Salt intake, plasma sodium, and worldwide salt reduction

Annals of Medicine

Volumn 44, Issue SUPPL. 1, 2012, Pages

  He, Feng J ^a   Macgregor, Graham A ^a  

^a QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Blood pressure; cardiovascular risk; plasma sodium; salt intake; salt reduction programme

Indexed keywords

BLOOD PRESSURE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; EXTRACELLULAR SPACE; HYPERTENSION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SALT INTAKE; SODIUM BLOOD LEVEL;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; FOOD ADDITIVES; HEALTH PROMOTION; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; SODIUM; SODIUM CHLORIDE, DIETARY; WORLD HEALTH;

EID: 84862520811     PISSN: 07853890     EISSN: 13652060     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3109/07853890.2012.660495     Document Type: Review

References (93)

1. MacGregor GA, de Wardener HE. Salt, diet and health. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 1998.
2. Brown IJ, Tzoulaki I, Candeias V, Elliott P. Salt intakes around the world: implications for public health. Int J Epidemiol. 2009;38:791-813.
3. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Reducing population salt intake worldwide: from evidence to implementation. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2010;52:363-82.
4. Intersalt: an international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure. Results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion. Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. BMJ. 1988;297:319-28.
5. Tobian L, Hanlon S. High sodium chloride diets injure arteries and raise mortality without changing blood pressure. Hypertension. 1990;15:900-3. (Pubitemid 20189477)
6. Perry IJ, Beevers DG. Salt intake and stroke: a possible direct effect. J Hum Hypertens. 1992;6:23-5.
7. Messerli FH, Schmieder RE, Weir MR. Salt. A perpetrator of hypertensive target organ disease? Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:2449-52. (Pubitemid 27517979)
8. Cianciaruso B, Bellizzi V, Minutolo R, Tavera A, Capuano A, Conte G, et al. Salt intake and renal outcome in patients with progressive renal disease. Miner Electrolyte Metab. 1998;24:296-301. (Pubitemid 28108269)
9. He FJ, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, MacGregor GA. Effect of salt intake on renal excretion of water in humans. Hypertension. 2001;38:317-20. (Pubitemid 34225658)
10. He FJ, Marrero NM, MacGregor GA. Salt intake is related to soft drink consumption in children and adolescents: a link to obesity? Hypertension. 2008;51:629-34. (Pubitemid 351301513)
11. Cappuccio FP, Kalaitzidis R, Duneclift S, Eastwood JB. Unravelling the links between calcium excretion, salt intake, hypertension, kidney stones and bone metabolism. J Nephrol. 2000;13:169-77. (Pubitemid 30449492)
12. Joossens JV, Hill MJ, Elliott P, Stamler R, Lesaffre E, Dyer A, et al. Dietary salt, nitrate and stomach cancer mortality in 24 countries. European Cancer Prevention (ECP) and the INTERSALT Cooperative Research Group. Int J Epidemiol. 1996;25:494-504.
13. Tsugane S, Sasazuki S, Kobayashi M, Sasaki S. Salt and salted food intake and subsequent risk of gastric cancer among middle-aged Japanese men and women. Br J Cancer. 2004;90:128-34. (Pubitemid 38174951)
14. Mohan S, Campbell NR. Salt and high blood pressure. Clin Sci (Lond). 2009;117:1-11.
15. Denton D, Weisinger R, Mundy NI, Wickings EJ, Dixson A, Moisson P, et al. The effect of increased salt intake on blood pressure of chimpanzees. Nat Med. 1995;1:1009-16.
16. Elliott P, Walker LL, Little MP, Blair-West JR, Shade RE, Lee DR, et al. Change in salt intake affects blood pressure of chimpanzees: implications for human populations. Circulation. 2007;116:1563-8. (Pubitemid 47515319)
17. Zhou BF, Stamler J, Dennis B, Moag-Stahlberg A, Okuda N, Robertson C, et al. Nutrient intakes of middle-aged men and women in China, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States in the late 1990s: the INTERMAP study. J Hum Hypertens. 2003;17:623-30. (Pubitemid 37265100)
18. Khaw KT, Bingham S, Welch A, Luben R, O'Brien E, Wareham N, et al. Blood pressure and urinary sodium in men and women: the Norfolk Cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC-Norfolk). Am J Clin Nutr. 2004;80:1397-403.
19. Elliott P, Stamler J. Evidence on salt and blood pressure is consistent and persuasive. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31: 316-9. (Pubitemid 34537784)
20. Elliott P, Stamler J, Nichols R, Dyer AR, Stamler R, Kesteloot H, et al. Intersalt revisited: further analyses of 24 hour sodium excretion and blood pressure within and across populations. BMJ. 1996;312:1249-53. (Pubitemid 26147660)
