Adaptation to potential threat: The evolution, neurobiology, and psychopathology of the security motivation system

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 35, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 1019-1033

  Woody, Erik Z ^a   Szechtman, Henry ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

^b MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Basal ganglia; Heart rate variability; HPA axis; Limbic system; Motivation; Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD); Physiology; Potential danger; Precautionary behavior; Risk; Security

Indexed keywords

CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; GLUCOCORTICOID;

ADAPTIVE BEHAVIOR; ANXIETY; ASSOCIATION; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; BRAIN CORTEX; BRAIN DISEASE; BRAIN FUNCTION; BRAIN STEM; CARDIOVASCULAR AUTOREGULATION; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; CORPUS STRIATUM; DEFENSE MECHANISM; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; GLOBUS PALLIDUS; HAZARD; HEART OUTPUT; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL STRESS; MOTIVATION; NEGATIVE FEEDBACK; NERVE CELL NETWORK; NEUROANATOMY; NEUROBIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PERCEPTIVE DISCRIMINATION; PREDATOR AVOIDANCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RITUAL; SECURITY MOTIVATION SYSTEM; SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT; THALAMUS; THREAT; VAGUS NERVE;

ADAPTATION, PSYCHOLOGICAL; AGONISTIC BEHAVIOR; ANIMALS; ANXIETY; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; BRAIN; HUMANS; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; MOTIVATION; NEURAL PATHWAYS; OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; RISK; SOCIAL PERCEPTION;

EID: 79951576408     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.08.003     Document Type: Review

References (188)

1. Abed R.T., de Pauw K.W. An evolutionary hypothesis for obsessive compulsive disorder: A psychological immune system?. Behav. Neurol. 1998, 11:245-250.
2. Aldridge J.W., Berridge K.C. Coding of serial order by neostriatal neurons: a "natural action" approach to movement sequence. J. Neurosci. 1998, 18:2777-2787.
3. Alexander G.E., Delong M.R., Strick P.L. Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 1986, 9:357-381.
4. Anisman H., Hayley S., Kelly O., Borowski T., Merali Z. Psychogenic, neurogenic, and systemic stressor effects on plasma corticosterone and behavior: Mouse strain-dependent outcomes. Behav. Neurosci. 2001, 115:443-454.
5. Antelman S.M., Szechtman H. Tail pinch induces eating in sated rats which appears to depend on nigrostriatal dopamine. Science 1975, 189:731-733.
6. Arnold K.E., Ramsay S.L., Donaldson C., Adam A. Parental prey selection affects risk-taking behaviour and spatial learning in avian offspring. Proc. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci. 2007, 274:2563-2569.
7. Aston-Jones G., Cohen J.D. An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function: adaptive gain and optimal performance. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2005, 28:403-450.
8. Bailey S.P., Davis J.M., Ahlborn E.N. Neuroendocrine and substrate responses to altered brain 5-HT activity during prolonged exercise to fatigue. J. Appl. Physiol. 1993, 74:3006-3012.
9. Bassett J.R., Cairncross K.D., King M.G. Parameters of novelty, shock predictability and response contingency in corticosterone release in the rat. Physiol. Behav. 1973, 10:901-907.
10. Beach F.A. Historical origins of modern research on hormones and behavior. Horm. Behav. 1981, 15:325-376.
11. Bechara A., Damasio H., Damasio A.R. Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex. Cereb. Cortex. 2000, 10:295-307.
12. Bechara A., Damasio H., Damasio A.R., Lee G.P. Different contributions of the human amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to decision-making. J. Neurosci. 1999, 19:5473-5481.
13. Bechara A., Damasio H., Tranel D., Anderson S.W. Dissociation of working memory from decision making within the human prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 1998, 18:428-437.
14. Bechara A., Damasio H., Tranel D., Damasio A.R. Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy [see comments]. Science 1997, 275:1293-1295.
15. Berridge C.W., Waterhouse B.D. The locus coeruleus-noradrenergic system: modulation of behavioral state and state-dependent cognitive processes. Brain Res. Rev. 2003, 42:33-84.
16. Berridge K.C., Fentress J.C., Parr H. Natural syntax rules control action sequence of rats. Behav. Brain Res. 1987, 23:59-68.
