Prone to Bias: Development of a Bias Taxonomy From an Individual Differences Perspective

Review of General Psychology

Volumn 13, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 175-193

  Oreg, Shaul ^a   Bayazit, Mahmut ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HAIFA   (Israel)

^b SABANCI UNIVERSITY   (Turkey)

Author keywords

cognitive biases; individual differences; personality

Indexed keywords

EID: 70249121479     PISSN: 10892680     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0015656     Document Type: Article

References (165)

1. Abelson R.P., Aronson E., McGuire W.J., Newcomb T.M., Rosenberg M.J., and Tannenbaum P.H. Theories of cognitive consistency: A sourcebook (1968), Rand McNally, Chicago
2. Alicke M.D., and Govorun O. The better-than-average effect. In: Dunning D.A., and Krueger J.I. (Eds). Studies in self and identity (2005), Psychology, New York 85-106
3. Alloy L.B., and Abramson L.Y. Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 108 (1979) 441-485
4. Alloy L.B., and Ahrens A.H. Depression and pessimism for the future: Biased use of statistically relevant information in predictions for self versus others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1987) 366-378
5. Andersen S.M., Spielman L.A., and Bargh J.A. Future-event schemas and certainty about the future: Automaticity in depressives' future-event predictions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63 (1992) 711-723
6. Anderson S.M. The inevitability of future suffering: The role of depressive predictive certainty in depression. Social Cognition 8 (1990) 203-228
7. Arkes H.R. Costs and benefits of judgment errors: Implications for debiasing. Psychological Bulletin 110 (1991) 486-498
8. Arvey R.D. General ability in employment: A discussion. Journal of Vocational Behavior 29 (1986) 415-420
9. Atkinson J.W. An introduction to motivation (1964), Van Nostrand, Oxford, England
10. Bargh J.A. Attention and automaticity in the processing of self-relevant information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43 (1982) 425-436
11. Bargh J.A. Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition. In: Uleman J.S., and Bargh J.A. (Eds). Unintended thought: Limits of awareness, intention, and control (1989), Guilford, New York 3-51
12. Bargh J.A. Auto-motives: Preconscious determinants of social interaction (1990), Guilford, New York
13. Bargh J.A., and Chartrand T.L. The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist 54 (1999) 462-479
14. Baumeister R.F. Self-esteem, self-presentation, and future interaction: A dilemma of reputation. Journal of Personality 50 (1982) 29-45
15. Baumeister R.F. The self. In: Gilbert D.T., Fiske S.T., and Lindzey G. (Eds). The handbook of social psychology. 4th ed. 2 (1998), McGraw-Hill, New York 680-740
16. Baumeister R.F., Smart L., and Boden J.M. Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem. Psychological Review 103 (1996) 5-33
17. Baumgardner A.H., Kaufman C.M., and Levy P.E. Regulating affect interpersonally: When low esteem leads to greater enhancement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56 (1989) 907-921
18. Beauregard K.S., and Dunning D. Defining self-worth: Trait self-esteem moderates the use of self-serving trait definitions in social judgment. Motivation and Emotion 2 (2001) 135-161
19. Beck A.T., Steer R.A., and Garbin M.G. Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory: Twenty-five years of evaluation. Clinical Psychology Review 8 (1988) 77-100
20. Bell D.E. Regret in decision making under uncertainty. Operations Research 30 (1982) 961
21. Blaine B., and Crocker J. Self-esteem and self-serving biases in reactions to positive and negative events: An integrative review. In: Baumeister R.F. (Ed). Self-esteem: The puzzle of low self-regard (1993), Plenum, New York 55-85
22. Blanton H., Axsom D., McClive K.P., and Price S. Pessimistic bias in comparative evaluations: A case of perceived vulnerability to the effects of negative life events. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 27 (2001) 1627-1636
23. Boney McCoy S., Gibbons F.X., and Gerrard M. Self-esteem, compensatory self-enhancement, and the consideration of health risk. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 25 (1999) 954-965
24. Brandstatter E., Kuhberger A., and Schneider F. A cognitive-emotional account of the shape of the probability weighting function. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 15 2 (2002) 79-100