21. Forte JG, Miguel JM, Miguel MJ, de Padua F, Rose G. Salt and blood pressure: a community trial. J Hum Hypertens. 1989;3:179-84. (Pubitemid 19209772)
22. Tian HG, Guo ZY, Hu G, Yu SJ, Sun W, Pietinen P, et al. Changes in sodium intake and blood pressure in a community-based intervention project in China. J Hum Hypertens. 1995;9:959-68. (Pubitemid 26008388)
23. Takahashi Y, Sasaki S, Okubo S, Hayashi M, Tsugane S. Blood pressure change in a free-living population-based dietary modification study in Japan. J Hypertens. 2006;24:451-8. (Pubitemid 43261908)
24. Staessen J, Bulpitt CJ, Fagard R, Joossens JV, Lijnen P, Amery A. Salt intake and blood pressure in the general population: a controlled intervention trial in two towns. J Hypertens. 1988;6:965-73. (Pubitemid 19041643)
25. Tuomilehto J, Puska P, Nissinen A, Salonen J, Tanskanen A, Pietinen P, et al. Community-based prevention of hypertension in North Karelia, Finland. Ann Clin Res. 1984;16 Suppl 43:18-27. (Pubitemid 15111072)
26. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Effect of modest salt reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Implications for public health. J Hum Hypertens. 2002;16:761-70. (Pubitemid 36007929)
27. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, Singer DR, Cappuccio FP. Double-blind study of three sodium intakes and long-term effects of sodium restriction in essential hypertension. Lancet. 1989;334:1244-7. (Pubitemid 19284125)
28. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Harsha D, et al. Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:3-10. (Pubitemid 32064838)
29. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Guidance on the prevention of cardiovascular disease at the population level. Available at: http://guidance.nice.org.uk/PH25 (accessed 14 July 2010).
30. Vollmer WM, Sacks FM, Ard J, Appel LJ, Bray GA, Simons- Morton DG, et al. Effects of diet and sodium intake on blood pressure: subgroup analysis of the DASH-sodium trial. Ann Intern Med. 2001;135:1019-28. (Pubitemid 33151023)
31. He FJ, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, MacGregor GA. Importance of the renin system in determining blood pressure fall with salt restriction in black and white hypertensives. Hypertension. 1998;32:820-4. (Pubitemid 28530213)
32. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Salt, blood pressure and the renin-angiotensin system. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst. 2003;4:11-16. (Pubitemid 36443381)
33. Whelton PK, He J, Appel LJ, Cutler JA, Havas S, Kotchen TA, et al. Primary prevention of hypertension: clinical and public health advisory from The National High Blood Pressure Education Program. JAMA. 2002;288:1882-8. (Pubitemid 35168144)
34. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R; Prospective Studies Collaboration. Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet. 2002;360:1903-13. (Pubitemid 35472129)
35. He FJ, MacGregor GA. How far should salt intake be reduced? Hypertension. 2003;42:1093-9. (Pubitemid 37549061)
36. Strazzullo P, D'Elia L, Kandala NB, Cappuccio FP. Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ. 2009;339:b4567.
37. Cook NR, Cutler JA, Obarzanek E, Buring JE, Rexrode KM, Kumanyika SK, et al. Long term effects of dietary sodium reduction on cardiovascular disease outcomes: observational follow-up of the trials of hypertension prevention (TOHP). BMJ. 2007;334:885-8. (Pubitemid 46724330)
38. Stolarz-Skrzypek K, Kuznetsova T, Thijs L, Tikhonoff V, Seidlerova J, Richart T, et al. Fatal and nonfatal outcomes, incidence of hypertension, and blood pressure changes in relation to urinary sodium excretion. JAMA. 2011;305:1777-85.
39. He FJ, Appel LJ, Cappuccio FP, de Wardener HE, Macgregor GA. Does reducing salt intake increase cardiovascular mortality? Kidney Int. 2011;80:696-8.
40. Taylor RS, Ashton KE, Moxham T, Hooper L, Ebrahim S. Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(7):CD009217.
41. Taylor RS, Ashton KE, Moxham T, Hooper L, Ebrahim S. Reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (Cochrane Review). Am J Hypertens. 2011;24:843-53.
42. Cutting down on salt doesn't reduce your chance of dying. Available at: http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/PressRelease/pressReleaseId-99517.html (accessed 12 July 2011).
43. Paterna S, Gaspare P, Fasullo S, Sarullo FM, Di Pasquale P. Normal-sodium diet compared with low-sodium diet in compensated congestive heart failure: is sodium an old enemy or a new friend? Clin Sci (Lond). 2008;114:221-30. (Pubitemid 351293997)