17. Berridge K.C., Whishaw I.Q. Cortex, striatum and cerebellum: control of serial order in a grooming sequence. Exp. Brain Res. 1992, 90:275-290.
18. Bigos K.L., Folan M.M., Jones M.R., Haas G.L., Kroboth F.J., Kroboth P.D. Dysregulation of neurosteroids in obsessive compulsive disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2009, 43:442-445.
19. Blanchard D.C., Blanchard R.J. Ethoexperimental approaches to the biology of emotion. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 1988, 39:43-68.
20. Blanchard D.C., Griebel G., Pobbe R., Blanchard R.J. Risk assessment as an evolved threat detection process. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35:991-998.
21. Blanchard D.C., Blanchard R.J., Rosen J. Olfaction and defense. Neurosci Biobehav. Rev. 2008, 32:1207-1208.
22. Blas J., Bortolotti G.R., Tella J.L., Baos R., Marchant T.A. Stress response during development predicts fitness in a wild, long lived vertebrate. PNAS 2007, 104:8880-8884.
23. Blomstrand E., Perrett D., Parry-Billings M., Newsholme E.A. Effect of sustained exercise on plasma amino acid concentrations and on 5-hydroxytryptamine metabolism in six different brain regions in the rat. Acta Physiol. Scand. 1989, 136:473-481.
24. Blundell J. Pharmacological approaches to appetite suppression. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 1991, 12:147-157.
25. Bosch J.A., de Geus E.J.C., Carroll D., Goedhart A.D., Anane L.A., Veldhuizen van Zanten J.J., Helmerhorst E.J., Edwards K.M. A general enhancement of autonomic and cortisol responses during social evaluative threat. Psychosom. Med. 2009, 71:877-885.
26. Boulougouris V., Chamberlain S.R., Robbins T.W. Cross-species models of OCD spectrum disorders. Psychiatry Res. 2009, 170:15-21.
27. Boyer P., Bergstrom B. Threat-detection in child development: An evolutionary perspective. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35:1034-1041.
28. Boyer P., Lienard P. Why ritualized behavior? Precaution systems and action parsing in developmental, pathological and cultural rituals. Behav. Brain Sci. 2006, 29:595-613.
29. Britton K.T., Lee G., Dana R., Risch S.C., Koob G.F. Activating and 'anxiogenic' effects of corticotropin releasing factor are not inhibited by blockade of the pituitary-adrenal system with dexamethasone. Life Sci. 1986, 39:1281-1286.
30. Brown G.M., Martin J.B. Corticosterone, prolactin, and growth hormone responses to handling and new environment in the rat. Psychosom. Med. 1974, 36:241-247.
31. Brown J.S. Vigilance, patch use and habitat selection: Foraging under predation risk. Evol. Ecol. Res. 1999, 1:49-71.
32. Brown J.S., Laundre J.W., Gurung M. The ecology of fear: Optimal foraging, game theory, and trophic interactions. J. Mammal. 1999, 80:385-399.
33. Brown R.G., Pluck G. Negative symptoms: the 'pathology' of motivation and goal-directed behaviour. Trends Neurosci. 2000, 23:412-417.
34. Brune M. The evolutionary psychology of obsessive-compulsive disorder: the role of cognitive metarepresentation. Perspect. Biol. Med. 2006, 49:317-329.
35. Buckner R.L. The role of the hippocampus in prediction and imagination. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2010, 61:27-48.
36. Cannon W.B. Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear, and Rage: An Account of Recent Researches into the Function of Emotional Excitement 1927, D. Appleton and Company, New York and London.
37. Chen Y., Brunson K.L., Adelmann G., Bender R.A., Frotscher M., Baram T.Z. Hippocampal corticotropin releasing hormone: pre- and postsynaptic location and release by stress. Neuroscience 2004, 126:533-540.
38. Choi D.C., Evanson N.K., Furay A.R., Ulrich-Lai Y.M., Ostrander M.M., Herman J.P. The anteroventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis differentially regulates hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis responses to acute and chronic stress. Endocrinology 2008, 149:818-826.
39. Cisler J.M., Koster E.H.W. Mechanisms of attentional biases towards threat in anxiety disorders: An integrative review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 2010, 30:203-216.