25. Budescu D.V., Wallsten T.S., and Au W.T. On the importance of random error in the study of probability judgment: Part 2. Applying the stochastic judgment model to detect systematic trends. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making 10 3 (1997) 173-188
26. Budner S. Intolerance of ambiguity as a personality variable. Journal of Personality 30 (1962) 29-50
27. Cacioppo J.T., Petty R.E., Kao C.F., and Rodriguez R. Central and peripheral routes to persuasion: An individual difference perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (1986) 1032-1043
28. Campbell J.D., and Fairey P. Effects of self-esteem, hypothetical explanations, and verbalization of expectancies on future performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48 (1985) 1097-1111
29. Campbell J.D., and Fehr B. Self-esteem and perceptions of conveyed impressions: Is negative affectivity associated with greater realism?. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1990) 122-133
30. Campbell K., Rudich E., and Sedikides C. Narcissism, self-esteem, and the positivity of self-views: Two portraits of self-love. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002) 358-368
31. Carver C.S., and Scheier M. Principles of self-regulation: Action and emotion (1990), Guilford, New York
32. Carver C.S., Sutton S.K., and Scheier M.F. Action, emotion, and personality: Emerging conceptual integration. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 26 (2000) 741-751
33. Carver C.S., and White T.L. Behavioral inhibition, behavioral activation, and affective responses to impending reward and punishment: The BIS/BAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67 (1994) 319-333
34. Cattell R.B. Description and measurement of personality (1946), World Book, Oxford, England
35. Chaiken S., and Trope Y. Dual-process theories in social psychology (1999), Guilford, New York
36. Chambers J.R., and Windschitl P.D. Biases in social comparative judgments: The role of nonmotivated factors in above-average and comparative-optimism effects. Psychological Bulletin 130 (2004) 813-838
37. Chen G., Gully S.M., and Eden D. Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods 4 1 (2001) 62-83
38. Crowe E., and Higgins E. Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in decision-making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 69 (1997) 117-132
39. Davidson K., and Prkachin K. Optimism and unrealistic optimism have an interacting impact on health-promoting behavior and knowledge changes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23 (1997) 617-625
40. Digman J.M. Personality structure: Emergence of the five-factor model. Annual Review of Psychology 41 (1990) 417-440
41. Donlon T.F. The College Board technical handbook for the scholastic aptitude test and achievement tests (1984), College Entrance Examination Board, New York
42. Dunning D., Griffin D.W., Milojkovic J.D., and Ross L. The overconfidence effect in social prediction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1990) 568-581
43. Elliot A.J., and Covington M.V. Approach and avoidance motivation. Educational Psychology Review 13 2 (2001) 73-92
44. Elliot A.J., and Thrash T.M. Approach-avoidance motivation in personality: Approach and avoidance temperaments and goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002) 804-818
45. Emmons R.A. Exploring the relations between motives and traits: The case of narcissism. In: Buss D., and Cantor N. (Eds). Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (1989), Springer-Verlag, New York 32-44
46. Evans J.S.B.T., and Over D.E. Rationality and reasoning (1996), Psychology, Hove, England
47. Eysenck H.J. The biological basis of personality (1967), Thomas, Springfield, IL
48. Eysenck H.J. Personality and experimental psychology: The unification of psychology and the possibility of a paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 73 (1997) 1224-1237
49. Festinger L. A theory of cognitive dissonance (1957), Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA
50. Fischhoff B., Slovic P., and Lichtenstein S. Knowing with certainty: The appropriateness of extreme confidence. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 3 (1977) 552-564
51. Flett G.L., Vredenburg K., and Krames L. The continuity of depression in clinical and nonclinical samples. Psychological Bulletin 121 (1997) 395-416
52. Freud S. Beyond the pleasure principle (1950), Liveright, New York
53. Friedman R.S., and Foerster J. The effects of promotion and prevention cues on creativity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 81 (2001) 1001-1013