44. He FJ, MacGregor GA. Salt reduction lowers cardiovascular risk: meta-analysis of outcome trials. Lancet. 2011;378:380-2.
45. Dahl LK, Heine M, Thompson K. Genetic influence of renal homografts on the blood pressure of rats from different strains. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1972;140:852-6.
46. Dahl LK, Heine M, Thompson K. Genetic influence of the kidneys on blood pressure. Evidence from chronic renal homografts in rats with opposite predispositions to hypertension. Circ Res. 1974;40:94-101.
47. Guyton AC. Blood pressure control - special role of the kidneys and body fluids. Science. 1991;252:1813-6. (Pubitemid 21917099)
48. He FJ, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, de Wardener HE, MacGregor GA. Plasma sodium: ignored and underestimated. Hypertension. 2005;45:98-102. (Pubitemid 40066421)
49. Suckling RJ, He FJ, Markandu ND, MacGregor GA. Dietary salt influences post prandial plasma sodium concentration and systolic blood pressure. Kidney Int. 2012;81:407-11.
50. Bulpitt CJ, Shipley MJ, Semmence A. Blood pressure and plasma sodium and potassium. Clin Sci (Lond). 1981;61 Suppl 7:85s-7s. (Pubitemid 12177345)
51. Komiya I, Yamada T, Takasu N, Asawa T, Akamine H, Yagi N, et al. An abnormal sodium metabolism in Japanese patients with essential hypertension, judged by serum sodium distribution, renal function and the renin-aldosterone system. J Hypertens. 1997;15:65-72. (Pubitemid 27075988)
52. Wannamethee G, Whincup PH, Shaper AG, Lever AF. Serum sodium concentration and risk of stroke in middle-aged males. J Hypertens. 1994;12:971-9. (Pubitemid 24283383)
53. Lago RM, Pencina MJ, Wang TJ, Lanier KJ, D'Agostino RB, Kannel WB, et al. Interindividual variation in serum sodium and longitudinal blood pressure tracking in the Framingham Heart Study. J Hypertens. 2008;26:2121-5.
54. de Wardener HE, He FJ, MacGregor GA. Plasma sodium and hypertension. Kidney Int. 2004;66:2454-66.
55. Friedman SM, McIndoe RA, Tanaka M. The relation of blood sodium concentration to blood pressure in the rat. J Hypertens. 1990;8:61-6. (Pubitemid 20186315)
56. Friedman SM. The relation of cell volume, cell sodium and the transmembrane sodium gradient to blood pressure. J Hypertens. 1990;8:67-73. (Pubitemid 20186316)
57. Suckling RJ, Swift P, Markandu N, He F, MacGregor GA. Altering plasma sodium concentration rapidly changes blood pressure during haemodialysis. J Hum Hypertens. 2010;24:S10.
58. Gu J, Anand V, Shek E, Moore M, Brady A, Kelly W, et al. Sodium induces hypertrophy of cultured myocardial myoblasts and vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension. 1998;31:1083-7. (Pubitemid 28191501)
59. Li J, White J, Guo L, Zhao X, Wang J, Smart EJ, et a l. Salt inactivates endothelial nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells. J Nutr. 2009;139:447-51.
60. Oberleithner H, Riethmuller C, Schillers H, MacGregor GA, de Wardener HE, Hausberg M. Plasma sodium stiffens vascular endothelium and reduces nitric oxide release. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007;104:16281-6. (Pubitemid 350099397)
61. Dickinson KM, Keogh JB, Clifton PM. Effects of a low-salt diet on flow-mediated dilatation in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009;89:485-90.
62. Tzemos N, Lim PO, Wong S, Struthers AD, MacDonald TM. Adverse cardiovascular effects of acute salt loading in young normotensive individuals. Hypertension. 2008;51:1525-30.
63. Dickinson KM, Clifton PM, Keogh JB. Endothelial function is impaired after a high-salt meal in healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93:500-5.
64. Selmer RM, Kristiansen IS, Haglerod A, Graff-Iversen S, Larsen HK, Meyer HE, et al. Cost and health consequences of reducing the population intake of salt. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2000;54:697-702. (Pubitemid 30639403)
65. Joffres MR, Campbell NR, Manns B, Tu K. Estimate of the benefits of a population-based reduction in dietary sodium additives on hypertension and its related health care costs in Canada. Can J Cardiol. 2007;23:437-43. (Pubitemid 46977999)
66. Asaria P, Chisholm D, Mathers C, Ezzati M, Beaglehole R. Chronic disease prevention: health effects and financial costs of strategies to reduce salt intake and control tobacco use. Lancet. 2007;370:2044-53. (Pubitemid 50007973)
67. Murray CJ, Lauer JA, Hutubessy RC, Niessen L, Tomijima N, Rodgers A, et al. Effectiveness and costs of interventions to lower systolic blood pressure and cholesterol: a global and regional analysis on reduction of cardiovascular-disease risk. Lancet. 2003;361:717-25. (Pubitemid 36293625)
68. Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG, Moran A, Lightwood JM, Pletcher MJ, et al. Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:590-9.
69. Palar K, Sturm R. Potential societal savings from reduced sodium consumption in the U.S. adult population. Am J Health Promot. 2009;24:49-57.
70. Smith-Spangler CM, Juusola JL, Enns EA, Owens DK, Garber AM. Population strategies to decrease sodium intake and the burden of cardiovascular disease: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2010;152:481-7, W170-3.
71. Food Standards Agency. Dietary sodium levels surveys, 22 July 2008. Available at: www.food.gov.uk/science/dietarysurveys/urinary (accessed 28 May 2010).
72. Ofcom, Office of Communications. Impact assessment. Available at: http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/binaries/consultations/foodads-new/ia.pdf (accessed 13 July 2010).
73. James WP, Ralph A, Sanchez-Castillo CP. The dominance of salt in manufactured food in the sodium intake of affluent societies. Lancet. 1987;1:426-9. (Pubitemid 17016588)
74. Karppanen H, Mervaala E. Sodium intake and hypertension. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2006;49:59-75. (Pubitemid 44540370)
75. Pietinen P, Valsta LM, Hirvonen T, Sinkko H. Labelling the salt content in foods: a useful tool in reducing sodium intake in Finland. Public Health Nutr. 2008;11:335-40. (Pubitemid 351365308)
76. Laatikainen T, Pietinen P, Valsta L, Sundvall J, Reinivuo H, Tuomilehto J. Sodium in the Finnish diet: 20-year trends in urinary sodium excretion among the adult population. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2006;60:965-70. (Pubitemid 44161017)
77. Consensus Action on Salt and Health. Available at: www.actiononsalt.org. uk/ (accessed 28 May 2010).
78. MacGregor GA, Sever PS. Salt - overwhelming evidence but still no action: can a consensus be reached with the food industry? CASH (Consensus Action on Salt and Hypertension). BMJ. 1996;312:1287-9. (Pubitemid 126442914)
79. Henderson L, Irving K, Gregory J, Bates CJ, Prentice A, Perks J, et al. Urinary analytes. In: National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64. Volume 3. London: TSO; 2003. p. 127-36.
80. Girgis S, Neal B, Prescott J, Prendergast J, Dumbrell S, Turner C, et al. A one-quarter reduction in the salt content of bread can be made without detection. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57:616-20. (Pubitemid 36553602)
81. Food Standards Agency. Agency publishes 2012 salt reduction targets, 8 May 2009. Available at: www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2009/may/salttargets (accessed 28 May 2010).
82. World Action on Salt and Health. Press release - Medical experts launch global campaign against salt to prevent over 2.5 million deaths worldwide each year. Available at: www.worldactiononsalt.com/media/Media-coverage/Archive-Wash- Launch.htm (accessed 28 May 2010).
83. AWASH, Australian Division of World Action on Salt and Health. Available at: www.awash.org.au/ (accessed 28 May 2010).
84. He FJ, Jenner KH, MacGregor GA. WASH-World Action on Salt and Health. Kidney Int. 2010;78:745-53.
85. Webster JL, Dunford EK, Hawkes C, Neal BC. Salt reduction initiatives around the world. J Hypertens. 2011;29:1043-50.
86. Reducing salt intake in populations. WHO Forum and Technical Meeting on Reducing Salt Intake in Populations. Available at: www.who.int/ dietphysicalactivity/reducingsalt/ en/index.html (accessed 28 May 2010).
87. Pan American Health Organization (PAHO)/WHO. Cardiovascular disease prevention through dietary salt reduction. Available at: http://new.paho.org/hq/ index.php?option=com-content&task=view&id=2015&Itemid=1757 (accessed 28 May 2010).
88. Campbell NR, Neal BC, MacGregor GA. Interested in developing a national programme to reduce dietary salt? J Hum Hypertens. 2011;25:705-10.
89. Food Standards Agency. Traffic light labelling, Signposting. Available at: www.food.gov.uk/foodlabelling/signposting/ (accessed 28 May 2010).
90. Law MR, Frost CD, Wald NJ. By how much does dietary salt reduction lower blood pressure? I - Analysis of observational data among populations. BMJ. 1991;302:811-5.
91. First global ministerial conference on healthy lifestyles and noncommunicable disease control, 28-29 April 2011, Moscow. Available at: http://www.who.int/nmh/events/moscow-ncds-2011/en/ (accessed 16 May 2011).
92. Beaglehole R, Bonita R, Horton R, Adams C, Alleyne G, Asaria P, et al. Priority actions for the non-communicable disease crisis. Lancet. 2011;377:1438-47.
93. Lawes CM, Vander Hoorn S, Rodgers A. Global burden of blood-pressure-related disease, 2001. Lancet. 2008;371:1513-8. (Pubitemid 351626187)