Intelligence

Annual Review of Psychology

Volumn 63, Issue , 2012, Pages 453-482

  Deary, Ian J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Behavior genetics; Cognitive ability; Cognitive epidemiology; Education; Health; IQ; Psychometrics; Twins

Indexed keywords

AGING; COGNITION; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; ENVIRONMENT; GENETICS; HUMAN; INDIVIDUALITY; INTELLIGENCE; INTELLIGENCE TEST; REVIEW; SOCIAL CLASS; TWINS;

AGING; COGNITION; EDUCATIONAL STATUS; ENVIRONMENT; HUMANS; INDIVIDUALITY; INTELLIGENCE; INTELLIGENCE TESTS; SOCIAL CLASS; TWINS;

EID: 82955169673     PISSN: 00664308     EISSN: 15452085     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100353     Document Type: Review

References (174)

1. Acton GS, Schroeder DH. 2001. Sensory discrimination as related to general intelligence. Intelligence 29:263-71
2. Banks GC, Batchelor JH, McDaniel MA. 2010. Smarter people are (a bit) more symmetrical: a meta-analysis of the relationship between intelligence and fluctuating asymmetry. Intelligence 38:393-401
3. Barnett JH, Scoriels L, Munafo MR. 2008. Meta-analysis of the cognitive effects of the catechol-O-transferase gene Val158Met polymorphism. Biol. Psychiatry 64:137-44
4. Bartels M, Rietveld MJH, Van Baal GCM, Boomsma DI. 2002. Genetic and environmental influences on the development of intelligence. Behav. Genet. 32:237-49 (Pubitemid 34913074)
5. Bartholomew DJ. 2004. Measuring Intelligence: Facts and Fallacies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
6. Bartholomew DJ, Deary IJ, Lawn M. 2009. A new lease of life for Thomson's bonds model of intelligence. Psychol. Rev. 116:567-79
7. Batty DJ, Deary IJ, Schoon I, Gale CR. 2007. Mental ability across childhood in relation to risk factors for premature mortality in adult life: the 1970 British Cohort Study. J. Epidemiol. Comm. Health 61:997-1003 (Pubitemid 350032597)
8. Batty GD, Der G, Macintyre S, Deary IJ. 2006. Does IQ explain socioeconomic inequalities in health? Evidence from a population based cohort study in the west of Scotland. Br. Med. J. 332:580-84
9. Batty GD, Gale CR, Mortensen LH, Langenberg C, Shipley MJ, et al. 2008. Pre-morbid intelligence, the metabolic syndrome and mortality: the Vietnam Experience Study. Diabetologia 51:436-43
10. Batty GD, Wennerstad KM, Davey Smith G, Gunnell D, Deary IJ, et al. 2009. IQ in late adolescence/early adulthood and mortality by middle age: cohort study of one million Swedish men. Epidemiology 20:100-9
11. Beddington J, Cooper CL, Field J, Goswami U, Huppert FA, et al. 2008. The mental wealth of nations. Nature 455:1057-60
12. Bielak AAM. 2010. How can we not "lose it" if we still don't understand how to "use it"? Gerontology 56:507-19
13. Binet A. 1905. New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals. L'Annee Psychol. 12:191-244.
14. Transl. ES Kite, 1916, in The Development of Intelligence in Children. Vineland, NJ: Publ. Training School Vineland
15. Blinkhorn S. 2005. Intelligence: a gender bender. Nature 438:31-32 (Pubitemid 41599805)
16. Brand CR. 1996. The g Factor. Chichester, UK: Wiley. (This book was withdrawn by the publisher shortly after publication.)