54. Gerrard M., Gibbons F.X., Reis Bergan M., and Russell D.W. Self-esteem, self-serving cognitions, and health risk behavior. Journal of Personality 68 (2000) 1177-1201
55. Gibbons F.X., and McCoy S.B. Self-esteem, similarity, and reactions to active versus passive downward comparison. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60 (1991) 414-424
56. Giesler R.B., Josephs R.A., and Swann W.B. Self-verification in clinical depression: The desire for negative evaluation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 105 (1996) 358-368
57. Gilovich T., Epley N., and Hanko K. Shallow thoughts about the self: The automatic components of self-assessment. In: Alicke M., Dunning D., and Krueger J. (Eds). Studies in self and identity (2005), Psychology, New York 67-84
58. Gilovich T., Griffin D.W., and Kahneman D. Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgement (2002), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England
59. Gilovich T., and Medvec V.H. The experience of regret: What, when, and why. Psychological Review 102 (1995) 379-395
60. Golin S., Terrell F., and Johnson B. Depression and the illusion of control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 86 (1977) 440-442
61. Gotlib I.H., and Meltzer S.J. Depression and the perception of social skill in dyadic interaction. Cognitive Therapy and Research 11 (1987) 41-53
62. Gray J.A. The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (1982), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England
63. Gray J.A. Brain systems that mediate both emotion and cognition. Cognition and Emotion 4 (1990) 269-288
64. Greenwald A.G. The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist 35 (1980) 603-618
65. Griffin D., and Tversky A. The weighing of evidence and the determinants of confidence. Cognitive Psychology 24 (1992) 411-435
66. Hancock J.A., Moffoot A.P.R., and O'Carroll R.E. "Depressive realism" assessed via confidence in decision-making. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 1 (1996) 213-220
67. Haselton M., and Nettle D. The paranoid optimist: An integrative evolutionary model of cognitive biases. Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (2006) 47-66
68. Heider F. Social perception and phenomenal causality. Psychological Review 51 (1944) 358-374
69. Heider F. The psychology of interpersonal relations (1958), Wiley, New York
70. Heim A.W. AH5 Group Test of High Grade Intelligence (1968), National Foundation for Educational Research, Wales, England
71. Heinonen K., Raikkonen K., and Keltikangas Jarvinen L. Self-esteem in early and late adolescence predicts dispositional optimism-pessimism in adulthood: A 21-year longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences 39 (2005) 511-521
72. Higgins E.T. Emotional experiences: The pains and pleasures of distinct regulatory systems. In: Kavanaugh R.D., Zimmerberg B., and Fein S. (Eds). Emotions: Interdisciplinary perspectives (1996), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ 203-241
73. Higgins E.T. Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. In: Zanna M.P. (Ed). Advances in experimental social psychology 30 (1998), Academic, New York 1-46
74. Hill A.B., and Kemp Wheeler S.M. Personality, life events and subclinical depression in students. Personality and Individual Differences 7 (1986) 469-478
75. Hong Y.Y., and Chiu C.Y. Sex, locus of control, and illusion of control in Hong Kong as correlates of gambling involvement. Journal of Social Psychology 128 (1988) 667-673
76. Hoorens V., and Buunk B.P. Social comparison of health risks: Locus of control, the person-positivity bias, and unrealistic optimism. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 23 (1993) 291-302
77. Isen A.M., Nygren T.E., and Ashby F.G. Influence of positive affect on the subjective utility of gains and losses: It is just not worth the risk. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 (1988) 710-717
78. Isen A.M., and Patrick R. The effect of positive feelings on risk taking: When the chips are down. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 31 (1983) 194-202
79. John O.P., and Robins R.W. Accuracy and bias in self-perception: Individual differences in self-enhancement and the role of narcissism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 66 (1994) 206-219
80. Josephs R.A., Larrick R.P., Steele C.M., and Nisbett R.E. Protecting the self from the negative consequences of risky decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62 (1992) 26-37
