; INFLAMMATORY DISEASE; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; VITAMIN-D;

MECHANISMS; NUTRITION;

VITAMINS;

VITAMIN; VITAMIN D;

ANIMAL; B LYMPHOCYTE; DENDRITIC CELL; DIET; DRUG EFFECT; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; T LYMPHOCYTE; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

ANIMALS; B-LYMPHOCYTES; DENDRITIC CELLS; DIET; GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HUMANS; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; T-LYMPHOCYTES; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY; VITAMINS;

EID: 84864662379     PISSN: 10408398     EISSN: 15497852     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2010.516034     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Agranoff, B. W. and Goldberg, D. 1974. Diet and geographical distribution of multiple-sclerosis. Lancet., 40(2): 1061-1066.
2. Akeno, N., Saikatsu, S., Kawane, T. and Horiuchi, N. 1997. Mouse vitamin D-24-hydroxylase: Molecular cloning, tissue distribution, and transcriptional regulation by 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3. Endocrinology., 138(6): 2233-2240.
3. Almeras, L., Eyles, D., Benech, P., Laffite, D., Villard, C., Patatian, A., Boucraut, J., Mackay-Sim, A., McGrath, J. and Feron, F. 2007. Developmental vitamin D deficiency alters brain protein expression in the adult rat: Implications for neuropsychiatric disorders. Proteomics., 7(3): 769-780.
4. Alonso, A. and Hernan, M. A. 2008. Temporal trends in the incidence of multiple sclerosis: A systematic review. Neurology., 71(7): 129-135.
5. Baranzini, S. E., Wang, J., Gibson, R. A., Galwey, N., Naegelin, Y., Barkhof, F., Radue, E. W., Lindberg, R. L. P. and Uitdehaag, B. M. G. 2009. Genome-wide association analysis of susceptibility and clinical phenotype in multiple sclerosis. Human Molecular Genetics., 18(2): 767-778.
6. Bouillon, R., Okamura, W. H. and Norman, A. W. 1995. Structure-function-relationships in the vitamin-D endocrine system. Endocrine Reviews., 16(5): 200-257.
7. Branisteanu, D. D., Waer, M., Sobis, H., Marcelis, S., Vandeputte, M. and Bouillon, R. 1995. Prevention of murine experimental allergic encephalomyelitis: Cooperative effects of cyclosporine and 1alpha,25-(OH)(2)D-3. Journal of Neuroimmunology., 61(9): 151-160.
8. Burton, J. M., Kimball, S., Vieth, R., Bar-Or, A., Dosch, H. M., Cheung, R., Gagne, D., D'Souza, C., Ursell, M. and O'Connor, P. 2010. A phase I/II dose-escalation trial of vitamin D3 and calcium in multiple sclerosis. Neurology., 74(6): 1852-1859.
9. Calvo, M. S., Whiting, S. J. and Barton, C. N. 2004. Vitamin D fortification in the United States and Canada: Current status and data needs. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80(12): 1710S-1716S.
10. Cantorna, M. T. 2008. Vitamin D and multiple sclerosis: An update. Nutrition Reviews., 66(10): S135-S138.
11. Cantorna, M. T., Hayes, C. E. and DeLuca, H. F. 1996. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 reversibly blocks the progression of relapsing encephalomyelitis, a model of multiple sclerosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 93(7): 7861-7864.
12. Cantorna, M. T., Humpal-Winter, J. and DeLuca, H. F. 1999. Dietary calcium is a major factor in 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol suppression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice. Journal of Nutrition., 129(11): 1966-1971.
13. Cantorna, M. T., Woodward, W. D., Hayes, C. E. and DeLuca, H. F. 1998. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 is a positive regulator for the two anti-encephalitogenic cytokines TGF-beta 1 and IL-4. Journal of Immunology., 160(6): 5314-5319.
14. Carlberg, C., Quack, M., Herdick, M., Bury, Y., Polly, P. and Toell, A. 2001. Central role of VDR conformations for understanding selective actions of vitamin D-3 analogues. 66(3-5): 213-221.