17. Breen R, Goldthorpe JH. 2002. Merit, mobility and method: another reply to Saunders. Br. J. Sociol. 53:575-82
18. Burks SV, Carpenter JP, Goette L, Rustichini A. 2009. Cognitive skills affect economic preferences, strategic behavior, and job attachment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106:7745-50
19. Calvin C, Deary IJ, Fenton C, Roberts BA, Der G, et al. 2011. Intelligence in youth and all-cause mortality: systematic review with meta-analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. In Press
20. Calvin C, Fernandes C, Smith P, Visscher PM, Deary IJ. 2009. Is there still a cognitive cost of being a twin in the UK? Intelligence 37:243-48
21. Carroll JB. 1993. Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor Analytic Studies. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
22. Carson J. 2007. The Measure of Merit: Talents, Intelligence, and Inequality in the French and American Republics, 1750-1940. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
23. Caspi A, Williams B, Kim-Cohen J, Craig IW, Milne BJ, et al. 2007. Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104:18860-65 (Pubitemid 350210787)
24. Chiang M-C, Barysheva M, Shattuck DW, Lee AD, Madsen SK. 2009. Genetics of brain fiber architecture and intellectual performance. J. Neurosci. 29:2212-24
25. Choi YY, Shamosh NA, DeYoung CG, Lee MJ, Lee J-M, et al. 2008. Multiple bases of human intelligence revealed by cortical thickness and neural activation. J. Neurosci. 28:10323-29
26. Cianciolo AT, Sternberg RJ. 2004. Intelligence: A Brief History. Malden, MA: Blackwell
27. Cirulli ET, Kasperaviciute D, Attix DK, Need AC, Ge D, et al. 2010. Common genetic variation and performance on standardized cognitive tests. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 18:815-20
28. Cohn LD, Westenberg PM. 2004. Intelligence and maturity: meta-analytic evidence for the incremental and discriminant validity of Loevinger's measure of ego development. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 86:760-72 (Pubitemid 38628817)
29. Colom R, Jung RE, Haier RJ. 2006. Distributed brain sites for the g-factorof intelligence.NeuroImage31:1359-65 (Pubitemid 43851324)
30. Cronbach LJ. 1957. The two disciplines of scientific psychology. Am. Psychol. 12:671-84
31. Davies G, Tenesa A, Payton A, Yang J, Harris SE, et al. 2011. Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic. Mol. Psychiatry. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.85. In Press
32. Davis OS, Butcher LM, Docherty SJ, Meaburn EL, Curtis CJ, et al. 2010. A three-stage genome-wide association study of general cognitive ability: hunting the small effects. Behav. Genet. 40:759-67
33. Davis OS, Haworth CM, Plomin R. 2009. Dramatic increase in heritability of cognitive development from early to middle childhood: an 8-year longitudinal study of 8700 pairs of twins. Psychol. Sci. 20:1301-8
34. Deary IJ. 2000. Looking Down on Human Intelligence: From Psychometrics to the Brain. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
35. Deary IJ. 2001. Intelligence: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
36. Deary IJ, Batty GD. 2007. Cognitive epidemiology: a glossary. J. Epidemiol. Comm. Health 61:378-84
37. Deary IJ, Batty GD, Gale CR. 2008. Bright children become enlightened adults. Psychol. Sci. 19:1-6
38. Deary IJ, Bell PJ, Bell AJ, Campbell ML, Fazal ND. 2004a. Sensory discrimination and intelligence: testing Spearman's other hypothesis. Am. J. Psychol. 117:1-19
39. Deary IJ, Corley J, Gow AJ, Harris SE, Houlihan LM, et al. 2009a. Age-associated cognitive decline. Br. Med. Bull. 92:135-52
40. Deary IJ, Der G. 2005. Reaction time explains IQ's association with death. Psychol. Sci. 16:64-69 (Pubitemid 40176529)
41. Deary IJ, Der G, Ford G. 2001. Reaction times and intelligence differences: a population-based cohort study. Intelligence 29:389-99
42. Deary IJ, Irwing P, Der G, Bates TC. 2007b. Brother-sister differences in the g factor in intelligence: analysis of full, opposite-sex siblings from the NLSY1979. Intelligence 35:451-56
43. Deary IJ, Johnson W, Houlihan LM. 2009b. Genetic foundations of human intelligence. Hum. Genet. 126:215-32
44. Deary IJ, Pattie A, Wilson V, Whalley LJ. 2005b. The cognitive cost of being a twin: two whole-population surveys. Twin Res. Hum. Genet. 8:376-83 (Pubitemid 41152911)
