Role of dietary therapies in the prevention and treatment of hypertension

Nature Reviews Nephrology

Volumn 8, Issue 7, 2012, Pages 413-422

  Mohanlal, Viresh ^a   Parsa, Afshin ^a   Weir, Matthew R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADENOSINE PHOSPHATE; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; AMINO ACID; ASCORBIC ACID; BIOTIN; CALCIUM; CARBOXYLIC ACID; CAROTENOID; CHLORIDE; CHOLINE; CYANOCOBALAMIN; FOLIC ACID; IRON; MAGNESIUM; MONOUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; NICOTINIC ACID; PANTOTHENIC ACID; POTASSIUM; PYRIDOXAL; PYRIDOXAMINE; PYRIDOXINE; RETINOL; SATURATED FATTY ACID; SODIUM; THIAMINE; TRACE ELEMENT; VEGETABLE PROTEIN; VITAMIN B COMPLEX; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN K GROUP;

AGING; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; BEVERAGE; BLOOD PRESSURE; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CALORIC INTAKE; CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DIET THERAPY; HEALTH EDUCATION; HEALTH PROMOTION; HEREDITY; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; MACRONUTRIENT; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); METABOLIC DISORDER; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; OBESITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SODIUM RESTRICTION; SUGAR INTAKE;

HUMANS; HYPERTENSION, RENAL; METABOLIC DISEASES; OBESITY; PREVALENCE;

EID: 84862861849     PISSN: 17595061     EISSN: 1759507X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrneph.2012.91     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Kearney, P. M. et al. Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet 365, 217-223 (2005). (Pubitemid 40138015)
2. Wang, T. J. & Vasan, R. S. Epidemiology of uncontrolled hypertension in the United States. Circulation 112, 1651-1662 (2005). (Pubitemid 41324528)
3. Kannel, W. B. Elevated systolic blood pressure as a cardiovascular risk factor. Am. J. Cardiol. 85, 251-255 (2000). (Pubitemid 30026111)
4. Chobanian, A. V. et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. JAMA 289, 2560-2572 (2003). (Pubitemid 37430158)
5. Go, A. S., Chertow, G. M., Fan, D., McCulloch, C. E. & Hsu, C. Y. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 1296-1305 (2004).
6. Lewington, S. et al. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 360, 1903-1913 (2002). (Pubitemid 35472129)
7. Ezzati, M., Oza, S., Danaei, G. & Murray, C. J. Trends and cardiovascular mortality effects of state-level blood pressure and uncontrolled hypertension in the United States. Circulation 117, 905-914 (2008). (Pubitemid 351272588)
8. Vasan, R. S. et al. Residual lifetime risk for developing hypertension in middle-aged women and men: The Framingham Heart Study. JAMA 287, 1003-1010 (2002). (Pubitemid 34252058)
9. Whelton, P. K. et al. for the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. Primary prevention of hypertension: clinical and public health advisory from The National High Blood Pressure Education Program. JAMA 288, 1882-1888 (2002). (Pubitemid 35168144)
10. Ostchega, Y., Yoon, S. S., Hughes, J. & Louis, T. Hypertension awareness, treatment, and control-continued disparities in adults: United States, 2005-2006. NCHS Data Brief 3, 1-8 (2008).
11. Bibbins-Domingo, K. et al. Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 362, 590-599 (2010).
12. Benjamin, R. M. Dietary guidelines for Americans, 2010: the cornerstone of nutrition policy. Public Health Rep. 126, 310-311 (2011).
13. Mattes, R. D. & Donnelly, D. Relative contributions of dietary sodium sources. J. Am. Coll. Nutr. 10, 383-393 (1991).
14. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Strategies to reduce sodium intake in the United States [online], http://www.iom.edu/Reports/2010/ Strategies-to-Reduce-Sodium-Intake-in-the-United-States.aspx (2010).
15. He, J. et al. Dietary sodium intake and subsequent risk of cardiovascular disease in overweight adults. JAMA 282, 2027-2034 (1999).