40. Cromwell H.C., Berridge K.C. Implementation of action sequences by a neostriatal site: A lesion mapping study of grooming syntax. J. Neurosci. 1996, 16:3444-3458.
41. Csete M., Doyle J. Bow ties, metabolism and disease. Trends Biotechnol. 2004, 22:446-450.
42. Csete M.E., Doyle J.C. Reverse engineering of biological complexity. Science 2002, 295:1664-1669.
43. Curio E. Proximate and developmental aspects of antipredator behavior. Adv. Study Behav. 1993, 22:135-238.
44. Curtis A.L., Lechner S.M., Pavcovich L.A., Valentino R.J. Activation of the locus coeruleus noradrenergic system by intracoerulear microinfusion of corticotropin-releasing factor: effects on discharge rate, cortical norepinephrine levels and cortical electroencephalographic activity. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1997, 281:163-172.
45. Dallman M.F. Stress update: Adaptation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to chronic stress. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 1993, 4:62-69.
46. Dantzer R., O'Connor J.C., Freund G.G., Johnson R.W., Kelley K.W. From inflammation to sickness and depression: when the immune system subjugates the brain. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2008, 9:46-56.
47. Davis M., Shi C. The extended amygdala: are the central nucleus of the amygdala and the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis differentially involved in fear versus anxiety?. ANYAS 1999, 877:281-291.
48. Davis M., Walker D.L., Lee Y. Amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis: differential roles in fear and anxiety measured with the acoustic startle reflex. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 1997, 352:1675-1687.
49. Davis M. Are different parts of the extended amygdala involved in fear versus anxiety?. Biol. Psychiatry 1998, 44:1239-1247.
50. de Kloet E.R., Fitzsimons C.P., Datson N.A., Meijer O.C., Vreugdenhil E. Glucocorticoid signaling and stress-related limbic susceptibility pathway: About receptors, transcription machinery and microRNA. Brain Res. 2009, 1293:129-141.
51. de Kloet E.R., Vreugdenhil E., Oitzl M.S., Joels M. Brain corticosteroid receptor balance in health and disease. Endocr. Rev. 1998, 19:269-301.
52. Denver J.W., Reed S.F., Porges S.W. Methodological issues in the quantification of respiratory sinus arrhythmia. Biol. Psychol. 2007, 74:286-294.
53. Dhabhar F.S. A hassle a day may keep the pathogens away: The fight-or-flight stress response and the augmentation of immune function. Integr. Comp. Biol. 2009, 49:215-236.
54. Dielenberg R.A., McGregor I.S. Defensive behavior in rats towards predatory odors: a review. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2001, 25:597-609.
55. Dishman R.K. Brain monoamines, exercise, and behavioral stress: Animal models. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 1997, 29:63-74.
56. Droste S.K., de Groote L., Atkinson H.C., Lightman S.L., Reul J.M.H.M., Linthorst A.C.E. Corticosterone levels in the brain show a distinct ultradian rhythm but a delayed response to forced swim stress. Endocrinology 2008, 149:3244-3253.
57. du Toit P.L., van Kradenburg J., Niehaus D., Stein D.J. Comparison of obsessive-compulsive disorder patients with and without comorbid putative obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders using a structured clinical interview. Compr. Psychiatry 2001, 42:291-300.
58. Dunn A.J., Berridge C.W. Physiological and behavioral responses to corticotropin-releasing factor administration: is CRF a mediator of anxiety or stress responses? Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 1990, 15:71-100.
59. Eilam D., Izhar R., Mort J. Threat detection: Behavioral consequences in animals and humans. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35:999-1006.
60. Emmelkamp P.M., Kwee K.G. Obsessional ruminations: a comparison between thought-stopping and prolonged exposure in imagination. Behav. Res. Ther. 1977, 15:441-444.
61. Everitt B.J., Wolf M.E. Psychomotor stimulant addiction: A neural systems perspective. J. Neurosci. 2002, 22:3312-3320.
62. Fendt M., Endres T. 2,3,5-Trimethyl-3-thiazoline (TMT), a component of fox odor - Just repugnant or really fear-inducing?. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2008, 32:1259-1266.
63. Fiddick L. There is more than the amygdala: Potential threat assessment in the cingulate cortex. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35:1007-1018.