45. Deary IJ, Penke L, Johnson W. 2010a. The neuroscience of human intelligence differences. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 11:201-11
46. Deary IJ, Spinath FM, Bates TC. 2006. Genetics of intelligence. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 14:690-700 (Pubitemid 43797266)
47. Deary IJ, Strand S, Smith P, Fernandes C. 2007a. Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence 35:13-21 (Pubitemid 44932929)
48. Deary IJ, Taylor MD, Hart CL, Wilson V, Davey Smith G, et al. 2005a. Intergenerational social mobility and mid-life status attainment: influences of childhood intelligence, childhood social factors, and education. Intelligence 33:455-72 (Pubitemid 41167439)
49. Deary IJ, Thorpe G, Wilson V, Starr JM, Whalley LJ. 2003. Population sex differences in IQ at age 11: the Scottish Mental Survey 1932. Intelligence 31:533-42 (Pubitemid 37221116)
50. Deary IJ, Weiss A, Batty GD. 2010b. Intelligence and personality as predictors of illness and death: how researchers in differential psychology and chronic disease epidemiology are collaborating to understand and address health inequalities. Psychol. Sci. Publ. Interest 11:53-79
51. Deary IJ, Whalley LJ, Lemmon H, Crawford JR, Starr JM. 2000. The stability of individual differences in mental ability from childhood to old age: follow-up of the 1932 Scottish Mental Survey. Intelligence 28:49-55
52. Deary IJ, Whalley LJ, Starr JM. 2009c. A Lifetime of Intelligence: Follow-up Studies of the Scottish Mental Surveys of 1932 and 1947. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
53. Deary IJ, Whiteman MC, Starr JM, Whalley LJ, Fox HC. 2004b. The impact of childhood intelligence in later life: following up the Scottish Mental Surveys of 1932 and 1947. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 86:130-47 (Pubitemid 38134907)
54. Der G, Batty GD, Deary IJ. 2006. Effect of breast feeding on intelligence in children: prospective study, sibling pairs analysis, and meta-analysis. Br. Med. J. 333:945-48 (Pubitemid 44727797)
55. Duckworth AL, Quinn PD, Lynam DR, Loeber R, Stouthamer-Loeber M. 2011. Role of test motivation in intelligence testing. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108:7716-20
56. Duckworth AL, Seligman MEP. 2005. Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychol. Sci. 16:939-44 (Pubitemid 43060255)
57. Duncan J. 2010. How Intelligence Happens. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
58. Duncan J, Seitz RJ, Kolodny J, Bor D, Herzog H, et al. 2000. A neural basis for general intelligence. Science 289:457-60 (Pubitemid 30490458)
59. Dykiert D, Gale CR, Deary IJ. 2009. Are apparent sex differences in mean IQ scores created in part by sample restriction and increased male variance? Intelligence 37:42-47
60. Flynn J. 2007. What Is Intelligence? Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
61. Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing Project. 2008. Final Project Report-Executive Summary. London: Gov. Off. Sci.
62. Friedman NP, Miyake A, Young SE, DeFries JC, Corley RP, et al. 2008. Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. J. Exp. Psychol.: Gen. 137:201-25
63. Frisoni GB, Galluzzi S, Pantoni L, Filippi M. 2007. The effect of white matter lesions on cognition in the elderly: small but detectable. Nat. Clin. Pract. Neurol. 3:620-27 (Pubitemid 350048228)
64. Furlow B, Armijo-Prewitt T, Gangestad SW, Thornhill R. 1997. Fluctuating asymmetry and psychometric intelligence. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 264:823-29 (Pubitemid 27283118)
65. Gale CR, Batty GD, Tynelius P, Deary IJ, Rasmussen F. 2010. Intelligence in early adulthood and subsequent hospitalization for mental disorders. Epidemiology 21:70-77
66. Gale CR, Hatch SL, Batty GD, Deary IJ. 2009. Intelligence in childhood and risk of psychological distress in adulthood: the National Child Development Survey and the 1970 British Cohort Study. Intelligence 37:592-99
67. Gardner H. 1983. Frames of Mind. New York: Basic Books
68. Gardner H. 1993. Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books
69. Garlick D. 2010. Intelligence and the Brain: Solving the Mystery of Why People Differ in IQ and How a Child Can Be a Genius. Burbank, CA: Aesop
70. Geary DC. 2005. The Origin of Mind: Evolution of Brain, Cognition, and General Intelligence. Washington, DC: Am. Psychol. Assoc.
