Central Nervous System Regulation of Body Temperature

Central Regulation of Autonomic Functions

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages

  Morrison, Shaun F ^a   Blessing, William W ^b  

^a OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b FLINDERS UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Brown adipose tissue; Cutaneous vasoconstriction; Fever; Heat loss; Homeostasis; Inflammation; Shiver; Sympathetic nervous system; Thermogenesis; Thermoregulation

Indexed keywords

EID: 79956113195     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195306637.003.0018     Document Type: Chapter

References (122)

1. Andrew, D., and Craig, A. D. (2001). Spinothalamic lamina I neurones selectively responsive to cutaneous warming in cats. Journal of Physiology 537, 489-495.
2. Asami, T., Hori, T., Kiyohara, T., and Nakashima, T. (1988). Convergence of thermal signals on the reticulospinal neurons in the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata. Brain Research Bulletin 20, 581-596.
3. Bamshad, M., Song, C. K., and Bartness, T. J. (1999). CNS origins of the sympathetic nervous system outflow to brown adipose tissue. American Journal of Physiology 276, R1569-R1578.
4. Banet, M., Hensel, H., and Liebermann, H. (1978). The central control of shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis in the rat. Journal of Physiology 283, 569-584.
5. Bartelink, M. L., Wollersheim, H., Theeuwes, A., Van Duren, D., and Thien, T. (1990). Changes in skin blood flow during the menstrual cycle: The influence of the menstrual cycle on the peripheral circulation in healthy female volunteers. Clinical Science 78, 527-532.
6. Blatteis, C. M. (2007). The onset of fever: New insights into its mechanism. Progress in Brain Research 162, 3-14.
7. Blessing, W. W. (2004). Clozapine and olanzapine, but not haloperidol, reverse cold-induced and lipopolysaccharide-induced cutaneous vasoconstriction. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 175, 487-493.
8. Blessing, W. W. (2005). Clozapine increases cutaneous blood flow and reduces sympathetic cutaneous vasomotor alerting responses (SCVARs) in rats: Comparison with effects of haloperidol. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 181, 518-528.
9. Blessing, W. W., and Nalivaiko, E. (2001). Raphé magnus/pallidus neurons regulate tail but not mesenteric arterial blood flow in rats. Neuroscience 105, 923-929.
10. Blessing, W. W., and Seaman, B. (2003). 5-hydroxytryptamine(2A) receptors regulate sympathetic nerves constricting the cutaneous vascular bed in rabbits and rats. Neuroscience 117, 939-948.
11. Blessing, W. W., Seaman, B., Pedersen, N. P., and Ootsuka, Y. (2003). Clozapine reverses hyperthermia and sympathetically mediated cutaneous vasoconstriction induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy) in rabbits and rats. Journal of Neuroscience 23, 6385-6391.
12. Blessing, W. W., Yu, Y. H., and Nalivaiko, E. (1999). Raphé pallidus and parapyramidal neurons regulate ear pinna vascular conductance in the rabbit. Neuroscience Letters 270, 33-36.
13. Blessing, W. W., Zilm, A., and Ootsuka, Y. (2006). Clozapine reverses increased brown adipose tissue thermogenesis induced by 3,4- methylenedioxymethamphetamine and by cold exposure in conscious rats. Neuroscience 141, 2067-2073.
14. Boulant, J. A., and Hardy, J. D. (1974). The effect of spinal and skin temperatures on the firing rate and thermosensitivity of preoptic neurones. Journal of Physiology 240, 639-660.
15. Bratincsak, A., and Palkovits, M. (2005). Evidence that peripheral rather than intracranial thermal signals induce thermoregulation. Neuroscience 135, 525-532.
16. Brown, J. W., Sirlin, E. A., Benoit, A. M., Hoffman, J. M., and Darnall, R. A. (2008). Activation of 5-HT1A receptors in medullary raphé disrupts sleep and decreases shivering during cooling in the conscious piglet. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 294, R884-R894.