15. Chabas, D., Baranzini, S. E., Mitchell, D., Bernard, C. C. A., Rittling, S. R., Denhardt, D. T., Sobel, R. A., Lock, C. and Karpuj, M. 2001. The influence of the proinflammatory cytokine, osteopontin, on autoimmune demyelinating disease. Science., 294(11): 1731-1735.
16. Chen, S., Sims, G. P., Chen, X. X., Gu, Y. Y. and Lipsky, P. E. 2007. Modulatory effects of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 on human B cell differentiation. Journal of Immunology., 179(8): 1634-1647.
17. Cherniack, E. P., Levis, S. and Troen, B. R. 2008. Hypovitaminosis D: A stealthy epidemic that requires treatment. Geriatrics., 63(4): 24-30.
18. Cippitelli, M., Fionda, C., Di Bona, D., Di Rosa, F., Lupo, A., Piccoli, M., Frati, L. and Santoni, A. 2002. Negative regulation of CD95 ligand gene expression by vitamin D3 in T lymphocytes. Journal of Immunology., 168(2): 1154-1166.
19. Cocco, E., Sardu, C., Murru, R., Frau, J., Lorefice, L., Mamusa, E., Contu, P. and Marrosu, M. G. 2009. Multiple sclerosis risk: Interaction between human leukocyte antigen and the environment in Sardinian population. Multiple Sclerosis., 15(9): 1030-1036.
20. Correale, J, Ysrraelit, M and Gaitan, M. 2009. Immunomodulatory effects of Vitamin D in multiple sclerosis. Brain., 132(5): 1146-1160.
21. Cross, A. H., San, M., Stern, M. K., Keeling, R. M., Salvemini, D. and Misko, T. P. 2000. A catalyst of peroxynitrite decomposition inhibits murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Journal of Neuroimmunology., 107(7): 21-28.
22. D'Ambrosio, D., Cippitelli, M., Cocciolo, M. G., Mazzeo, D., Di Lucia, P., Lang, R., Sinigaglia, F. and Panina-Bordignon, P. 1998. Inhibition of IL-12 production by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 - Involvement of NF-kappa B downregulation in transcriptional repression of the p40 gene. Journal of Clinical Investigation., 101(1): 252-262.
23. Decallonne, B., van Etten, E., Overbergh, L., Valckx, D., Bouillon, R. and Mathieu, C. 2005. 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 restores thymocyte apoptosis sensitivity in non-obese diabetic (NOD) mice through dendritic cells. Journal of Autoimmunity., 24(6): 281-289.
24. Dong, X. Y., Lutz, W., Schroeder, T. M., Bachman, L. A., Westendorf, J. J., Kumar, R. and Griffin, M. D. 2005. Regulation of relB in dendritic cells by means of modulated association of vitamin D receptor and histone deacetylase 3 with the promoter. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 102(11): 16007-16012.
25. Dyment, D. A., Herrera, B. M., Cader, M. Z., Willer, C. J., Lincoln, M. R., Sadovnick, A. D., Risch, N. and Ebers, G. C. 2005. Complex interactions among MHC haplotypes in multiple sclerosis: Susceptibility and resistance. Human Molecular Genetics, 14(7): 2019-2026.
26. Eyles, D., Almeras, L., Benech, P., Patatian, A., Mackay-Sim, A., McGrath, J. and Feron, F. 2007. Developmental vitamin D deficiency alters the expression of genes encoding mitochondrial, cytoskeletal and synaptic proteins in the adult rat brain. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology., 103(3): 538-545.
27. Fogdell, A., Hillert, J., Sachs, C. and Olerup, O. 1995. The multiple-sclerosis-associated and narcolepsy-associated HLA class-II haplotype includes the DRB5-asterisk-0101 allele. Tissue Antigens., 46(10): 333-336.
28. Fukazawa, T., Yabe, I., Kikuchi, S., Sasaki, H., Hamada, T., Miyasaka, K. and Tashiro, K. 1999. Association of vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism with multiple sclerosis in Japanese. Journal of the Neurological Sciences., 166(6): 47-52.