71. Gläscher J, Rudrauf D, Colom R, Paul LK, Tranel D, et al. 2010. Distributed neural system for general intelligence revealed by lesion mapping. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 107:4705-9
72. Gottfredson LS. 2004. Intelligence: is it the epidemiologists' elusive "fundamental cause" of social class inequalities in health? J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 86:174-99 (Pubitemid 38134909)
73. Gow AJ, Johnson W, Pattie A, Brett CE, Roberts B, et al. 2011. Stability and change in intelligence from age 11 to ages 70, 79, and 87: the Lothian Birth Cohorts of 1921 and 1936. Psychol. Aging 26:232-40
74. Gray JR, Chabris CF, Braver TS. 2003. Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence. Nat. Neurosci. 6:316-22 (Pubitemid 36278291)
75. Haier RJ. 2009. Neuro-intelligence, neuro-metrics and the next phase of brain imaging studies. Intelligence 37:121-23
76. Herrnstein RJ, Murray C. 1994. The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. New York: Free Press
77. Hertzog C, Kramer AF, Wilson RS, Lindenberger U. 2009. Enrichment effects on adult cognitive development. Psychol Sci. Publ. Int. 9:1-65
78. Hulshoff Pol H, Schnack HG, Posthuma D, Mandl RCW, Barré WF, et al. 2006. Genetic contributions to human brain morphology and intelligence. J. Neurosci. 26:10235-42 (Pubitemid 44527417)
79. Hunt E. 2011. Human Intelligence. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
80. Intelligence. 2009. Special issue. Intelligence, health and death: the emerging field of cognitive epidemiology. Intelligence 37:6(whole issue)
81. Irwing P, Lynn R. 2005. Sex differences in means and variability on the progressive matrices in university students: a meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychol. 96:505-24 (Pubitemid 41658251)
82. Jensen AR. 1998. The g Factor. New York: Praeger
83. Johnson W, Bouchard TJ. 2005a. The structure of human intelligence: It is verbal, perceptual, and image rotation (VPR), not fluid and crystallized. Intelligence 33:393-416 (Pubitemid 40823845)
84. Johnson W, Bouchard TJ. 2005b. Constructive replication of the visual [sic]-perceptual-image rotation model in Thurstone's (1941) battery of 60 tests of mental ability. Intelligence 33:417-30 (Pubitemid 40823846)
85. Johnson W, Bouchard TJ, Krueger RF, McGue M, Gottesman II. 2004. Just one g: consistent results from three test batteries. Intelligence 32:95-107 (Pubitemid 37555149)
86. Johnson W, Bouchard TJ, McGue M, Segal NL, Tellegen A, et al. 2007. Genetic and environmental influences on the Verbal-Perceptual-Image Rotation (VPR) model of the structure of mental abilities in the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart. Intelligence 35:542-62
87. Johnson W, Carothers A, Deary IJ. 2008a. Sex differences in variability in general intelligence: a new look at the old question. Perspect. Psychol. Sci. 3:518-31
88. Johnson W, Gow AJ, Corley J, Starr JM, Deary IJ. 2010. Location in cognitive and residential space at age 70 reflects a lifelong trait over parental and environmental circumstances: the Lothian Birth Cohort 1936. Intelligence 38:402-11
89. Johnson W, Segal NL, Bouchard TJ. 2008b. Fluctuating asymmetry and general intelligence: no genetic or phenotypic association. Intelligence 36:279-88
90. Johnson W, Te Nijenhuis J, Bouchard TJ. 2008c. Still just 1 g: consistent results from five test batteries. Intelligence 36:81-95
91. Jung RE, Gasparovic C, Chavez RS, Caprihian A, Barrow R, et al. 2009. Imaging intelligence with magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Intelligence 37:192-98
92. Jung RE, Haier RJ. 2007. The Parieto-Frontal Integration Theory (P-FIT) of intelligence: converging neu-roimaging evidence. Behav. Brain Sci. 30:135-54, discussion 154-87 (Pubitemid 47304539)
93. Karama S, Ad-Dab'bagh Y, Haier RJ, Deary IJ, Lyttelton OC, et al. 2009. Positive association between cognitive ability and cortical thickness in a representative US sample of healthy 6 to 18 year-olds. Intelligence 37:145-55
94. Keller MC, Miller G. 2007. Resolving the paradox of common, harmful, heritable mental disorders: Which evolutionary genetic models work best? Behav. Brain Sci. 29:385-404 (Pubitemid 44921333)