17. Cagnacci, A., Arangino, S., Tuveri, F., Paoletti, A. M., and Volpe, A. (2002). Regulation of the 24h body temperature rhythm of women in luteal phase: Role of gonadal steroids and prostaglandins. Chronobiology International 19, 721-730.
18. Cannon, B., and Nedergaard, J. (2004). Brown adipose tissue: Function and physiological significance. Physiological Reviews 84, 277-359.
19. Cano, G., Passerin, A. M., Schiltz, J. C., Card, J. P., Morrison, S. F., and Sved, A. F. (2003). Anatomical substrates for the central control of sympathetic outflow to interscapular adipose tissue during cold exposure. Journal of Comparative Neurology 460, 303-326.
20. Cao, W. H., Fan, W., and Morrison, S. F. (2004). Medullary pathways mediating specific sympathetic responses to activation of dorsomedial hypothalamus. Neuroscience 126, 229-240.
21. Cao, W. H., and Morrison, S. F. (2003). Disinhibition of rostral raphé pallidus neurons increases cardiac sympathetic nerve activity and heart rate. Brain Research 980, 1-10.
22. Cerri, M., and Morrison, S. F. (2005). Activation of lateral hypothalamic neurons stimulates brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. Neuroscience 135, 627-638.
23. Cerri, M., and Morrison, S. F. (2006). Corticotropin releasing factor increases in brown adipose tissue thermogenesis and heart rate through dorsomedial hypothalamus and medullary raphé pallidus. Neuroscience 140, 711-721.
24. Chen, X. M., Hosono, T., Yoda, T., Fukuda, Y., and Kanosue, K. (1998). Efferent projection from the preoptic area for the control of non-shivering thermogenesis in rats. Journal of Physiology 512, 883-892.
25. Chou, T. C., Scammell, T. E., Gooley, J. J., Gaus, S. E., Saper, C. B., and Lu, J. (2003). Critical role of dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus in a wide range of behavioral circadian rhythms. Journal of Neuroscience 23, 10691-10702.
26. Clark, W. G. (1987). Changes in body temperature after administration of antipyretics, LSD, delta 9-THC and related agents: II. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 11, 35-96.
27. Clark, W. G., and Lipton, J. M. (1986). Changes in body temperature after administration of adrenergic and serotonergic agents and related drugs including antidepressants: II. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 10, 153-220.
28. Cox, B., Kerwin, R., and Lee, T. F. (1978). Dopamine receptors in the central thermoregulatory pathways of the rat. Journal of Physiology 282, 471-483.
29. Craig, A. D. (1993). Propriospinal input to thoracolumbar sympathetic nuclei from cervical and lumbar lamina I neurons in the cat and the monkey. Journal of Comparative Neurology 331, 517-530.
30. Craig, A. D. (1995). Distribution of brainstem projections from spinal lamina I neurons in the cat and the monkey. Journal of Comparative Neurology 361, 225-248.
31. Cryan, J. F., Kelliher, P., Kelly, J. P., and Leonard, B. E. (1999). Comparative effects of serotonergic agonists with varying efficacy at the 5-HT(1A) receptor on core body temperature: Modification by the selective 5-HT(1A) receptor antagonist WAY 100635. Journal of Psychopharmacology 13, 278-283.
32. Dostrovsky, J. O., and Craig, A. D. (1996). Cooling-specific spinothalamic neurons in the monkey. Journal of Neurophysiology 76, 3656-3665.
33. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, E. (1970). Ethology: The Biology of Behavior. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
34. Elmquist, J. K., Breder, C. D., Sherin, J. E., Scammell, T. E., Hickey, W. F., Dewitt, D., and Saper, C. B. (1997). Intravenous lipopolysaccharide induces cyclooxygenase 2-like immunoreactivity in rat brain perivascular microglia and meningeal macrophages. Journal of Comparative Neurology 381, 119-129.
35. Elmquist, J. K., E., S. T., and Saper, C. B. (1997). Mechanisms of CNS response to systemic immune challenge: The febrile response. Trends in Neurosciences 20, 565-570.