64. File S.E., Zangrossi H., Sanders F.L., Mabbutt P.S. Dissociation between behavioral and corticosterone responses on repeated exposures to cat odor. Physiol. Behav. 1993, 54:1109-1111.
65. Fireman B., Koran L.M., Leventhal J.L., Jacobson A. The prevalence of clinically recognized obsessive-compulsive disorder in a large health maintenance organization. Am. J. Psychiatry 2001, 158:1904-1910.
66. Flannelly K.J., Koenig H.G., Galek K., Ellison C.G. Beliefs, mental health, and evolutionary threat assessment systems in the brain. JNMD 2007, 195:996-1003.
67. Francis D., Diorio J., Liu D., Meaney M.J. Nongenomic transmission across generations of maternal behavior and stress responses in the rat. Science 1999, 286:1155-1158.
68. Gilbert P. Evolutionary psychopathology: why isn't the mind designed better than it is? Br. J. Med. Psychol. 1998, 71(Pt 4):353-373.
69. Gilbert P. Evolutionary approaches to psychopathology: the role of natural defences. Aust. N. Z. J. Psychiatry 2001, 35:17-27.
70. Glickman S.E., Schiff B.B. A biological theory of reinforcement. Psychol. Rev. 1967, 74:81-109.
71. Graeff F.G., Viana M.B., Mora P.O. Dual role of 5-HT in defense and anxiety. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1997, 21:791-799.
72. Groenewegen H.J., Wright C.I., Beijer A.V.J., Voorn P.I.E. Convergence and segregation of ventral striatal inputs and outputs. ANYAS 1999, 877:49-63.
73. Gustafsson P.E., Gustafsson P.A., Ivarsson T., Nelson N. Diurnal cortisol levels and cortisol response in youths with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychobiology 2008, 57:14-21.
74. Haber S.N., Fudge J.L. The primate substantia nigra and VTA: integrative circuitry and function. Crit. Rev. Neurobiol. 1997, 11:323-342.
75. Haber S.N., Fudge J.L., McFarland N.R. Striatonigrostriatal pathways in primates form an ascending spiral from the shell to the dorsolateral striatum. J. Neurosci. 2000, 20:2369-2382.
76. Haber S.N., Kunishio K., Mizobuchi M., Lynd-Balta E. The orbital and medial prefrontal circuit through the primate basal ganglia. J. Neurosci. 1995, 15:4851-4867.
77. Haber S.N., McFarland N.R. The concept of the ventral striatum in nonhuman primates. ANYAS 1999, 877:33-48.
78. Hahn-Holbrook J., Holbrook C., Haselton M.G. Parental precaution: Neurobiological means and adaptive ends. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35:1052-1066.
79. Hart B.L. Behavioral adaptations to pathogens and parasites: five strategies. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1990, 14:273-294.
80. Haselton M.G., Nettle D. The paranoid optimist: An integrative evolutionary model of cognitive biases. Personal. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 2006, 10:47-66.
81. Heimer L., Harlan R.E., Alheid G.F., Garcia M.M., Deolmos J. Substantia innominata: A notion which impedes clinical- anatomical correlations in neuropsychiatric disorders. Neuroscience 1997, 76:957-1006.
82. Hennessy M.B., Levine S. Sensitive pituitary-adrenal responsiveness to varying intensities of psychological stimulation. Physiol. Behav. 1978, 21:295-297.
83. Herman J.P., Dolgas C.M., Carlson S.L. Ventral subiculum regulates hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical and behavioural responses to cognitive stressors. Neuroscience 1998, 86:449-459.
84. Herman J.P., Cullinan W.E. Neurocircuitry of stress: central control of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Trends Neurosci. 1997, 20:78-84.
85. Herman J.P., Figueiredo H., Mueller N.K., Ulrich-Lai Y., Ostrander M.M., Choi D.C., Cullinan W.E. Central mechanisms of stress integration: hierarchical circuitry controlling hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical responsiveness. Front. Neuroendocrinol. 2003, 24:151-180.
86. Herman J.P., Mueller N.K. Role of the ventral subiculum in stress integration. Behav. Brain Res. 2006, 174:215-224.
87. Heyes M.P., Garnett E.S., Coates G. Nigrostriatal dopaminergic activity is increased during exhaustive exercise stress in rats. Life Sci. 1988, 42:1537-1542.