16. Nagata, C., Takatsuka, N., Shimizu, N. & Shimizu, H. Sodium intake and risk of death from stroke in Japanese men and women. Stroke 35, 1543-1547 (2004). (Pubitemid 38823620)
17. Tuomilehto, J. et al. Urinary sodium excretion and cardiovascular mortality in Finland: a prospective study. Lancet 357, 848-851 (2001). (Pubitemid 32239370)
18. Umesawa, M. et al. Relations between dietary sodium and potassium intakes and mortality from cardiovascular disease: the Japan Collaborative Cohort Study for Evaluation of Cancer Risks. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 88, 195-202 (2008). (Pubitemid 351988704)
19. Adrogué, H. J. & Madias, N. E. Sodium and potassium in the pathogenesis of hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 1966-1978 (2007).
20. Zandi-Nejad, K., Luyckx, V. A. & Brenner, B. M. Adult hypertension and kidney disease: the role of fetal programming. Hypertension 47, 502-508 (2006). (Pubitemid 43843866)
21. Seals, D. R. et al. Blood pressure reductions with exercise and sodium restriction in postmenopausal women with elevated systolic pressure: role of arterial stiffness. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 38, 506-513 (2001). (Pubitemid 32721781)
22. Weinberger, M. H., Miller, J. Z., Luft, F. C., Grim, C. E. & Fineberg, N. S. Definitions and characteristics of sodium sensitivity and blood pressure resistance. Hypertension 8, II127-II134 (1986). (Pubitemid 16035851)
23. Bray, G. A. et al. A further subgroup analysis of the effects of the DASH diet and three dietary sodium levels on blood pressure: results of the DASH-Sodium Trial. Am. J. Cardiol. 94, 222-227 (2004). (Pubitemid 38902878)
24. Obarzanek, E. et al. Individual blood pressure responses to changes in salt intake: results from the DASH-Sodium trial. Hypertension 42, 459-467 (2003). (Pubitemid 37237339)
25. Longworth, D. L., Drayer, J. I., Weber, M. A. & Laragh, J. H. Divergent blood pressure responses during short-term sodium restriction in hypertension. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 27, 544-546 (1980). (Pubitemid 10099071)
26. Luft, F. C. & Weinberger, M. H. Heterogeneous responses to changes in dietary salt intake: the salt-sensitivity paradigm. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 65, 612S-617S (1997). (Pubitemid 27063061)
27. Miller, J. Z. et al. Heterogeneity of blood pressure response to dietary sodium restriction in normotensive adults. J. Chronic Dis. 40, 245-250 (1987). (Pubitemid 17016374)
28. [No authors listed] The effects of nonpharmacologic interventions on blood pressure of persons with high normal levels. Results of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention, Phase I. JAMA 267, 1213-1220 (1992).
29. Rose, G. & Stamler, J. The INTERSALT study: background, methods and main results. INTERSALT Co-operative Research Group. J. Hum. Hypertens. 3, 283-288 (1989).
30. Kumanyika, S. K. et al. Feasibility and efficacy of sodium reduction in the Trials of Hypertension Prevention, phase I. Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. Hypertension 22, 502-512 (1993). (Pubitemid 23292156)
31. Whelton, P. K. et al. Efficacy of nonpharmacologic interventions in adults with high-normal blood pressure: results from phase 1 of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention. Trials of Hypertension Prevention Collaborative Research Group. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 65, 652S-660S (1997). (Pubitemid 27063066)
32. Sacks, F. M. et al. for the DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. N. Engl. J. Med. 344, 3-10 (2001). (Pubitemid 32064838)
33. Stamler, J. et al. INTERSALT study findings. Public health and medical care implications. Hypertension 14, 570-577 (1989). (Pubitemid 19270524)
34. He, F. J. & MacGregor, G. A. Effect of modest salt reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Implications for public health. J. Hum. Hypertens. 16, 761-770 (2002). (Pubitemid 36007929)
35. Luft, F. C. et al. Salt sensitivity and resistance of blood pressure. Age and race as factors in physiological responses. Hypertension 17, I102-I108 (1991).