81. Judge T.A., Locke E.A., and Durham C.C. The dispositional causes of job satisfaction: A core evaluations approach. In: Cummings L.L., and Staw B. (Eds). Research in organizational behavior 19 (1997), JAI, Greenwich, CT 151-188
82. Kahneman D., and Frederick S. Representativeness revisited: Attribute substitution in intuitive judgment. In: Gilovich T., Griffin D., and Kahneman D. (Eds). Heuristics and biases: The psychology of intuitive judgment (2002), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England 49-81
83. Kahneman D., Slovic P., and Tversky A. Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases (1982), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England
84. Kahneman D., and Tversky A. Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica 47 (1979) 263-291
85. Kahneman D., and Tversky A. Choices, values, and frames. American Psychologist 39 (1984) 341-350
86. Kelly G.A. The psychology of personal constructs. 1st ed. (1955), Norton, New York
87. Klein W.M. Maintaining self-serving social comparisons: Attenuating the perceived significance of risk-increasing behaviors. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 15 (1996) 120-142
88. Kluger A.N., Stephan E., Ganzach Y., and Hershkovitz M. The effect of regulatory focus on the shape of probability-weighting function: Evidence from a cross-modality matching method. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 95 (2004) 20-39
89. Kluger, A. N., Yaniv, I., & Kuhberger, A. (February 2001). Needs, self-regulation, and risk preference. Paper presented at the second annual meeting of the Society of Personality and Social Psychology, San Antonio, TX.
90. Kobayashi C., and Brown J.D. Self-esteem and self-enhancement in Japan and America. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 34 (2003) 567-580
91. Kokis J.V., Macpherson R., Toplak M.E., West R.F., and Stanovich K.E. Heuristic and analytic processing: Age trends and associations with cognitive ability and cognitive styles. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 83 (2002) 26-52
92. Kramer R.M., Newton E., and Pommerenke P.L. Self-enhancement biases and negotiator judgment: Effects of self-esteem and mood. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 56 (1993) 110-133
93. Kruger J. Lake Wobegon be gone! The "below-average effect" and the egocentric nature of comparative ability judgments. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 221-232
94. Kruglanski A.W. Lay epistemics and human knowledge: Cognitive and motivational bases (1989), Plenum, New York
95. Kuhberger A. The influence of framing on risky decisions: A meta-analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 75 (1998) 23-55
96. Kunda Z. Motivated inference: Self-serving generation and evaluation of causal theories. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53 (1987) 636-647
97. Kunda Z. Social cognition: Making sense of people (1999), MIT Press, Cambridge, MA
98. Landman J. Regret: The persistence of the possible (1993), Oxford University Press, New York
99. Langer E.J. The illusion of control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 32 (1975) 311-328
100. Lauriola M., and Levin I.P. Personality traits and risky decision-making in a controlled experimental task: An exploratory study. Personality and Individual Differences 31 (2001) 215-226
101. Leone L., Perugini M., and Bagozzi R.P. Emotions and decision making: Regulatory focus moderates the influence of anticipated emotions on action evaluations. Cognition and Emotion 19 (2005) 1175-1198
102. Levin I.P., Gaeth G.J., Schreiber J., and Lauriola M. A new look at framing effects: Distribution of effect sizes, individual differences, and independence of types of effects. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 88 (2002) 411-429
103. Liberman N., Idson L.C., Camacho C.J., and Higgins E.T. Promotion and prevention choices between stability and change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 77 (1999) 1135-1145
104. Loomes G., and Sugden R. Regret theory: An alternative theory of rational choice under uncertainty. The Economic Journal 92 368 (1982) 805
105. Lubinski D. Introduction to the special section on cognitive abilities: 100 years after Spearman's (1904) "'General Intelligence,' Objectively Determined and Measured.". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004) 96-111
106. Makikangas A., Kinnunen U., and Feldt T. Self-esteem, dispositional optimism, and health: Evidence from cross-lagged data on employees. Journal of Research in Personality 38 (2004) 556-575