88. Hinds A.L., Woody E.Z., Drandic A., Schmidt L.A., Van Ameringen M., Coroneos M., Szechtman H. The psychology of potential threat: properties of the security motivation system. Biol. Psychol. 2010, 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.08.003.
89. Hollander E., Braun A., Simeon D. Should OCD leave the anxiety disorders in DSM-V? The case for obsessive compulsive-related disorders. Depress. Anxiety 2008, 25:317-329.
90. Holsboer F., Ising M. Stress hormone regulation: Biological role and translation into therapy. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 2010, 61:81-109.
91. Joel D., Weiner I. The organization of the basal ganglia-thalamocortical circuits: open interconnected rather than closed segregated. Neuroscience 1994, 63:363-379.
92. Joel D., Weiner I. The connections of the dopaminergic system with the striatum in rats and primates: an analysis with respect to the functional and compartmental organization of the striatum. Neuroscience 2000, 96:451-474.
93. Joels M., Baram T.Z. The neuro-symphony of stress. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2009, 10:459-466.
94. Kalivas P.W., Nakamura M. Neural systems for behavioral activation and reward. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 1999, 9:223-227.
95. Kapur S., Remington G. Serotonin-dopamine interaction and its relevance to schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 1996, 153:466-476.
96. Kavaliers M., Choleris E. Antipredator responses and defensive behavior: ecological and ethological approaches for the neurosciences. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2001, 25:577-586.
97. Kavaliers M., Choleris E., Pfaff D.W. Recognition and avoidance of the odors of parasitized conspecifics and predators: differential genomic correlates. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2005, 29:1347-1359.
98. Kluge M., Schnssler P., Knnzel H.E., Dresler M., Yassouridis A., Steiger A. Increased nocturnal secretion of ACTH and cortisol in obsessive compulsive disorder. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2007, 41:928-933.
99. Komisaruk B.R., Diakow C. Lordosis reflex intensity in rats in relation to the estrous cycle, ovariectomy, estrogen administration and mating behavior. Endocrinology 1973, 93:548-557.
100. Korosi A., Baram T.Z. The central corticotropin releasing factor system during development and adulthood. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2008, 583:204-214.
101. Lang P.J., Davis M., Ohman A. Fear and anxiety: animal models and human cognitive psychophysiology. J. Affect. Disord. 2000, 61:137-159.
102. LeDoux J.E. Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are 2002, Viking Penguin, New York.
103. Liddell B.J., Brown K.J., Kemp A.H., Barton M.J., Das P., Peduto A., Gordon E., Williams L.M. A direct brainstem-amygdala-cortical 'alarm' system for subliminal signals of fear. Neuroimage 2005, 24:235-243.
104. Lienard P. Life stages and risk-avoidance: Status- and context-sensitivity in precaution systems. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35:1067-1074.
105. Lima S.L., Bednekoff P.A. Back to the basics of antipredatory vigilance: can nonvigilant animals detect attack?. Anim. Behav. 1999, 58:537-543.
106. Lima S.L., Bednekoff P.A. Temporal variation in danger drives antipredator behavior: The predation risk allocation hypothesis. Am. Naturalist 1999, 153:649-659.
107. Lorrain D.S., Riolo J.V., Matuszewich L., Hull E.M. Lateral hypothalamic serotonin inhibits nucleus accumbens dopamine: implications for sexual satiety. J. Neurosci. 1999, 19:7648-7652.
108. MacDonnell M.F., Flynn J.P. Control of sensory fields by stimulation of hypothalamus. Science 1966, 152:1406-1408.
109. MacLean P.D. Effects of lesions of globus pallidus on species-typical display behavior of squirrel monkeys. Brain Res. 1978, 149:175-196.
110. MacLean P.D. Evolutionary psychiatry and the triune brain. Psychol. Med. 1985, 15:219-221.
111. Marks I.M., Nesse R.M. Fear and fitness: An evolutionary analysis of anxiety disorders. Ethol. Sociobiol. 1994, 15:247-261.
112. Masini C.V., Sasse S.K., Garcia R.J., Nyhuis T.J., Day H.E.W., Campeau S. Disruption of neuroendocrine stress responses to acute ferret odor by medial, but not central amygdala lesions in rats. Brain Res. 2009, 1288:79-87.