36. Eus, J. W., and Van Someren, E. J. (2004). Sleep propensity is modulated by circadian and behavior-induced changes in cutaneous temperature. Journal of Thermal Biology 29, 437-444.
37. Gordon, C. J., Watkinson, W. P., O'Callaghan, J. P., and Miller, D. B. (1991). Effects of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine on autonomic thermoregulatory responses of the rat. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior 38, 339-344.
38. Griffin, J. D., Kaple, M. L., Chow, A. R., and Boulant, J. A. (1996). Cellular mechanisms for neuronal thermosensitivity in the rat hypothalamus. Journal of Physiology 492, 231-242.
39. Gudelsky, G. A., Koenig, J. I., and Meltzer, H. Y. (1986). Thermoregulatory responses to serotonin (5-HT) receptor stimulation in the rat. Evidence for opposing roles of 5-HT2 and 5-HT1A receptors. Neuropharmacology 25, 1307-1313.
40. Halvorson, I., and Thornhill, J. (1993). Posterior hypothalamic stimulation of anesthetized normothermic and hypothermic rats evokes shivering thermogenesis. Brain Research 610, 208-215.
41. Hardy, J. D., and Bard, P. (1974). Body Temperature Regulation. In V. B. Mountcastle (Ed.), Medical Physiology, pp. 1305-1342. St Louis, MO: The C.V. Mosby Company,.
42. Helke, C. J., Capuano, S., Tran, N., and Zhuo, H. (1997). Immunocytochemical studies of the 5-HT(1A) receptor in ventral medullar neurons that project to the intermediolateral cell column and contain serotonin or tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity. Journal of Comparative Neurology 379, 261-270.
43. Hemingway, A. (1963). Shivering. Physiological Reviews 43, 397-422.
44. Hensel, H., and Kenshalo, D. R. (1969). Warm receptors in the nasal region of cats. Journal of Physiology 204, 99-112.
45. Hermann, D. M., Luppi, P. H., Peyron, C., Hinckel, P., and Jouvet, M. (1997). Afferent projections to the rat nuclei raphé magnus, raphé pallidus and reticularis gigantocellularis pars alpha demonstrated by iontophoretic application of choleratoxin (subunit b). Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy 13, 1-21.
46. Hubschle, T., McKinley, M. J., and Oldfield, B. J. (1998). Efferent connections of the lamina terminalis, the preoptic area and the insular cortex to submandibular and sublingual gland of the rat traced with pseudorabies virus. Brain Research 806, 219-231.
47. Imai-Matsumura, K., and Nakayama, T. (1987). The central efferent mechanism of brown adipose tissue thermogenesis induced by preoptic cooling. Canadian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology 65, 1299-1303.
48. Jänig, W. (1990). Functions of the sympathetic innervation of the skin. In A. D. Loewy and K. M. Spyer (Eds.), Central Regulation of Autonomic Functions, pp. 334-348. New York: Oxford University Press.
49. Kanosue, K., Nakayama, T., Tanaka, H., Yanase, M., and Yasuda, H. (1990). Modes of action of local hypothalamic and skin thermal stimulation on salivary secretion in rats. Journal of Physiology 424, 459-471.
50. Kia, H. K., Miquel, M. C., Brisorgueil, M. J., Daval, G., Riad, M., El Mestikawy, S., Hamon, M., and Verge, D. (1996). Immunocytochemical localization of serotonin1A receptors in the rat central nervous system. Journal of Comparative Neurology 365, 289-305.
51. Kim, H. E., and Tokura, H. (1995). Effects of the menstrual cycle on dressing behavior in the cold. Physiology and Behavior 58, 699-703.
52. Kirby, L. G., Pernar, L., Valentino, R. J., and Beck, S. G. (2003). Distinguishing characteristics of serotonin and non-serotonin-containing cells in the dorsal raphé nucleus: Electrophysiological and immunohistochemical studies. Neuroscience 116, 669-683.
53. Korsak, A., and Gilbey, M. P. (2004). Rostral ventromedial medulla and the control of cutaneous vasoconstrictor activity following i.c.v. prostaglandin E(1). Neuroscience 124, 709-717.