95. Lango Allen H, Estrada K, Lettre G, Berndt SI, Weedon MN, et al. 2010. Hundreds of variants clustered in genomic loci and biological pathways affect human height. Nature 467:832-38
96. Lee T, Henry JD, Trollor JN, Sachdev PS. 2010. Genetic influences on cognitive functions in the elderly: a selective review of twin studies. Brain Res. Rev. 64:1-13
97. Lohman DF. 1994. Component scores as residual variation (or why the intercept correlates best). Intelligence 19:1-11
98. Lohman DF, Lakin JM. 2009. Consistencies in sex differences on the Cognitive Abilities Test across countries, grades, test forms, and cohorts. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 79:389-407
99. Luciano M, Posthuma D, Wright M, De Geus EJC, Smith GA, et al. 2005. Perceptual speed does not cause intelligence, and intelligence does not cause perceptual speed. Biol. Psychol. 70:1-8 (Pubitemid 40982643)
100. Luciano M, Wright MJ, Duffy DL, Wainwright MA, Zhu G, et al. 2006. Genome-wide scan of IQ finds significant linkage to a quantitative trait locus on 2q. Behav. Genet. 36:45-55
101. Luciano M, Wright MJ, Geffen GM, Geffen LB, Smith GA, et al. 2004a. A multivariate genetic analysis of cognitive abilities in an adolescent twin sample. Aust. J. Psychol. 56:79-88 (Pubitemid 39216643)
102. Luciano M, Wright M, Martin N. 2004b. Exploring the etiology of the association between birthweight and IQ in an adolescent twin sample. Twin Res. 7:62-71 (Pubitemid 38332547)
103. Lynn R, Irwing P. 2004. Sex differences on the progressive matrices: a meta-analysis. Intelligence 32:481-98 (Pubitemid 39186201)
104. Lynn R, Vanhanen T. 2002. IQ and the Wealth of Nations. Westport, CT: Praeger
105. Lyons MJ, York TP, Franz CE, Grant MD, Eaves LJ, et al. 2009. Genes determine stability and the environment determines change in cognitive ability during 35 years of adulthood. Psychol. Sci. 20:1146-52
106. Mackintosh NJ. 1996. Science struck dumb. Nature 381:33
107. Madhyastha TM, Hunt E, Deary IJ, Gale CR, Dykiert D. 2009. Recruitment modeling applied to longutidinal studies of group differences in intelligence. Intelligence 37:422-27
108. McDaniel MA. 2005. Big-brained people are smarter: a meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence. Intelligence 33:337-46
109. McGurn B, Deary IJ, Starr JM. 2008. Childhood cognitive ability and risk of late-onset Alzheimer and vascular dementia. Neurology 71:1051-56
110. Miller GF. 2000. The Mating Mind. New York: Doubleday
111. Moran P, Klinteberg BA, Batty GD, Vagero D. 2009. Childhood intelligence predicts hospitalization with personality disorder in adulthood: evidence from a population-based study in Sweden. J. Personal. Disord. 23:535-40
112. Murdoch S. 2007. IQ: The Smart History of a Failed Idea. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley
113. Narr KL, Woods RP, Thompson PM, Szeszko P, Robinson D, et al. 2007. Relationships between IQ and regional cortical gray matter thickness in healthy adults. Cereb. Cortex 17:2163-71 (Pubitemid 47283689)
114. Nettle D. 2003. Intelligence and class mobility in the British population. Br. J. Psychol. 94:551-61 (Pubitemid 37446459)
115. Neubauer AC, Fink A. 2009. Intelligence and neural efficiency. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 33:1004-23
116. Nisbett R. 2009. Intelligence and How to Get It. New York: Norton
117. O'Toole BI, Stankov L. 1992. Ultimate validity of psychological tests. Personal. Individ. Differ. 13:699-716
118. Payton A. 2009. The impact of genetic research on our understanding of normal cognitive aging: 1995 to 2009. Neuropsychol. Rev. 19:451-77
119. Penke L, Denissen JJA, Miller GF. 2007. The evolutionary genetics of personality. Eur. J. Personal. 21:549-87
120. Plassman BL, Williams JW, Burke JR, Holsinger T, Benjamin S. 2010. Systematic review: factors associated with risk for and possible prevention of cognitive decline in later life. Ann. Int. Med. 153:182-93
121. Plomin R, Spinath F. 2004. Intelligence: genetics, genes and genomics. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 86:112-29
122. Posthuma D, de Geus EJC, Barré WF, Hulshoff Pol HE, Kahn RS, et al. 2002. The association between brain volume and intelligence is of genetic origin. Nat. Neurosci. 5:83-84 (Pubitemid 34121567)