113. Mason J.W. A review of psychoendocrine research on the pituitary-adrenal cortical system. Psychosom. Med. 1968, 30:576-607.
114. Masterson F.A., Crawford M. The Defense Motivation System-A theory of avoidance-behavior. Behav. Brain Sci. 1982, 5:661-675.
115. McEwen B.S. Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: Central role of the brain. Physiol. Rev. 2007, 87:873-904.
116. Merali Z., McIntosh J., Kent P., Michaud D., Anisman H. Aversive and appetitive events evoke the release of corticotropin-releasing hormone and bombesin-like peptides at the central nucleus of the amygdala. J. Neurosci. 1998, 18:4758-4766.
117. Mueller N.K., Dolgas C.M., Herman J.P. Stressor-selective role of the ventral subiculum in regulation of neuroendocrine stress responses. Endocrinology 2004, 145:3763-3768.
118. Muller M.B., Zimmermann S., Sillaber I., Hagemeyer T.P., Deussing J.M., Timpl P., Kormann M.S.D., Droste S.K., Kuhn R., Reul J.M.H.M., Holsboer F., Wurst W. Limbic corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor 1 mediates anxiety-related behavior and hormonal adaptation to stress. Nat. Neurosci. 2003, 6:1100-1107.
119. Nesse R. Emotional disorders in evolutionary perspective. Br. J. Med. Psychol. 1998, 71(Pt 4):397-415.
120. Neuberg S.L., Kenrick D., Schaller M. Human threat management systems: Self-protection and disease avoidance. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35:1042-1051.
121. Ohman A., Mineka S. Fears, phobias, and preparedness: toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychol. Rev. 2001, 108:483-522.
122. Panksepp J. Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions 1998, Oxford University Press, New York.
123. Parvizi J., Damasio A. Consciousness and the brainstem. Cognition 2001, 79:135-160.
124. Pecoraro N.C., Timberlake W.D., Tinsley M. Incentive downshifts evoke search repertoires in rats. J. Exp. Psychol. Anim. Behav. Process. 1999, 25:153-167.
125. Pecoraro N., Dallman M.F., Warne J.P., Ginsberg A.B., Laugero K.D., la Fleur S.E., Houshyar H., Gomez F., Bhargava A., Akana S.F. From Malthus to motive: How the HPA axis engineers the phenotype, yoking needs to wants. Prog. Neurobiol. 2006, 79:247-340.
126. Pecoraro N., de Jong H., Dallman M.F. An unexpected reduction in sucrose concentration activates the HPA axis on successive post shift days without attenuation by discriminative contextual stimuli. Physiol. Behav. 2009, 96:651-661.
127. Penney J.B., Young A.B. Speculations on the functional anatomy of basal ganglia disorders. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 1983, 6:73-94.
128. Pfaff D.W., Martin E.M., Ribeiro A.C. Relations between mechanisms of CNS arousal and mechanisms of stress. Stress: Int. J. Biol. Stress 2007, 10:316-325.
129. Pfister H.P. The glucocorticosterone response to novelty as a psychological stressor. Physiol. Behav. 1979, 23:649-652.
130. Pinker S. How the Mind Works 1997, Norton, New York.
131. Porges S.W. Cardiac vagal tone: a physiological index of stress. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1995, 19:225-233.
132. Porges S.W. Orienting in a defensive world: mammalian modifications of our evolutionary heritage. A Polyvagal Theory. Psychophysiology 1995, 32:301-318.
133. Porges S.W. Love: an emergent property of the mammalian autonomic nervous system. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1998, 23:837-861.
134. Porges S.W. The polyvagal theory: phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 2001, 42:123-146.
135. Porges S.W. Social engagement and attachment: a phylogenetic perspective. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2003, 1008:31-47.
136. Porges S.W. A phylogenetic journey through the vague and ambiguous Xth cranial nerve: a commentary on contemporary heart rate variability research. Biol. Psychol. 2007, 74:301-307.
137. Porges S.W. The polyvagal perspective. Biol. Psychol. 2007, 74:116-143.
138. Porges S.W. Reciprocal influences between body and brain in the perception and expression of affect: A polyvagal perspective. The Healing Power of Emotion: Affective Neuroscience, Development, and Clinical Practice 2009, W.W. Norton & Co, New York. first ed. D. Fosha, D.J. Siegel, M.F. Solomon (Eds.).