54. Krauchi, K., and Wirz-Justice, A. (1994). Circadian rhythm of heat production, heart rate, and skin and core temperature under unmasking conditions in men. American Journal of Physiology 267, R819-R829.
55. Lazarus, M., Yoshida, K., Coppari, R., Bass, C. E., Mochizuki, T., Lowell, B. B., and Saper, C. B. (2007). EP3 prostaglandin receptors in the median preoptic nucleus are critical for fever responses. Nature Neuroscience 10, 1131-1133.
56. Leblanc, J. (1958). Chlorpromazine hypothermia in rats. Journal of Applied Physiology 13, 237-238.
57. Lomax, P. (1970). Drugs and body temperature. International Review of Neurobiology 12, 1-43.
58. Madden, C. J., and Morrison, S. F. (2003). Excitatory amino acid receptor activation in the raphé pallidus area mediates prostaglandin-evoked thermogenesis. Neuroscience 122, 5-15.
59. Madden, C. J., and Morrison, S. F. (2004). Excitatory amino acid receptors in the dorsomedial hypothalamus mediate prostaglandin-evoked thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 286, R320-R325.
60. Madden, C. J., and Morrison, S. F. (2006). Serotonin potentiates sympathetic responses evoked by spinal NMDA. Journal of Physiology 577, 525-537.
61. Madden, C. J., and Morrison, S. F. (2008). Brown adipose tissue sympathetic nerve activity is potentiated by activation of 5- hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)1A/5-HT7 receptors in the rat spinal cord. Neuropharmacology 54, 487-496.
62. Marina, N., Taheri, M., and Gilbey, M. P. (2006). Generation of a physiological sympathetic motor rhythm in the rat following spinal application of 5-HT. Journal of Physiology 571, 441-450.
63. Matsumura, K., Cao, C., Ozaki, M., Morii, H., Nakadate, K., and Watanabe, Y. (1998). Brain endothelial cells express cyclooxygenase-2 during lipopolysaccharide-induced fever: Light and electron microscopic immunocytochemical studies. Journal of Neuroscience 18, 6279-6289.
64. McAllen, R. M., Farrell, M., Johnson, J. M., Trevaks, D., Cole, L., McKinley, M. J., Jackson, G., Denton, D. A., and Egan, G. F. (2006). Human medullary responses to cooling and rewarming the skin: A functional MRI study. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103, 809-813.
65. Morris, J. L., and Gibbins, I. L., ed. (1997). Autonomic Innervation of the Skin, vol. 12. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Harwood Academic Publishers.
66. Morris, J. L., Zhu, B. S., Gibbins, I. L., and Blessing, W. W. (1999). Subpopulations of sympathetic neurons project to specific vascular targets in the pinna of the rabbit ear. Journal of Comparative Neurology 412, 147-160.
67. Morrison, S. F. (2003). Raphé pallidus neurons mediate prostaglandin E2-evoked increases in brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. Neuroscience 121, 17-24.
68. Morrison, S. F. (2004). Activation of 5-HT1A receptors in raphé pallidus inhibits leptin-evoked increases in brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 286, R832-R837.
69. Morrison, S. F. (2004). Central pathways controlling brown adipose tissue thermogenesis. News in Physiological Sciences 19, 67-74.
70. Morrison, S. F., Sved, A. F., and Passerin, A. M. (1999). GABA-mediated inhibition of raphé pallidus neurons regulates sympathetic outflow to brown adipose tissue. American Journal of Physiology. 276, R290-R297.
71. Nagashima, K., Nakai, S., Tanaka, M., and Kanosue, K. (2000). Neuronal circuitries involved in thermoregulation. Autonomic Neuroscience 85, 18-25.
72. Nakamura, K., Matsumura, K., Hubschle, T., Nakamura, Y., Hioki, H., Fujiyama, F., Boldogkoi, Z., Konig, M., Thiel, H. J., Gerstberger, R., Kobayashi, S., and Kaneko, T. (2004). Identification of sympathetic premotor neurons in medullary raphé regions mediating fever and other thermoregulatory functions. Journal of Neuroscience 24, 5370-5380.