107. Mann T., Sherman D., and Updegraff J. Dispositional motivations and message framing: A test of the congruency hypothesis in college students. Health Psychology 23 (2004) 330-334
108. Mano H. Risk-taking, framing effects, and affect. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 57 (1994) 38-58
109. Martin D.J., Abramson L.Y., and Alloy L.B. Illusion of control for self and others in depressed and nondepressed college students. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (1984) 125-136
110. McElroy T., and Seta J.J. Framing effects: An analytic-holistic perspective. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39 (2003) 610-617
111. Mezulis A.H., Abramson L.Y., Hyde J.S., and Hankin B.L. Is there a universal positivity bias in attributions? A meta-analytic review of individual, developmental, and cultural differences in the self-serving attributional bias. Psychological Bulletin 130 (2004) 711-747
112. Mikulincer M., Gerber H., and Weisenberg M. Judgment of control and depression: The role of self-esteem threat and self-focused attention. Cognitive Therapy and Research 14 (1990) 589-608
113. Miller D.T., and Ross M. Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction?. Psychological Bulletin 82 (1975) 213-225
114. Moore, S. C., & Chater, N. (August 2003). The influence of affect on risky behavior: From the lab to real world financial behavior. Paper presented at the proceedings of the 25th annual meeting of the Cognitive Science Society, Boston, Massachusetts.
115. Newstead S.E., Handley S.J., Harley C., Wright H., and Farelly D. Individual differences in deductive reasoning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology 57A (2004) 33-60
116. Nisbett R.E., and Ross L. Human inference: Strategies and shortcomings of social judgment (1980), Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ
117. O'Reilly C.A.I., and Chatman J.A. Working smarter and harder: A longitudinal study of managerial success. Administrative Science Quarterly 39 (1994) 603-627
118. Orbach I., and Hadas Z. The elimination of learned helplessness deficits as a function of induced self-esteem. Journal of Research in Personality 16 (1982) 511-523
119. Osberg T.M. The convergent and discriminant validity of the Need for Cognition Scale. Journal of Personality Assessment 51 (1987) 441-450
120. Packer E. Understanding the subconscious. The Objectivist Forum 6 1 (1985) 1-10
121. Paulhus D.L., Harms P.D., Bruce M.N., and Lysy D.C. The over-claiming technique: Measuring self-enhancement independent of ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003) 890-904
122. Piaget J. The construction of reality in the child (1954), Ballantine Books, New York
123. Pyszczynski T., Holt K., and Greenberg J. Depression, self-focused attention, and expectancies for positive and negative future life events for self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1987) 994-1001
124. Radcliffe N.M., and Klein W.M.P. Dispositional, unrealistic and comparative optimism: Differential relations with the knowledge and processing of risk information and beliefs about personal risk. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28 (2002) 836-846
125. Raven J.C. Advanced Progressive Matrices: Set II (1962 revision) (1978), H. K. Lewis & Co, London
126. Rokeach M. The open and closed mind (1960), Basic Books, New York
127. Rosenberg M. Society and the adolescent self-image (1965), Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ
128. Rotter J.B. Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied 80 (1966) 1-28
129. Ruehlman L.S., West S.G., and Pasahow R.J. Depression and evaluative schemata. Journal of Personality 53 (1985) 46-92
130. Samuelson W., and Zeckhauser R. Status quo bias in decision making. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 1 (1988) 7-59
131. Santor D.A., and Coyne J.C. Evaluating the continuity of symptomatology between depressed and nondepressed individuals. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 110 (2001) 216-225
132. Schmidt F.L., and Hunter J. General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86 (2004) 162-173
133. Sedikides C. Assessment, enhancement, and verification determinants of the self-evaluation process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65 (1993) 317-338
134. Seligman M.E. Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine 23 (1972) 207-412
135. Sherman D.K., Mann T., and Updegraff J.A. Approach/avoidance motivation, message framing, and health behavior: Understanding the congruency effect. Motivation and Emotion 30 (2006) 165-169