29. Garcion, E., Nataf, S., Berod, A., Darcy, F. and Brachet, P. 1997. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D-3 inhibits the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in rat central nervous system during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Molecular Brain Research., 45(5): 255-267.
30. Garcion, E., Sindji, L., Montero-Menei, C., Andre, C., Brachet, P. and Darcy, F. 1998. Expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase during rat brain inflammation: Regulation by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3. Glia., 22(3): 282-294.
31. Garcion, E., Wion-Barbot, N., Montero-Menei, C. N., Berger, F. and Wion, D. 2002. New clues about vitamin D functions in the nervous system. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism., 13(4): 100-105.
32. Ghadirian, P., Jain, M., Ducic, S., Shatenstein, B. and Morisset, R. 1998. Nutritional factors in the aetiology of multiple sclerosis: A case-control study in Montreal, Canada. International Journal of Epidemiology., 27(10): 845-852.
33. Gilgun-Sherki, Y., Melamed, E. and Offen, D. 2004. The role of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis: The need for effective antioxidant therapy. Journal of Neurology., 251(3): 261-268.
34. Goldacre, M. J., Seagroatt, V., Yeates, D. and Acheson, E. D. 2004. Skin cancer in people with multiple sclerosis: A record linkage study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health., 58(2): 142-144.
35. Goldacre, M. J., Wotton, C. J., Seagroatt, V. and Yeates, D. 2004. Multiple sclerosis after infectious mononucleosis: Record linkage study. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health., 58(12): 1032-1035.
36. Gregori, S., Casorati, M., Amuchastegui, S., Smiroldo, S., Davalli, A. M. and Adorini, L. 2001. Regulatory T cells induced by 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 and mycophenolate mofetil treatment mediate transplantation tolerance. Journal of Immunology., 167(8): 1945-1953.
37. Griffin, M. D., Lutz, W., Phan, V. A., Bachman, L. A., McKean, D. J. and Kumar, R. 2001. Dendritic cell modulation by 1 alpha,25 dihydroxyvitamin D-3 and its analogs: A vitamin D receptor-dependent pathway that promotes a persistent state of immaturity in vitro and in vivo. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America., 98(6): 6800-6805.
38. Haahr, S. and Munch, M. 2000. The association between multiple sclerosis and infection with Epstein-Barr virus and retrovirus. Journal of Neuro Virology, 6(Suppl 2): S76-S9.
39. Hafler, D. A., Compston, A., Sawcer, S., Lander, E. S., Daly, M. J., De Jager, P. L., de Bakker, P. I. W., Gabriel, S. B. and Mirel, D. B. 2007. Risk alleles for multiple sclerosis identified by a genomewide study. New England Journal of Medicine., 357(8): 851-862.
40. Hammond, S. R., McLeod, J. G., Millingen, K. S., Stewart-Wynne, E. G., English, D., Holland, J. T. and McCall, M. G. 1988. The epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in three Australian cities: Perth, Newcastle and Hobart. Brain., 111:2 (Pt 1):1-25.
41. Harbo, H. F., Utsi, E., Lorentzen, A. R., Kampman, M. T., Celius, E. G., Myhr, K. M., Lie, B. A., Mellgren, S. I. and Thorsby, E. 2007. Low frequency of the disease-associated DRB1*15-DQB1*06 haplotype may contribute to the low prevalence of multiple sclerosis in Sami. Tissue Antigens., 69(4): 299-304.
42. Hathcock, J. N., Shao, A., Vieth, R. and Heaney, R. 2007. Risk assessment for vitamin D. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition., 85(1): 6-18.
43. Hauser, S. L., Weiner, H. L., Che, M., Shapiro, M. E., Gilles, F. and Letvin, N. L. 1984. Prevention of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) in the SJL/J mouse by whole-body ultraviolet-irradiation. Journal of Immunology., 132: 1276-1281.
44. Holmoy, T. 2008. Vitamin D status modulates the immune response to Epstein Barr virus: Synergistic effect of risk factors in multiple sclerosis. Medical Hypotheses., 70: 66-69.