73. Nakamura, K., Matsumura, K., Kaneko, T., Kobayashi, S., Katoh, H., and Negishi, M. (2002). The rostral raphé pallidus nucleus mediates pyrogenic transmission from the preoptic area. Journal of Neuroscience 22, 4600-4610.
74. Nakamura, K., and Morrison, S. F. (2007). Central efferent pathways mediating skin cooling-evoked sympathetic thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 292, R127-R136.
75. Nakamura, K., and Morrison, S. F. (2008). Preoptic mechanism for colddefensive responses to skin cooling. Journal of Physiology 586, 2611-2620.
76. Nakamura, K., and Morrison, S. F. (2008). A thermosensory pathway that controls body temperature. Nature Neuroscience 11, 62-71.
77. Nakamura, Y., Nakamura, K., Matsumura, K., Kobayashi, S., Kaneko, T., and Morrison, S. F. (2005). Direct pyrogenic input from prostaglandin EP3 receptor-expressing preoptic neurons to the dorsomedial hypothalamus. European Journal of Neuroscience 22, 3137-3146.
78. Nalivaiko, E., and Blessing, W. W. (2001). Raphé region mediates changes in cutaneous vascular tone elicited by stimulation of amygdala and hypothalamus in rabbits. Brain Research 891, 130-137.
79. Nedergaard, J., Bengtsson, T., and Cannon, B. (2007). Unexpected evidence for active brown adipose tissue in adult humans. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism 293, E444-E452.
80. Ögren, S. O., and Fuxe, K. (1988). Apomorphine and pergolide induce hypothermia by stimulation of dopamine D-2 receptors. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica 133, 91-95.
81. Oldfield, B. J., Giles, M. E., Watson, A., Anderson, C., Colvill, L. M., and McKinley, M. J. (2002). The neurochemical characterisation of hypothalamic pathways projecting polysynaptically to brown adipose tissue in the rat. Neuroscience 110, 515-526.
82. Ootsuka, Y., and Blessing, W. W. (2003). 5-Hydroxytryptamine 1A receptors inhibit cold-induced sympathetically mediated cutaneous vasoconstriction in rabbits. Journal of Physiology 552, 303-314.
83. Ootsuka, Y., and Blessing, W. W. (2005). Activation of slowly conducting medullary raphé-spinal neurons, including serotonergic neurons, increases cutaneous sympathetic vasomotor discharge in rabbit. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 288, R909-R918.
84. Ootsuka, Y., and Blessing, W. W. (2005). Inhibition of medullary raphé/ parapyramidal neurons prevents cutaneous vasoconstriction elicited by alerting stimuli and by cold exposure in conscious rabbits. Brain Research 1051, 189-193.
85. Ootsuka, Y., and Blessing, W. W. (2006). Activation of 5-HT1A receptors in rostral medullary raphé inhibits cutaneous vasoconstriction elicited by cold exposure in rabbits. Brain Research 1073-1074, 252-261.
86. Ootsuka, Y., and Blessing, W. W. (2006). Thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue: Increase by 5-HT2A receptor activation and decrease by 5-HT1A receptor activation in conscious rats. Neuroscience Letters 395, 170-174.
87. Ootsuka, Y., Blessing, W. W., and McAllen, R. M. (2004). Inhibition of rostral medullary raphé neurons prevents cold-induced activity in sympathetic nerves to rat tail and rabbit ear arteries. Neuroscience Letters 357, 58-62.
88. Ootsuka, Y., Blessing, W. W., Steiner, A. A., and Romanovsky, A. A. (2008). Fever response to intravenous prostaglandin E2 is mediated by the brain but does not require afferent vagal signaling. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 294, R1294-R1303.
89. Ootsuka, Y., and McAllen, R. M. (2005). Interactive drives from two brain stem premotor nuclei are essential to support rat tail sympathetic activity. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 289, R1107-R1115.