36. Tuck, M. L. Role of salt in the control of blood pressure in obesity and diabetes mellitus. Hypertension 17, I135-I142 (1991).
37. Weidmann, P. & Ferrari, P. Central role of sodium in hypertension in diabetic subjects. Diabetes Care 14, 220-232 (1991).
38. Schmieder, R. E. Dietary salt intake and left ventricular hypertrophy. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 12, 245-248 (1997). (Pubitemid 27090969)
39. Aalkjaer, C., Heagerty, A. M., Petersen, K. K., Swales, J. D. & Mulvany, M. J. Evidence for increased media thickness, increased neuronal amine uptake, and depressed excitation-contraction coupling in isolated resistance vessels from essential hypertensives. Circ. Res. 61, 181-186 (1987). (Pubitemid 17137117)
40. Blacher, J. & Safar, M. E. Large-artery stiffness, hypertension and cardiovascular risk in older patients. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 2, 450-455 (2005). (Pubitemid 41223523)
41. Weir, M. R. & Anderson, C. A. Optimal dietary strategies for reducing incident hypertension. Hypertension 54, 698-699 (2009).
42. Chang, H. Y. et al. Effect of potassium-enriched salt on cardiovascular mortality and medical expenses of elderly men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 83, 1289-1296 (2006).
43. Cook, N. R. et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ 334, 885-888 (2007). (Pubitemid 46724330)
44. Taylor, R. S., Ashton, K. E., Moxham, T., Hooper, L. & Ebrahim, S. Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (Cochrane review). Am. J. Hypertens. 24, 843-853 (2011).
45. Stolarz-Skrzypek, K. et al. for the European Project on Genes in Hypertension (EPOGH) Investigators. Fatal and nonfatal outcomes, incidence of hypertension, and blood pressure changes in relation to urinary sodium excretion. JAMA 305, 1777-1785 (2011).
46. Ekinci, E. I. et al. Dietary salt intake and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 34, 703-709 (2011).
47. Thomas, M. C. et al. for the FinnDiane Study Group. The association between dietary sodium intake, ESRD, and all-cause mortality in patients with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 34, 861-866 (2011).
48. Gomi, T. et al. Strict dietary sodium reduction worsens insulin sensitivity by increasing sympathetic nervous activity in patients with primary hypertension. Am. J. Hypertens. 11, 1048-1055 (1998). (Pubitemid 28451909)
49. Grassi, G. et al. Short- and long-term neuroadrenergic effects of moderate dietary sodium restriction in essential hypertension. Circulation 106, 1957-1961 (2002). (Pubitemid 35176301)
50. Jürgens, G. & Graudal, N. A. Effects of low sodium diet versus high sodium diet on blood pressure, renin, aldosterone, catecholamines, cholesterols, and triglyceride. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Issue 1. Art. No.: CD004022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004022.pub2.
51. Alderman, M. H. Reducing dietary sodium: the case for caution. JAMA 303, 448-449 (2010).
52. Nicholls, M. G. Population-wide dietary sodium restriction: a cautious view. Curr. Hypertens. Rep. 13, 325-327 (2011).
53. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. Dietary reference intakes for water, potassium, sodium, chloride, and sulfate (The National Academies Press, Washington D. C., 2005).
54. Whelton, P. K. et al. Effects of oral potassium on blood pressure. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. JAMA 277, 1624-1632 (1997). (Pubitemid 27231195)
55. Geleijnse, J. M., Kok, F. J. & Grobbee, D. E. Blood pressure response to changes in sodium and potassium intake: a metaregression analysis of randomised trials. J. Hum. Hypertens. 17, 471-480 (2003). (Pubitemid 36903334)
56. Appel, L. J. ASH position paper: dietary approaches to lower blood pressure. J. Am. Soc. Hypertens. 3, 321-331 (2009).
57. Sacks, F. M. & Campos, H. Dietary therapy in hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med. 362, 2102-2112 (2010).