45. Islam, T., Gauderman, W. J., Cozen, W. and Mack, T. M. 2007. Childhood sun exposure influences risk of multiple sclerosis in monozygotic twins. Neurology., 69(7): 381-388.
46. Issa, L. L., Leong, G. M. and Eisman, J. A. 1998. Molecular mechanism of vitamin D receptor action. Inflammation Research., 47(12): 451-475.
47. Kampman, M. T. and Brustad, M. 2008. Vitamin D: A candidate for the environmental effect in multiple sclerosis: Observations from Norway. Neuroepidemiology., 30: 140-146.
48. Kampman, M. T., Wilsgaard, T. and Mellgren, S. I. 2007. Outdoor activities and diet in childhood and adolescence relate to MS risk above the Arctic Circle. Journal of Neurology., 254(4): 471-477.
49. Kendrick, J., Targher, G., Smits, G. and Chonchol, M. 2009. 25-Hydroxyvitamin D deficiency is independently associated with cardiovascular disease in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Atherosclerosis., 205(7): 255-260.
50. Kimball, S. M., Ursell, M. R., O'Connor, P. and Vieth, R. 2007. Safety of vitamin D-3 in adults with multiple sclerosis. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition., 86(9): 645-651.
51. Kira, J. 2003. Multiple sclerosis in the Japanese population. Lancet Neurology., 2(2): 117-27.
52. Koeffler, H. P., Amatruda, T., Ikekawa, N., Kobayashi, Y. and Deluca, H. F. 1984. Induction of macrophage differentiation of human normal and leukemic myeloid stem-cells by 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin-D3 and its fluorinated analogs. Cancer Research., 44: 5624-5628.
53. Kurtzke, J. F. 1975. Reassessment of distribution of multiple-sclerosis.1. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica., 51: 110-136.
54. Kurtzke, J. F. 2000. Multiple sclerosis in time and space: Geographic clues to cause. J Neurovirol., 6(Suppl 2, 5): S134-S140.
55. Landtblom, A. M., Riise, T. and Kurtzke, J. F. 2005. Further considerations on the distribution of multiple sclerosis in Sweden. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica., 111(4): 238-246.
56. Lemire, J. M. and Adams, J. S. 1992. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin-D3 inhibits the passive transfer of cellular-immunity by a myelin basic protein-specific t-cell clone. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research., 7(2): 171-177.
57. Lemire, J. M., Archer, D. C. and Reddy, G. S. 1994. 1,25-dihydroxy-24-oxo-16ene-vitamin-D3, a renal metabolite of the vitamin-D analog 1,25-dihydroxy-16ene-vitamin-D3, exerts immunosuppressive activity equal to its parent without causing hypercalcemia in-vivo. Endocrinology., 135(12): 2818-2821.
58. Lips, P. 2001. Vitamin D deficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism in the elderly: Consequences for bone loss and fractures and therapeutic implications. Endocrine Reviews., 22(8): 477-501.
59. Lucchinetti, C. F., Bruck, W., Rodriguez, M. and Lassmann, H. 1996. Distinct patterns of multiple sclerosis pathology indicates heterogeneity in pathogenesis. Brain Pathology., 6(7): 259-274.
60. MacLean, H. J. and Freedman, M. S. 2009. Multiple sclerosis: following clues from cause to cure. Lancet Neurology., 8(1): 6-8.
61. Mahon, B. D., Gordon, S. A., Cruz, J., Cosman, F. and Cantorna, M. T. 2003. Cytokine profile in patients with multiple sclerosis following vitamin D supplementation. Journal of Neuroimmunology., 134(1): 128-132.
62. Marrosu, M. G., Murru, M. R., Costa, G., Cucca, F., Sotgiu, S., Rosati, G. and Muntoni, F. 1997. Multiple Sclerosis in sardinia is associated and in linkage disequilibrium with HLA-DR3 and -DR4 alleles. American Journal of Human Genetics., 61(8): 454-457.