90. Ootsuka, Y., and McAllen, R. M. (2006). Comparison between two rat sympathetic pathways activated in cold-defense. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 291, R589-R595.
91. Ootsuka, Y., Menezes, R., Alimoradian, A., Zaretsky, D., Hunt, J., Stephanidis, A., Oldfield, B. J., and Blessing, W. W. (2009). Brown adipose tissue thermogenesis heats brain and body as part of the brain-coordinated ultradian basic rest-activity cycle. Neuroscience 164, 849-861.
92. Ootsuka, Y., Nalivaiko, E., and Blessing, W. W. (2004). Spinal 5-HT2A receptors regulate cutaneous sympathetic vasomotor outflow in rabbits and rats; relevance for cutaneous vasoconstriction elicited by MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, "Ecstasy") and its reversal by clozapine. Brain Research 1014, 34-44.
93. Osaka, T. (2004). Cold-induced thermogenesis mediated by GABA in the preoptic area of anesthetized rats. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 287, R306-R313.
94. Pleschka, K., and Wang, S. C. (1975). The activity of respiratory neurons before and during panting in the cat. Pflügers Archiv 353, 303-315.
95. Ranels, H. J., and Griffin, J. D. (2005). Effects of prostaglandin E2 on the electrical properties of thermally classified neurons in the ventromedial preoptic area of the rat hypothalamus. BMC Neuroscience 6, 14.
96. Rathner, J. A., Madden, C. J., and Morrison, S. F. (2008). Central pathway for spontaneous and prostaglandin E2-evoked cutaneous vasoconstriction. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 295, R343-R354.
97. Rathner, J. A., and McAllen, R. M. (1999). Differential control of sympathetic drive to the rat tail artery and kidney by medullary premotor cell groups. Brain Research 834, 196-199.
98. Romanovsky, A. A. (2004). Do fever and anapyrexia exist? Analysis of set point-based definitions. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 287, R992-R995.
99. Romanovsky, A. A. (2004). Signaling the brain in the early sickness syndrome: Are sensory nerves involved? Frontiers in Bioscience 9, 494-504.
100. Romanovsky, A. A., Almeida, M. C., Aronoff, D. M., Ivanov, A. I., Konsman, J. P., Steiner, A. A., and Turek, V. F. (2005). Fever and hypothermia in systemic inflammation: Recent discoveries and revisions. Frontiers in Bioscience 10, 2193-2216.
101. Rothwell, N. J., Stock, M. J., and Thexton, A. J. (1983). Decerebration activates thermogenesis in the rat. Journal of Physiology 342, 15-22.
102. Rusyniak, D. E., and Sprague, J. E. (2006). Hyperthermic Syndromes Induced by Toxins. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine 26, 165-184.
103. Samuels, B. C., Zaretsky, D. V., and Dimicco, J. A. (2004). Dorsomedial hypothalamic sites where disinhibition evokes tachycardia correlate with location of raphé-projecting neurons. American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 287, R472-R478.
104. Schafer, S. S., and Schafer, S. (1973). The behavior of the proprioceptors of the muscle and the innervation of the fusimotor system during cold shivering. Experimental Brain Research 17, 364-380.
105. Shafton, A. D., Oldfield, B. J., and McAllen, R. M. (1992). CRF-like immunoreactivity selectively labels preganglionic sudomotor neurons in cat. Brain Research 599, 253-260.
106. Shibata, M., Benzi, R. H., Seydoux, J., and Girardier, L. (1987). Hyperthermia induced by pre-pontine knife-cut: Evidence for a tonic inhibition of non-shivering thermogenesis in anaesthetized rat. Brain Research 436, 273-282.
107. Shibata, M., Iriki, M., Arita, J., Kiyohara, T., Nakashima, T., Miyata, S., and Matsukawa, T. (1996). Procaine microinjection into the lower midbrain increases brown fat and body temperatures in anesthetized rats. Brain Research 716, 171-179.