123. Posthuma D, de Geus EJC, Boomsma DI. 2001. Perceptual speed and IQ are associated through common genetic factors. Behav. Genet. 31:593-602 (Pubitemid 34112054)
124. Posthuma D, Luciano M, de Geus EJC, Wright MJ, Slagboom PE, et al. 2005. A genomewide scan for intelligence identifies quantitative trait loci on 2q and 6p. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 77:318-26 (Pubitemid 41022713)
125. Power C, Jefferis BJ, Manor O. 2010. Childhood cognition and risk factors for cardiovascular disease in midadulthood: the 1958 British Birth Cohort Study. Am. J. Public Health 100:129-36
126. Power C, Li L, Hertzman C. 2008. Cognitive development and cortisol patterns in mid-life: findings from a British birth cohort. Psychoneuroendocrinology 33:530-39
127. Reynolds CA, Finkel D, McArdle JJ, Gatz M, Berg S, et al. 2005. Quantitative genetic analysis of latent growth curve models of cognitive abilities in adulthood. Dev. Psychol. 41:3-16 (Pubitemid 40145016)
128. Richards M, Shipley B, Fuhrer R, Wadsworth MEJ. 2004. Cognitive ability in childhood and cognitive decline in midlife: longitudinal birth cohort study. Br. Med. J. 328:552-56
129. Rijsdijk FV, Vernon PA, Boomsma DI. 2002. Application of hierarchical genetic models to Raven and WAIS subtests: a Dutch twin study. Behav. Genet. 32:199-210 (Pubitemid 34755945)
130. Ronalds GA, De Stavola BL, Leon DA. 2005. The cognitive cost of being a twin: evidence from comparisons within families in the Aberdeen children of the 1950s cohort. Br. Med. J. 331:1306
131. Rushton JP, Ankney CD. 2009. Whole brain size and general mental ability: a review. Int. J. Neurosci. 119:691-731
132. Rushton JP, Jensen AR. 2005. Thirty years of research on race differences in cognitive ability. Psychol. Publ. Policy Law 11:235-94 (Pubitemid 40653776)
133. Salthouse TA. 2004. Localizing age-related individual differences in a hierarchical structure. Intelligence 32:541-61 (Pubitemid 39481221)
134. Salthouse TA. 2010. Major Issues in Cognitive Aging. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
135. Sapolsky RM. 2005. The influence of social hierarchy on primate health. Science 308:648-52 (Pubitemid 40594377)
136. Saunders P. 2002. Reflections on the meritocracy debate in Britain: a response to Richard Breen and John Goldthorpe. Br. J. Sociol. 53:559-74
137. Saunders P. 2010. Social Mobility Myths. London: Civitas.
138. Schaie KW. 2005. Developmental Influences on Adult Intelligence: The Seattle Longitudinal Study. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
139. Schoon I, Cheng H, Gale CR, Batty GD, Deary IJ. 2010. Social status, cognitive ability, and educational attainment as predictors of liberal social attitudes and political trust. Intelligence 38:144-50
140. Shaw P, Greenstein D, Lerch J, Clasen L, Lenroot R, et al. 2006. Intellectual ability and cortical development in children and adolescents. Nature 440:676-79
141. Shenk D. 2010. The Genius in All of Us: Why Everything You've Been Told About Genetics, Talent and Intelligence is Wrong. London: Icon
142. Shenkin SD, Starr JM, Deary IJ. 2004. Birth weight and cognitive ability in childhood: a systematic review. Psychol. Bull. 130:989-1013 (Pubitemid 39508396)
143. Sheppard LD. 2008. Intelligence and information processing: a review of 50 years of research. Personal. Individ. Differ. 44:533-49
144. Shineman DW, Salthouse TA, Launer LJ, Hof PR, Bartzokis G, et al. 2010. Therapeutics for cognitive aging. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1191:E1-10
145. Singh-Manoux A, Ferrie JE, Lynch JW, Marmot M. 2005. The role of cognitive ability (intelligence) in explaining the association between socioeconomic position and health: evidence from the Whitehall II prospective cohort study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 161:831-39 (Pubitemid 40577837)
146. Spearman C. 1904. "General intelligence" objectively determined and measured. Am. J. Psychol. 15:201-93
147. Stanovich KE. 2009. What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press
148. Steer CD, Davey Smith G, Emmett PM, Hibbeln JR, Golding J. 2010. FADS2 polymorphisms modify the effect of breastfeeding on child IQ. PLoS One 5:e11570