139. Porges S.W. The polyvagal theory: new insights into adaptive reactions of the autonomic nervous system. Cleve. Clin J Med 2009, 76(Suppl. 2):S86-S90.
140. Reed G.F. Obsessional cognition: performance on two numerical tasks. Br. J. Psychiatry 1977, 130:184-185.
141. Reed G.F. Obsessional Experience and Compulsive Behaviour: A Cognitive-Structural Approach 1985, Academic Press, Inc., Orlando, Florida.
142. Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Neurobehavioural mechanisms of reward and motivation. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 1996, 6:228-236.
143. Robinson T.E., Berridge K.C. The neural basis of drug craving: an incentive-sensitization theory of addiction. Brain Res. Rev. 1997, 18:247-291.
144. Rolls E.T. The orbitofrontal cortex and reward. Cereb. Cortex. 2000, 10:284-294.
145. Sajdyk T.J., Schober D.A., Gehlert D.R., Shekhar A. Role of corticotropin-releasing factor and urocortin within the basolateral amygdala of rats in anxiety and panic responses. Behav. Brain Res. 1999, 100:207-215.
146. Salkovskis P.M., Westbrook D. Behaviour therapy and obsessional ruminations: can failure be turned into success?. Behav. Res. Ther. 1989, 27:149-160.
147. Sapolsky R.M., Krey L.C., McEwen B.S. The neuroendocrinology of stress and aging: The glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis. Endocr. Rev. 1986, 7:284-301.
148. Sapolsky R.M., Romero L.M., Munck A.U. How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocr. Rev. 2000, 21:55-89.
149. Schneier, B., 2008. The Psychology of Security. Schneier.com [On-line]. Available: Date accessed:March 29, 2010. http://www.schneier.com/essay-155.html.
150. Schulkin J., McEwen B.S., Gold P.W. Allostasis, amygdala, and anticipatory angst. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1994, 18:385-396.
151. Sih A., Bell A., Johnson J.C. Behavioral syndromes: an ecological and evolutionary overview. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2004, 19:372-378.
152. Sih A., Bell A.M., Johnson J.C., Ziemba R.E. Behavioral syndromes: an intergrative overiew. Q. Rev. Biol. 2004, 79:241-277.
153. Soubrie P. Reconciling the role of central serotonin neurons in human and animal behavior. Behav. Brain Sci. 1986, 9:319-364.
154. Spoont M.R. Modulatory role of serotonin in neural information processing: implications for human psychopathology. Psychol. Bull. 1992, 112:330-350.
155. Stein D.J. Is disorder X in category or spectrum Y? General considerations and application to the relationship between obsessive-compulsive disorder and anxiety disorders. Depress. Anxiety 2008, 25:330-335.
156. Steketee G. Treatment of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder 1993, Guilford Press, New York.
157. Stern R.S. Obsessive thoughts: the problem of therapy. Br. J. Psychiatry 1978, 133:200-205.
158. Storch E.A., Abramowitz J., Goodman W.K. Where does obsessive-compulsive disorder belong in DSM-V?. Depress. Anxiety 2008, 25:336-347.
159. Sullivan R.M., Gratton A. Prefrontal cortical regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function in the rat and implications for psychopathology: side matters. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2002, 27:99-114.
160. Sutton R.E., Koob G.F., Le M.M., Rivier J., Vale W. Corticotropin releasing factor produces behavioural activation in rats. Nature 1982, 297:331-333.
161. Szechtman H. Redirected oral behavior in rats induced by tail-pinch and electrical stimulation of the tail. Physiol. Behav. 1980, 24:57-64.
162. Szechtman H., Adler N.T., Komisaruk B.R. Mating induces pupillary dilatation in female rats: role of pelvic nerve. Physiol. Behav. 1985, 35:295-301.
163. Szechtman H., Woody E. Obsessive-compulsive disorder as a disturbance of security motivation. Psychol. Rev. 2004, 111:111-127.
164. Szechtman H., Woody E.Z. Obsessive-compulsive disorder as a disturbance of security motivation: Constraints on comorbidity. Neurotox. Res. 2006, 10:103-112.
165. Szechtman H., Lambrou P.J., Caggiula A.R., Redgate E.S. Plasma corticosterone levels during sexual behavior in male rats. Horm. Behav. 1974, 5:191-200.