63. Maynard, C. L. and Weaver, C. T. 2008. Diversity in the contribution of interleukin-10 to T-cell-mediated immune regulation. Immunological Reviews., 226(12): 219-233.
64. Muller, K., Odum, N. and Bendtzen, K. 1993. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin-D3 selectively reduces interleukin-2 levels and proliferation of human T-cell lines invitro. Immunology Letters., 35(2): 177-182.
65. Munger, K. L., Zhang, S. M., O'Reilly, E., Hernan, M. A., Olek, M. J., Willett, W. C. and Ascherio, A. 2004. Vitamin D intake and incidence of multiple sclerosis. Neurology., 62(1): 60-65.
66. Muthian, G., Raikwar, H. P., Rajasingh, J. and Bright, J. J. 2006. 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin-D3 modulates JAK-STAT pathway in IL-12/IFN gamma axis leading to Th1 response in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Journal of Neuroscience Research, 83(5): 1299-1309.
67. Nashold, F. E., Miller, D. J. and Hayes, C. E. 2000. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 treatment decreases macrophage accumulation in the CNS elf mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Journal of Neuroimmunology., 103(3): 171-179.
68. Nataf, S., Garcion, E., Darcy, F., Chabannes, D., Muller, J. Y. and Brachet, P. 1996. 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D-3 exerts regional effects in the central nervous system during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology., 55(8): 904-914.
69. Neveu, I., Naveilhan, P., Jehan, F., Baudet, C., Wion, D., Deluca, H. F. and Brachet, P. 1994. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 regulates the synthesis of nerve growth-factor in primary cultures of glial-cells. Molecular Brain Research., 24(7): 70-76.
70. Niino, M., Fukazawa, T., Yabe, I., Kikuchi, S., Sasaki, H. and Tashiro, K. 2000. Vitamin D receptor gene polymorphism in multiple sclerosis and the association with HLA class II alleles. Journal of the Neurological Sciences., 177(8): 65-71.
71. Noseworthy, J. H. 1999. Progress in determining the causes and treatment of multiple sclerosis. Nature., 399(6): A40-A47.
72. Overbergh, L., Decallonne, B., Valckx, D., Verstuyf, A., Depovere, J., Laureys, J., Rutgeerts, O., Saint-Arnaud, R., Bouillon, R. and Mathieu, C. 2000. Identification and immune regulation of 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1-alpha-hydroxylase in murine macrophages. Clinical and Experimental Immunology., 120(4): 139-146.
73. Partridge, J. M., Weatherby, S. J. M., Woolmore, J. A., Highland, D. J., Fryer, A. A., Mann, C. L. A., Boggild, M. D., Ollier, W. E. R., Strange, R. C. and Hawkins, C. P. 2004. Susceptibility and outcome in MS-Associations with polymorphisms in pigmentation-related genes. Neurology., 62(6): 2323-2325.
74. Penna, G. and Adorini, L. 2000. 1 alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 inhibits differentiation, maturation, activation, and survival of dendritic cells leading to impaired alloreactive T cell activation. Journal of Immunology., 164(3): 2405-2411.
75. Perkins, S. L., Kling, S. J., Ross, F. P. and Teitelbaum, S. L. 1995. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin-D-3 stimulates differentiation of committed murine bone-marrow-derived macrophage precursor cells. Endocrinology., 136(12): 5643-5650.
76. Perron, H., Suh, M., Lalande, B., Gratacap, B., Laurent, A., Stoebner, P. and Seigneurin, J. M. 1993. Herpes-simplex virus ICP0 and ICP4 immediate early proteins strongly enhance expression of a retrovirus harbored by a leptomeningeal cell-line from a patient with multiple-sclerosis. Journal of General Virology., 74(1): 65-72.
77. Pittas, A. G., Lau, J., Hu, F. B. and Dawson-Hughes, B. 2007. Review: The role of vitamin D and calcium in type 2 diabetes. A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism., 92(6): 2017-2029.
78. Provvedini, D. M., Tsoukas, C. D., Deftos, L. J. and Manolagas, S. C. 1983. 1,25-Dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors in human-leukocytes. Science., 221: 1181-1182.