149. Sternberg RJ, Grigorenko EL. 2002. The General Factor of Intelligence: How General Is It? Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
150. Strand S, Deary IJ, Smith P. 2006. Sex differences in cognitive abilities test scores: a UK national picture. Br. J. Educ. Psychol. 76:463-80 (Pubitemid 44492450)
151. Strenze T. 2007. Intelligence and socioeconomic success: a meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence 35:401-26
152. Thompson PM, Cannon TD, Narr KL, Van Erp T, Poutanen VP, et al. 2001. Genetic influences on brain structure. Nat. Neurosci. 4:1253-58 (Pubitemid 33135632)
153. Tucker-Drob EM. 2011. Global and domain-specific changes in cognition throughout adulthood. Dev. Psychol. 47:331-43
154. Turkheimer E, Haley A, Waldron M, D'Onfrio BM, Gottesman II. 2003. Socioeconomic status modified heritability of IQ in young children. Psychol. Sci. 14:623-28 (Pubitemid 37550867)
155. Van der Maas HLJ, Dolan CV, Grasman RP, Wicherts JM, Huizenga HM, Raijmakers ME. 2006.Adynamical model of general intelligence: the positive manifold of intelligence by mutualism. Psychol. Rev. 13:842-60
156. Van Valen L. 1962. A study of fluctuating asymmetry. Evolution 16:125-42
157. Vernon PE. 1956. The Measurement of Abilities. London: Univ. London Press
158. Vinkhuyzen AAE, van der Sluis S, Posthuma D. 2011. Life events moderate variation in cognitive ability ( g) in adults. Mol. Psychiatry 16:4-6
159. Visser BA, Ashton MC, Vernon PA. 2006. Beyond g: putting multiple intelligences to the test. Intelligence 34: 487-502 (Pubitemid 44275953)
160. von Stumm S, Gale CR, Batty GD, Deary IJ. 2009. Childhood intelligence, behaviour, and locus of control as determinants of intergenerational social mobility: the British Cohort Study 1970. Intelligence 37:329-40
161. Von Stumm S, Macintyre S, Batty GD, Clark H, Deary IJ. 2010. Intelligence, social class of origin, childhood behavior disturbance and education as predictors of status attainment in midlife in men: the Aberdeen Children of the 1950s study. Intelligence 38:202-11
162. Voracek M, Haubner T. 2008. Twin-singleton differences in intelligence: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Rep. 102:951-62
163. Waiter GD, Deary IJ, Staff RT, Murray AD, Fox HC, et al. 2009. Exploring possible neural mechanisms of intelligence differences using processing speed and working memory tasks: an fMRI study. Intelligence 37:199-206
164. Webbink D, Posthuma D, Boomsma DI, de Geus EJC, Visscher PM. 2008. Do twins have lower cognitive ability than singletons? Intelligence 36:539-47
165. Weiser M, Zarka S, Wrbeloff N, Kravitz E, Lubin G. 2009. Cognitive test scores in male adolescent cigarette smokers compared to non-smokers: a population-based study. Addiction 105:358-63
166. Whalley LJ, Deary IJ. 2001. Longitudinal cohort study of childhood IQ and survival up to age 76. Br. Med. J. 322:819-22 (Pubitemid 32291129)
167. White J. 2006. Intelligence, Destiny and Education: The Ideological Roots of Intelligence Testing. London: Routledge
168. Wilhelm O, Engle RW, eds 2005. Handbook of Measuring and Understanding Intelligence. London: Sage.
169. Wilson RS, Beckett LA, Barnes LL, Schneider JA, Bach J, et al. 2002. Individual differences in rates of change in cognitive abilities of older persons. Psychol. Aging 17:179-93 (Pubitemid 34568635)
170. Wisdom NM, Callahan JL, Hawkins KA. 2011. The effects of apolipoprotein E on non-impaired cognitive function: a meta-analysis. Neurobiol. Aging 32:63-74
171. Woolley AW, Chabris CF, Pentland A, Hashmi N, Malone TW. 2010. Evidence for a collective intelligence factor in the performance of human groups. Science 330:686-88
172. Wright Gillham N. 2001. A Life of Sir Francis Galton: From African Exploration to the Birth of Eugenics. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
173. Yeo RA, Gangestad SW, Liu J, Calhoun VD, Hutchison KE. 2011. Rare copy number deletions predict individual variation in intelligence. PLoS One 6:e16339
174. Zhang J-P, Burdick KE, Lencz T, Malhotra AK. 2010. Meta-analysis of genetic variation in DTNBP1 and general cognitive ability. Biol. Psychiatry 68:1126-33