58. Huang, C. L. & Kuo, E. Mechanisms of disease: WNK-ing at the mechanism of salt-sensitive hypertension. Nat. Clin. Pract. Nephrol. 3, 623-630 (2007). (Pubitemid 350012824)
59. Bakris, G. L. & Weir, M. R. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-associated elevations in serum creatinine: is this a cause for concern? Arch. Intern. Med. 160, 685-693 (2000). (Pubitemid 30140419)
60. Kesteloot, H. et al. Relation of urinary calcium and magnesium excretion to blood pressure: The International Study Of Macro- And Micro-nutrients And Blood Pressure and The International Cooperative Study On Salt, Other Factors, And Blood Pressure. Am. J. Epidemiol. 174, 44-51 (2011).
61. van Mierlo, L. A. et al. Blood pressure response to calcium supplementation: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Hum. Hypertens. 20, 571-580 (2006).
62. Reid, I. R. et al. Effects of calcium supplementation on lipids, blood pressure, and body composition in healthy older men: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 91, 131-139 (2010).
63. Bolland, M. J. et al. Effect of calcium supplements on risk of myocardial infarction and cardiovascular events: meta-analysis. BMJ 341, c3691 (2010).
64. Cappuccio, F. P. et al. Lack of effect of oral magnesium on high blood pressure: a double blind study. Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.) 291, 235-238 (1985). (Pubitemid 15045050)
65. Motoyama, T., Sano, H. & Fukuzaki, H. Oral magnesium supplementation in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertension 13, 227-232 (1989). (Pubitemid 19083693)
66. Elliott, P. et al. for the INTERMAP Cooperative Research Group. Dietary phosphorus and blood pressure: international study of macro- and micro-nutrients and blood pressure. Hypertension 51, 669-675 (2008). (Pubitemid 351301519)
67. Loria, C. M., Klag, M. J., Caulfield, L. E. & Whelton, P. K. Vitamin C status and mortality in US adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 72, 139-145 (2000). (Pubitemid 30441668)
68. Stamler, J., Liu, K., Ruth, K. J., Pryer, J. & Greenland, P. Eight-year blood pressure change in middle-aged men: relationship to multiple nutrients. Hypertension 39, 1000-1006 (2002). (Pubitemid 34547800)
69. Mullan, B. A., Young, I. S., Fee, H. & McCance, D. R. Ascorbic acid reduces blood pressure and arterial stiffness in type 2 diabetes. Hypertension 40, 804-809 (2002). (Pubitemid 35434898)
70. Svetkey, L. P. & Loria, C. M. Blood pressure effects of vitamin C: what's the key question? Hypertension 40, 789-791 (2002). (Pubitemid 35434894)
71. Kim, M. K. et al. Lack of long-term effect of vitamin C supplementation on blood pressure. Hypertension 40, 797-803 (2002). (Pubitemid 35434897)
72. Appel, L. J. et al. A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N. Engl. J. Med. 336, 1117-1124 (1997).
73. Appel, L. J. et al. for the OmniHeart Collaborative Research Group. Effects of protein, monounsaturated fat, and carbohydrate intake on blood pressure and serum lipids: results of the OmniHeart randomized trial. JAMA 294, 2455-2464 (2005). (Pubitemid 41627923)
74. Elliott, P. Protein intake and blood pressure in cardiovascular disease. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 62, 495-504 (2003).
75. He, J. & Whelton, P. K. Effect of dietary fiber and protein intake on blood pressure: a review of epidemiologic evidence. Clin. Exp. Hypertens. 21, 785-796 (1999). (Pubitemid 29325477)
76. Obarzanek, E., Velletri, P. A. & Cutler, J. A. Dietary protein and blood pressure. JAMA 275, 1598-1603 (1996). (Pubitemid 26154247)
77. Altorf-van der Kuil, W. et al. Dietary protein and blood pressure: a systematic review. PLoS ONE 5, e12102 (2010).
78. Elliott, P. et al. Association between protein intake and blood pressure: the INTERMAP Study. Arch. Intern. Med. 166, 79-87 (2006). (Pubitemid 43063845)
79. Zhang, L., Curhan, G. C. & Forman, J. P. Diet-dependent net acid load and risk of incident hypertension in United States women. Hypertension 54, 751-755 (2009).