79. Pugliatti, M., Harbo, H. F., Holmoy, T., Kampman, M. T., Myhr, K. M., Riise, T and Wolfson, C. 2008. Environmental risk factors in multiple sclerosis. Acta Neurologica Scandinavica., 117: 34-40.
80. Pugliatti, M., Riise, T., Sotgiu, M. A., Sotgiu, S., Satta, W. M., Mannu, L, Sanna, G. and Rosati, G. 2005. Increasing incidence of multiple sclerosis in the province of Sassari, northern Sardinia. Neuroepidemiology., 25: 129-134.
81. Pugliatti, M., Rosati, G., Carton, H., Riise, T., Drulovic, J., Vecsei, L. and Milanov, I. 2006. The epidemiology of multiple sclerosis in Europe. European Journal of Neurology., 13(7): 700-722.
82. Ramagopalan, S. V. and Ebers, G. C. 2009. Epistasis Multiple sclerosis and the major histocompatibility complex. Neurology., 72(2): 566-567.
83. Ramagopalan, S. V., Morris, A. P., Dyment, D. A., Herrera, B. M., DeLuca, G. C., Lincoln, M. R., Orton, S. M., Chao, M. J., Sadovnick, A. D. and Ebers, G. C. 2007. The inheritance of resistance alleles in multiple sclerosis. Plos Genetics., 3(9): 1607-1613.
84. Reichel, H., Koeffler, H. P. and Norman, A. W. 1989. The role of the vitamin-D endocrine system in health and disease. New England Journal of Medicine., 320(4): 980-991.
85. Rockett, K A, Brookes, R, Udalova, I, Vidal, V, Hill, A V. S. and Kwiatkowski, D. 1998. 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 induces nitric oxide synthase and suppresses growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in a human macrophage-like cell line. Infection and Immunity., 66(11): 5314-5321.
86. Sharrack, B. and Hughes, R. A. C. 1996. Clinical scales for multiple sclerosis. Journal of the Neurological Sciences., 135(1): 1-9.
87. Smith, G. D., Lawlor, D. A., Timpson, N. J., Baban, J., Kiessling, M., Day, I. N. M. and Ebrahim, S. 2009. Lactase persistence-related genetic variant: Population substructure and health outcomes. European Journal of Human Genetics., 17(3): 357-367.
88. Smolders, J., Damoiseaux, J., Menheere, P. and Hupperts, R. 2008. Vitamin D as an immune modulator in multiple sclerosis: A review. Journal of Neuroimmunology., 194(2): 7-17.
89. Steckley, J. L., Dyment, D. A., Sadovnick, A. D., Risch, N., Hayes, C. and Ebers, G. C. 2000. Canadian Collaborative Study G. Genetic analysis of vitamin D related genes in Canadian multiple sclerosis patients. Neurology., 54(2): 729-732.
90. Stromnes, I. M. and Goverman, J. M. 2007. Osteopontin-induced survival of T cells. Nature Immunology, 8(1): 19-20.
91. Swank, R. L. L. O., Strom, A. and Backer, J. 1952. Multiple sclerosis in rural Norway. Its geographic and occupational incidence in relations to nutrition. N Engl J Med., 246: 722-728.
92. Tajouri, L., Ovcaric, M., Curtain, R., Johnson, M. P. and Griffiths, L. R. 2005. Variation in the vitamin D receptor gene is associated with multiple sclerosis in an Australian population. Journal of Neurogenetics., 19: 1-3. 25-38.
93. Towers, T. L. and Freedman, L. P. 1998. Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor gene transcription is directly repressed by the vitamin D-3 receptor: Implications for allosteric influences on nuclear receptor structure and function by a DNA element. Journal of Biological Chemistry., 273(4): 10338-10348.
94. Tran, E. H., Hoekstra, K., van Rooijen, N., Dijkstra, C. D. and Owens, T. 1998. Immune invasion of the central nervous system parenchyma and experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, but not leukocyte extravasation from blood, are prevented in macrophage-depleted mice. Journal of Immunology., 161(10): 3767-3775.
