Vascular inflammation and atherogenesis are activated via receptors for PAMPs and suppressed by regulatory T cells

Drug Discovery Today: Therapeutic Strategies

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 2008, Pages 125-142

  Yang, Xiao Feng ^a   Yin, Ying ^a   Wang, Hong ^a  

^a TEMPLE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ARGININE; ATORVASTATIN; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CANDESARTAN; CHOLESTEROL ACYLTRANSFERASE INHIBITOR; CYCLOOXYGENASE 1 INHIBITOR; CYCLOOXYGENASE 2 INHIBITOR; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; ENDOTHELIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; LIPOXYGENASE INHIBITOR; METFORMIN; NUCLEOTIDE BINDING OLIGOMERIZATION DOMAIN LIKE RECEPTOR; PATHOGEN ASSOCIATED MOLECULAR PATTERN RECEPTOR; PENTOXIFYLLINE; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHASE INHIBITOR; RECEPTOR; RECOMBINANT INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ROSIGLITAZONE; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA INHIBITOR; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VASOPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; VITAMIN;

ACUTE HEART INFARCTION; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; APOPTOSIS; ATHEROGENESIS; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CD4+ CD25+ T LYMPHOCYTE; CELL HETEROGENEITY; CELL MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DRUG TARGETING; ENDOTHELIAL DYSFUNCTION; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; HUMAN; IMMUNOGENICITY; IMMUNOMODULATION; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; INFLAMMATION; INNATE IMMUNITY; LYMPHOCYTE FUNCTION; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PROTEIN FUNCTION; REGULATORY T LYMPHOCYTE; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; STEM CELL; VASCULITIS; VASOMOTOR DISORDER;

EID: 63549088279     PISSN: 17406773     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ddstr.2008.11.003     Document Type: Review

References (193)