80. He, J. et al. Effect of dietary protein supplementation on blood pressure: a randomized, controlled trial. Circulation 124, 589-595 (2011).
81. Berkow, S. E. & Barnard, N. D. Blood pressure regulation and vegetarian diets. Nutr. Rev. 63, 1-8 (2005). (Pubitemid 40105627)
82. Sacks, F. M., Rosner, B. & Kass, E. H. Blood pressure in vegetarians. Am. J. Epidemiol. 100, 390-398 (1974).
83. Stamler, J. et al. for the INTERMAP Research Group. Glutamic acid, the main dietary amino acid, and blood pressure: the INTERMAP Study (International Collaborative Study of Macronutrients, Micronutrients and Blood Pressure). Circulation 120, 221-228 (2009).
84. Johnson, R. K. et al. Dietary sugars intake and cardiovascular health: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 120, 1011-1020 (2009).
85. Bleich, S. N., Wang, Y. C., Wang, Y. & Gortmaker, S. L. Increasing consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages among US adults: 1988-1994 to 1999-2004. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89, 372-381 (2009).
86. Vos, M. B. et al. Fructose and oxidized low-density lipoprotein in pediatric nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: a pilot study. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 163, 674-675 (2009).
87. Hu, F. B. & Malik, V. S. Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes: epidemiologic evidence. Physiol. Behav. 100, 47-54 (2010).
88. Malik, V. S., Popkin, B. M., Bray, G. A., Després, J. P. & Hu, F. B. Sugar-sweetened beverages, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular disease risk. Circulation 121, 1356-1364 (2010).
89. Malik, V. S. et al. Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 33, 2477-2483 (2010).
90. Jalal, D. I., Smits, G., Johnson, R. J. & Chonchol, M. Increased fructose associates with elevated blood pressure. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 21, 1543-1549 (2010).
91. Chen, L. et al. Reducing consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with reduced blood pressure: a prospective study among United States adults. Circulation 121, 2398-2406 (2010).
92. Brown, I. J. et al. for the International Study of Macro/Micronutrients and Blood Pressure Research Group. Sugar-sweetened beverage, sugar intake of individuals, and their blood pressure: international study of macro/micronutrients and blood pressure. Hypertension 57, 695-701 (2011).
93. Rowe, J. W. et al. Effect of insulin and glucose infusions on sympathetic nervous system activity in normal man. Diabetes 30, 219-225 (1981). (Pubitemid 11026317)
94. Rebello, T., Hodges, R. E. & Smith, J. L. Short-term effects of various sugars on antinatriuresis and blood pressure changes in normotensive young men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 38, 84-94 (1983). (Pubitemid 13065738)
95. Johnson, R. J., Herrera-Acosta, J., Schreiner, G. F. & Rodriguez-Iturbe, B. Subtle acquired renal injury as a mechanism of salt-sensitive hypertension. N. Engl. J. Med. 346, 913-923 (2002). (Pubitemid 34984641)
96. Parsa, A. et al. Genotype-based changes in serum uric acid affect blood pressure. Kidney Int. 81, 502-507 (2012).
97. Feig, D. I., Kang, D. H. & Johnson, R. J. Uric acid and cardiovascular risk. N. Engl. J. Med. 359, 1811-1821 (2008).
98. Johnson, R. J. et al. Potential role of sugar (fructose) in the epidemic of hypertension, obesity and the metabolic syndrome, diabetes, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 86, 899-906 (2007). (Pubitemid 47538288)
99. Campbell, F., Dickinson, H. O., Critchley, J. A., Ford, G. A. & Bradburn, M. A systematic review of fish-oil supplements for the prevention and treatment of hypertension. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiolog. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 2047487312437056.