95. Trapp, B. D., Bo, L, Mork, S. and Chang, A. 1999. Pathogenesis of tissue injury in MS lesions. Journal of Neuroimmunology., 98(7): 49-56.
96. Trapp, B. D., Ransohoff, R. and Rudick, R. 1999. Axonal pathology in multiple sclerosis: Relationship to neurologic disability. Current Opinion in Neurology., 12(6): 295-302.
97. Tuohimaa, P., Tenkanen, L., Syvala, H., Lumme, S., Hakulinen, T., Dillner, J. and Hakama, M. 2007. Interaction of factors related to the metabolic syndrome and vitamin D on risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention., 16(2): 302-307.
98. Uitterlinden, A. G., Fang, Y., van Meurs, J. B. J., van Leeuwen, H. and Pols, H. A. P. 2004. Vitamin D receptor gene polymorphisms in relation to vitamin D related disease states. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology., 89(5): 187-193.
99. van der Mei, I. A. F., Ponsonby, A. L., Blizzard, L. and Dwyer, T. 2001. Regional variation in multiple sclerosis prevalence in Australia and its association with ambient ultraviolet radiation. Neuroepidemiology., 20(8): 168-174.
100. van der Mei, I. A. F., Ponsonby, A. L., Dwyer, T., Blizzard, L., Simmons, R., Taylor, B. V., Butzkueven, H. and Kilpatrick, T. 2003. Past exposure to sun, skin phenotype, and risk of multiple sclerosis: Case-control study. British Medical Journal., 327(8): 316-320.
101. Van Etten, E., Branisteanu, D. D., Overbergh, L., Bouillon, R., Verstuyf, A. and Mathieu, C. 2003. Combination of a 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 analog and a bisphosphonate prevents experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and preserves bone. Bone., 32(4): 397-404.
102. VanAmerongen, B. M., Dijkstra, C. D., Lips, P. and Polman, C. H. 2004. Multiple sclerosis and vitamin D: An update. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition., 58(8): 1095-1099.
103. vandenBerg, H. 1997. Bioavailability of vitamin D. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition., 51(1): S76-S79.
104. Veldman, C. M., Cantorna, M. T. and DeLuca, H. F. 2000. Expression of 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D-3 receptor in the immune system. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 374(2): 334-338.
105. Vukusic, S., Van Bockstael, V., Gosselin, S. and Confavreux, C. 2007. Regional variations in the prevalence of multiple sclerosis in French farmers. Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery and Psychiatry., 78(7): 707-709.
106. Wallin, M. T., Page, W. F. and Kurtzke, J. F. 2004. Multiple sclerosis in US veterans of the Vietnam era and later military service: Race, sex, and geography. Ann Neurol., 55(1): 65-71.
107. Willenborg, D. O., Staykova, M. A. and Cowden, W. B. 1999. Our shifting understanding of the role of nitric oxide in autoimmune encephalomyelitis: a review. Journal of Neuroimmunology., 100(12): 21-35.
108. Willer, C. J., Dyment, D. A., Sadovnick, A. D., Rothwell, P. M., Murray, T. J. and Ebers, G. C. 2005. Canadian Collaborative Study G: Timing of birth and risk of multiple sclerosis: Population based study. British Medical Journal., 330(1): 120-123.
109. Zehnder, D., Bland, R., Williams, M. C., McNinch, R. W., Howie, A. J., Stewart, P. M. and Hewison, M. 2001. Extrarenal expression of 25-hydroxyvitamin D-3-1 alpha-hydroxylase. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 86(2): 888-894.
110. Zhao, W. G., Tilton, R. G., Corbett, J. A., McDaniel, M. L., Misko, T. P., Williamson, J. R., Cross, A. H. and Hickey, W. F. 1996. Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in the rat is inhibited by aminoguanidine, an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase. Journal of Neuroimmunology., 64(2): 123-133.
111. Zmuda, J. M., Cauley, J. A. and Ferrell, R. E. 2000. Molecular epidemiology of vitamin D receptor gene variants. Epidemiologic Reviews., 22: 203-217.