108. Simon, E. (1974). Temperature regulation: The spinal cord as a site of extrahypothalamic thermoregulatory functions. Reviews of Physiology, Biochemistry and Pharmacology 71, 1-76.
109. Smith, J. E., Jansen, A. S., Gilbey, M. P., and Loewy, A. D. (1998). CNS cell groups projecting to sympathetic outflow of tail artery: Neural circuits involved in heat loss in the rat. Brain Research 786, 153-164.
110. Stornetta, R. L., Mcquiston, T. J., and Guyenet, P. G. (2004). GABAergic and glycinergic presympathetic neurons of rat medulla oblongata identified by retrograde transport of pseudorabies virus and in situ hybridization. Journal of Comparative Neurology 479, 257-270.
111. Tanaka, M., Owens, N. C., Nagashima, K., Kanosue, K., and McAllen, R. M. (2006). Reflex activation of rat fusimotor neurons by body surface cooling, and its dependence on the medullary raphé. Journal of Physiology 572, 569-583.
112. Thor, K. B., Blitz-Siebert, A., and Helke, C. J. (1990). Discrete localization of high-density 5-HT1A binding sites in the midline raphé and parapyramidal region of the ventral medulla oblongata of the rat. Neuroscience Letters 108, 249-254.
113. Toth, I. E., Toth, D. E., Boldogkoi, Z., Hornyak, A., Palkovits, M., and Blessing, W. W. (2006). Serotonin-synthesizing neurons in the rostral medullary raphé/parapyramidal region transneuronally labelled after injection of pseudorabies virus into the rat tail. Neurochemical Research 31, 277-286.
114. Werner, J. (1980). The concept of regulation of human body temperature. Journal of Thermal Biology 5, 75-82.
115. Yamagata, K., Matsumura, K., Inoue, W., Shiraki, T., Suzuki, K., Yasuda, S., Sugiura, H., Cao, C., Watanabe, Y., and Kobayashi, S. (2001). Coexpression of microsomal-type prostaglandin E synthase with cyclooxygenase-2 in brain endothelial cells of rats during endotoxin-induced fever. Journal of Neuroscience 21, 2669-2677.
116. Yoshida, K., Nakamura, K., Matsumura, K., Kanosue, K., Konig, M., Thiel, H. J., Boldogkoi, Z., Toth, I., Roth, J., Gerstberger, R., and Hubschle, T. (2003). Neurons of the rat preoptic area and the raphé pallidus nucleus innervating the brown adipose tissue express the prostaglandin E receptor subtype EP3. European Journal of Neuroscience 18, 1848-1860.
117. Yu, Y. H., and Blessing, W. W. (1997). Cutaneous vasoconstriction in conscious rabbits during alerting responses detected by hippocampal thetarhythm. American Journal of Physiology 272, R208-R216.
118. Zaretskaia, M. V., Zaretsky, D. V., and Dimicco, J. A. (2003). Role of the dorsomedial hypothalamus in thermogenesis and tachycardia caused by microinjection of prostaglandin E2 into the preoptic area in anesthetized rats. Neuroscience Letters 340, 1-4.
119. Zaretskaia, M. V., Zaretsky, D. V., Shekhar, A., and Dimicco, J. A. (2002). Chemical stimulation of the dorsomedial hypothalamus evokes non-shivering thermogenesis in anesthetized rats. Brain Research 928, 113-125.
120. Zethof, T. J., Van Der Heyden, J. A., Tolboom, J. T., and Olivier, B. (1995). Stress-induced hyperthermia as a putative anxiety model. European Journal of Pharmacology 294, 125-135.
121. Zhang, Y. H., Hosono, T., Yanase-Fujiwara, M., Chen, X. M., and Kanosue, K. (1997). Effect of midbrain stimulations on thermoregulatory vasomotor responses in rats. Journal of Physiology 503, 177-186.
122. Zhang, Y. H., Yanase-Fujiwara, M., Hosono, T., and Kanosue, K. (1995). Warm and cold signals from the preoptic area: Which contribute more to the control of shivering in rats? Journal of Physiology 485, 195-202.