166. Takahashi L.K., Nakashima B.R., Hong H., Watanabe K. The smell of danger: A behavioral and neural analysis of predator odor-induced fear. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2005, 29:1157-1167.
167. Taleb N. The Black Swan: the Impact of the Highly Improbable 2007, Random House, New York. first ed.
168. Teitelbaum P. Physiological Psychology: Fundamental Principles 1967, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
169. Tooby J., Cosmides L. The past explains the present: Emotional adaptations and the structure of ancestral environments. Ethol. Sociobiol. 1990, 11:375-424.
170. Tooby J., Cosmides L. Psychological foundations of culture. The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Culture 1992, 19-136. Oxford University Press, New York. J.H. Barkow, L. Cosmides, J. Tooby (Eds.).
171. Tooby J., Cosmides L. The evolved architecture of hazard management: Risk detection reasoning and the motivational computation of threat magnitudes. Behav. Brain Sci. 2006, 29:631-633.
172. Trower P., Gilbert P., Sherling G. Social anxiety, evolution, and self-presentation: An interdisciplinary perspective. Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety 1990, 11-45. Plenum Press, New York, NY. H. Leitenberg (Ed.).
173. Tukel R., Polat A., Ozdemir O., Aksut D., Turksoy N. Comorbid conditions in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Compr. Psychiatry 2002, 43:204-209.
174. Ulrich-Lai Y.M., Herman J.P. Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2009, 10:397-409.
175. Valentino R.J., Van Bockstaele E. Convergent regulation of locus coeruleus activity as an adaptive response to stress. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 2008, 583:194-203.
176. Wagner A. Risk management in biological evolution. J Theor. Biol. 2003, 225:45-57.
177. Weinberg M.S., Bhatt A.P., Girotti M., Masini C.V., Day H.E.W., Campeau S., Spencer R.L. Repeated ferret odor exposure induces different temporal patterns of aame-stressor habituation and novel-stressor sensitization in both hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity and forebrain c-fos expression in the rat. Endocrinology 2009, 150:749-761.
178. Whittal, M.L., Woody, S.R., McLean, P.D., Rachman, S.J., Robichaud, M. Treatment of obsessions: A randomized controlled trial. Behav. Res. Ther., in press.
179. Willner P. Chronic mild stress (CMS) revisited: consistency and behavioural-neurobiological concordance in the effects of CMS. Neuropsychobiology 2005, 52:90-110.
180. Wingfield J.C., Maney D.L., Breuner C.W., Jacobs J.D., Lynn S., Ramenofsky M., Richardson R.D. Ecological bases of hormone--behavior interactions: The "Emergency Life History Stage" Am. Zool. 1998, 38:191-206.
181. Winslow J.T., Newman J.D., Insel T.R. CRH and [alpha]-helical-CRH modulate behavioral measures of arousal in monkeys. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 1989, 32:919-926.
182. Wise R.A., Bozarth M.A. A psychomotor stimulant theory of addiction. Psychol. Rev. 1987, 94:469-492.
183. Wise S., Rapoport J.L. Obsessive compulsive disorder - Is it a basal ganglia dysfunction?. Obsessive Compulsive Disorder in Children and Adolescence 1989, 327-344. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, DC. J. Rapoport (Ed.).
184. Woody E.Z., Szechtman H. Motivation, time course, and heterogeneity in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Response to Taylor, McKay, and Abramowitz (2005). Psychol. Rev. 2005, 112:658-661.
185. Zald D.H., Kim S.W. Anatomy and function of the orbital frontal cortex. I: anatomy, neurocircuitry; and obsessive-compulsive disorder. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 1996, 8:125-138.
186. Zald D.H., Kim S.W. The orbitofrontal cortex. The Frontal Lobes and Neuropsychiatric Illness 2001, 33-69. American Psychiatric Pub, Washington, DC. first ed. S. Salloway, P. Malloy, J.D. Duffy (Eds.).
187. Zald D.H. The human amygdala and the emotional evaluation of sensory stimuli. Brain Res. Rev. 2003, 41:88-123.
188. Zemlan F.P., Adler N.T. Hormonal control of female sexual behavior in the rat. Horm. Behav. 1977, 9:345-357.