100. Mori, T. A., Bao, D. Q., Burke, V., Puddey, I. B. & Beilin, L. J. Docosahexaenoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid lowers ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in humans. Hypertension 34, 253-260 (1999). (Pubitemid 29409224)
101. Mori, T. A. & Woodman, R. J. The independent effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid on cardiovascular risk factors in humans. Curr. Opin. Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care 9, 95-104 (2006). (Pubitemid 44090031)
102. Ferrara, L. A. et al. Olive oil and reduced need for antihypertensive medications. Arch. Intern. Med. 160, 837-842 (2000). (Pubitemid 30165245)
103. Rasmussen, O. W. et al. Effects on blood pressure, glucose, and lipid levels of a high-monounsaturated fat diet compared with a high-carbohydrate diet in NIDDM subjects. Diabetes Care 16, 1565-1571 (1993). (Pubitemid 23353732)
104. Di Castelnuovo, A. et al. Alcohol dosing and total mortality in men and women: an updated meta-analysis of 34 prospective studies. Arch. Intern. Med. 166, 2437-2445 (2006). (Pubitemid 44913227)
105. Mukamal, K. J., Chen, C. M., Rao, S. R. & Breslow, R. A. Alcohol consumption and cardiovascular mortality among U. S. adults, 1987 to 2002. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 55, 1328-1335 (2010).
106. Ronksley, P. E., Brien, S. E., Turner, B. J., Mukamal, K. J. & Ghali, W. A. Association of alcohol consumption with selected cardiovascular disease outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 342, d671 (2011).
107. Thun, M. J. et al. Alcohol consumption and mortality among middle-aged and elderly U. S. adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 337, 1705-1714 (1997). (Pubitemid 27527766)
108. Wannamethee, G. & Shaper, A. G. Alcohol and sudden cardiac death. Br. Heart J. 68, 443-448 (1992).
109. Xin, X. et al. Effects of alcohol reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Hypertension 38, 1112-1117 (2001). (Pubitemid 34252815)
110. Sesso, H. D., Cook, N. R., Buring, J. E., Manson, J. E. & Gaziano, J. M. Alcohol consumption and the risk of hypertension in women and men. Hypertension 51, 1080-1087 (2008). (Pubitemid 351398961)
111. Flegal, K. M., Carroll, M. D., Ogden, C. L. & Curtin, L. R. Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008. JAMA 303, 235-241 (2010).
112. Ogden, C. L. Disparities in obesity prevalence in the United States: black women at risk. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89, 1001-1002 (2009).
113. Ogden, C. L., Lamb, M. M., Carroll, M. D. & Flegal, K. M. Obesity and socioeconomic status in adults: United States, 2005-2008. NCHS Data Brief 50, 1-8 (2010).
114. Stevens, V. J. et al. for the Trials of Hypertension Prevention Research Group. Long-term weight loss and changes in blood pressure: results of the Trials of Hypertension Prevention, phase II. Ann. Intern. Med. 134, 1-11 (2001). (Pubitemid 32037337)
115. Whelton, P. K. et al. Sodium reduction and weight loss in the treatment of hypertension in older persons: a randomized controlled trial of nonpharmacologic interventions in the elderly (TONE). TONE Collaborative Research Group. JAMA 279, 839-846 (1998). (Pubitemid 28185548)
116. Neter, J. E., Stam, B. E., Kok, F. J., Grobbee, D. E. & Geleijnse, J. M. Influence of weight reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Hypertension 42, 878-884 (2003). (Pubitemid 37413724)
117. Tu, W. et al. Intensified effect of adiposity on blood pressure in overweight and obese children. Hypertension 58, 818-824 (2011).
118. Streppel, M. T., Arends, L. R., van 't Veer, P., Grobbee, D. E. & Geleijnse, J. M. Dietary fiber and blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. Arch. Intern. Med. 165, 150-156 (2005).
119. Bazzano, L. A., He, J., Ogden, L. G., Loria, C. M. & Whelton, P. K. Dietary fiber intake and reduced risk of coronary heart disease in US men and women: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey I Epidemiologic Follow-up Study. Arch. Intern. Med. 163, 1897-1904 (2003). (Pubitemid 37082701)
120. He, J., Streiffer, R. H., Muntner, P., Krousel-Wood, M. A. & Whelton, P. K. Effect of dietary fiber intake on blood pressure: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J. Hypertens. 22, 73-80 (2004). (Pubitemid 38293533)