136. Simon H.A. Models of man: Social and rational (1957), Wiley, New York
137. Spearman C. "General intelligence," objectively determined and measured. American Journal of Psychology 15 (1904) 201-293
138. Stanovich K.E. Who is rational? Studies of individual differences in reasoning (1999), Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ
139. Stanovich K.E., and West R.F. Cognitive ability and variation in selection task performance. Thinking and Reasoning 4 (1998) 193-230
140. Stanovich K.E., and West R.F. Individual differences in framing and conjunction efforts. Thinking and Reasoning 4 (1998) 289-317
141. Stanovich K.E., and West R.F. Individual differences in rational thought. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 127 (1998) 161-188
142. Stanovich K.E., and West R.F. Who uses base rates and P (D/-H)? An analysis of individual differences. Memory & Cognition 26 (1998) 161-179
143. Stanovich K.E., and West R.F. On the relative independence of thinking biases and cognitive ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2008) 672-695
144. Sternberg R.J., and Weil E.M. An aptitude × strategy interaction in linear syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology 72 (1980) 226-239
145. Suls J., Lemos K., and Stewart H. Self-esteem, construal, and comparisons with the self, friends, and peers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 82 (2002) 252-261
146. Swann W.B., Pelham B.W., and Krull D.S. Agreeable fancy or disagreeable truth? Reconciling self-enhancement and self-verification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 57 (1989) 782-791
147. Swann W.B., and Read S.J. Self-verification processes: How we sustain our self-conceptions. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 17 (1981) 351-372
148. Swann W.B., Rentfrow P.J., and Guinn J.S. Self-verification: The search for coherence. In: Leary M., and Tagney J. (Eds). Handbook of self and identity (2002), Builford, New York 367-383
149. Swann W.B., Stein-Seroussi A., and Giesler B.R. Why people self-verify. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62 (1992) 392-401
150. Taylor S.E., and Brown J.D. Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin 103 (1988) 193-210
151. Tellegen A. Structures of mood and personality and their relevance to assessing anxiety, with an emphasis on self-report. In: Maser J.D., and Tuma H.A. (Eds). Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (1985), Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ 681-706
152. Tesser A. On the confluence of self-esteem maintenance mechanisms. Personality and Social Psychology Review 4 (2000) 290-299
153. Thaler R. Toward a positive theory of consumer choice. Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 1 (1980) 39-60
154. Thorndike E.L. The psychology of wants, interests and attitudes (1935), Appleton-Century, New York
155. Tversky A., and Kahneman D. Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science 185 4157 (1974) 1124-1131
156. Vallone R.P., Griffin D.W., Lin S., and Ross L. Overconfident prediction of future actions and outcomes by self and others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 4 (1990) 582-592
157. Vazquez C. Judgment of contingency: Cognitive biases in depressed and nondepressed subjects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 52 (1987) 419-431
158. Wason P.C. Reasoning about a rule. The Quarterly journal of experimental psychology 20 (1968) 273
159. Weinstein N.D. Unrealistic optimism about future life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 39 (1980) 806-820
160. West R.F., and Stanovich K.E. Is probability matching smart? Associations between probabilistic choices and cognitive ability. Memory & Cognition 31 (2003) 243-251
161. Wheeler L., and Miyake K. Social comparison in everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 62 (1992) 760-773
162. Wilson T.D., and Brekke N. Mental contamination and mental correction: Unwanted influences on judgments and evaluations. Psychological Bulletin 116 (1994) 117-142
163. Winter D.G., John O.P., Stewart A.J., Klohnen E.C., and Duncan L.E. Traits and motives: Toward an integration of two traditions in personality research. Psychological Review 105 (1998) 230-250
164. Wolfe R.N., and Grosch J.W. Personality correlates of confidence in one's decisions. Journal of Personality 58 (1990) 515-534
165. Wood J.V., Heimpel S.A., and Michela J.L. Savoring versus dampening: Self-esteem differences in regulating positive affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003) 566-580