1. Zhou X., et al. Transfer of CD4(+) T cells aggravates atherosclerosis in immunodeficient apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Circulation 102 (2000) 2919-2922
2. Ross R. Atherosclerosis. In: Wyngaarden J., Smith L.H., and Bennett J.C. (Eds). Cecil Textbook of Medicine (1992), W.B. Saunders Company 293-298
3. Tobias P.S., and Curtiss L.K. Toll-like receptors in atherosclerosis. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 35 Pt 6 (2007) 1453-1455
4. Wang H., et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia accelerates atherosclerosis in cystathionine beta-synthase and apolipoprotein E double knock-out mice with and without dietary perturbation. Blood 101 (2003) 3901-3907
5. Jiang X., et al. Hyperhomocystinemia impairs endothelial function and eNOS activity via PKC activation. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 25 (2005) 2515-2521
6. Tan H., et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia inhibits post-injury reendothelialization in mice. Cardiovasc. Res. 69 (2006) 253-262
7. Liao D., et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia decreases circulating high-density lipoprotein by inhibiting apolipoprotein A-I protein synthesis and enhancing HDL cholesterol clearance. Circ. Res. 99 (2006) 598-606
8. Jamaluddin M.D., et al. Homocysteine inhibits endothelial cell growth via DNA hypomethylation of the cyclin A gene. Blood 110 (2007) 3648-3655
9. Xu Q. Infections, heat shock proteins, and atherosclerosis. Curr. Opin. Cardiol. 18 (2003) 245-252
10. Stoll L.L., et al. Potential role of endotoxin as a proinflammatory mediator of atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 24 (2004) 2227-2236
11. Hansson G.K. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 352 (2005) 1685-1695
12. Hallenbeck J.M., et al. Immunology of ischemic vascular disease: plaque to attack. Trends Immunol. 26 (2005) 550-556
13. Tobias P., and Curtiss L.K. Thematic review series: the immune system and atherogenesis. Paying the price for pathogen protection: toll receptors in atherogenesis. J. Lipid Res. 46 (2005) 404-411
14. Pober J.S., and Sessa W.C. Evolving functions of endothelial cells in inflammation. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 7 (2007) 803-815
15. Yan Z.Q., and Hansson G.K. Innate immunity, macrophage activation, and atherosclerosis. Immunol. Rev. 219 (2007) 187-203
16. Manconi F., et al. Culturing endothelial cells of microvascular origin. Methods Cell Sci. 22 (2000) 89-99
17. Augustin H. Preface - methods in endothelial cell biology. In: Augustin H. (Ed). Methods in Endothelial Cell Biology (2004), Springer VII-IX
18. Mensah G.A. Healthy endothelium: the scientific basis for cardiovascular health promotion and chronic disease prevention. Vascul. Pharmacol. 46 (2007) 310-314
19. Opitz B., et al. Extra- and intracellular innate immune recognition in endothelial cells. Thromb. Haemost. 98 (2007) 319-326
20. Packard R.R., and Libby P. Inflammation in atherosclerosis: from vascular biology to biomarker discovery and risk prediction. Clin. Chem. 54 (2008) 24-38
21. Savoia C., and Schiffrin E.L. Vascular inflammation in hypertension and diabetes: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic interventions. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 112 (2007) 375-384
22. Fadini G.P., et al. Technical notes on endothelial progenitor cells: ways to escape from the knowledge plateau. Atherosclerosis 197 (2008) 496-503
23. Pegu A., et al. Afferent and efferent interfaces of lymph nodes are distinguished by expression of lymphatic endothelial markers and chemokines. Lymphat. Res. Biol. 5 (2007) 91-103
24. Walter-Yohrling J., et al. Murine endothelial cell lines as models of tumor endothelial cells. Clin. Cancer Res. 10 (2004) 2179-2189
25. Pries A.R., and Kuebler W.M. Normal endothelium. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 176 Pt 1 (2006) 1-40
26. Khakoo A.Y., and Finkel T. Endothelial progenitor cells. Annu. Rev. Med. 56 (2005) 79-101
27. Reiss Y.a.E.B. FACS analysis of endothelial cells. In: Augustin H. (Ed). Methods in Endothelial Cell Biology (2004), Springer-Verlag 157-165
28. Bertolini F., et al. Molecular and cellular biomarkers for angiogenesis in clinical oncology. Drug Discov. Today 12 (2007) 806-812
29. Del Papa N., et al. Circulating endothelial cells as a marker of ongoing vascular disease in systemic sclerosis. Arthritis Rheum. 50 (2004) 1296-1304
30. Aird W.C. Phenotypic heterogeneity of the endothelium. II. Representative vascular beds. Circ. Res. 100 (2007) 174-190
31. Aird W.C. Phenotypic heterogeneity of the endothelium. I. Structure, function, and mechanisms. Circ. Res. 100 (2007) 158-173
32. Nilsen E.M., et al. Cytokine profiles of cultured microvascular endothelial cells from the human intestine. Gut 42 (1998) 635-642
33. Naruse K., and King G.L. Effect of diabetes on endothelial function. In: Johnstone M.T., and Veves A. (Eds). Contemporary Cardiology: Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease (2001), Humana Press, Inc.
34. Methe H., et al. Endothelial immunogenicity - a matter of matrix microarchitecture. Thromb. Haemost. 98 (2007) 278-282
35. Clarke M., et al. Cell death in the cardiovascular system. Heart 93 (2007) 659-664
36. Dejana E., et al. The role of adherens junctions and VE-cadherin in the control of vascular permeability. J. Cell Sci. 121 Pt 13 (2008) 2115-2122
37. Reinhart K., et al. Markers of endothelial damage in organ dysfunction and sepsis. Crit. Care Med. 30 5 Suppl. (2002) S302-S312
38. Vestweber D. VE-cadherin: the major endothelial adhesion molecule controlling cellular junctions and blood vessel formation. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 28 (2008) 223-232
39. Woodfin A., et al. PECAM-1: a multi-functional molecule in inflammation and vascular biology. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 27 (2007) 2514-2523
40. Skaletz-Rorowski A., and Walsh K. Statin therapy and angiogenesis. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 14 (2003) 599-603
41. Anderson T.J., et al. Comparative study of ACE-inhibition, angiotensin II antagonism, and calcium channel blockade on flow-mediated vasodilation in patients with coronary disease (BANFF study). J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 35 (2000) 60-66
42. Mancini G.B., et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition with quinapril improves endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. The TREND (Trial on Reversing ENdothelial Dysfunction) Study. Circulation 94 (1996) 258-265
43. Ghiadoni L., et al. Effect of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker candesartan on endothelial function in patients with essential hypertension. Hypertension 35 Pt 2 (2000) 501-506
44. Kalinowski L., et al. Third-generation beta-blockers stimulate nitric oxide release from endothelial cells through ATP efflux: a novel mechanism for antihypertensive action. Circulation 107 (2003) 2747-2752
45. Taddei S., et al. Lacidipine restores endothelium-dependent vasodilation in essential hypertensive patients. Hypertension 30 (1997) 1606-1612
46. Szabo G., et al. Endothelin-A and -B antagonists protect myocardial and endothelial function after ischemia/reperfusion in a rat heart transplantation model. Cardiovasc. Res. 39 (1998) 683-690
47. Chenevard R., et al. Selective COX-2 inhibition improves endothelial function in coronary artery disease. Circulation 107 (2003) 405-409
48. Fukuda Y., et al. Tetrahydrobiopterin restores endothelial function of coronary arteries in patients with hypercholesterolaemia. Heart 87 (2002) 264-269
49. Aukrust P., et al. Inflammation in coronary artery disease: potential role for immunomodulatory therapy. Expert Rev. Cardiovasc. Ther. 3 (2005) 1111-1124
50. Bruynzeel I., et al. Pentoxifylline inhibits human T-cell adhesion to dermal endothelial cells. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 289 (1997) 189-193
51. Xu C., et al. Modulation of endothelial cell function by normal polyspecific human intravenous immunoglobulins: a possible mechanism of action in vascular diseases. Am. J. Pathol. 153 (1998) 1257-1266
52. Jensterle M., et al. Improvement of endothelial function with metformin and rosiglitazone treatment in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 159 (2008) 399-406
53. Spieker L.E., et al. High-density lipoprotein restores endothelial function in hypercholesterolemic men. Circulation 105 (2002) 1399-1402
54. Kharbanda R.K., et al. Systemic Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase inhibition reduces inflammation and improves vascular function in hypercholesterolemia. Circulation 111 (2005) 804-807
55. Gilligan D.M., et al. Effect of antioxidant vitamins on low density lipoprotein oxidation and impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with hypercholesterolemia. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 24 (1994) 1611-1617
56. Torre-Amione G., et al. Effects of a novel immune modulation therapy in patients with advanced chronic heart failure: results of a randomized, controlled, phase II trial. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 44 (2004) 1181-1186
57. McSorley P.T., et al. Vitamin C improves endothelial function in healthy estrogen-deficient postmenopausal women. Climacteric 6 (2003) 238-247
58. de Gaetano G., et al. Prevention of thrombosis and vascular inflammation: benefits and limitations of selective or combined COX-1, COX-2 and 5-LOX inhibitors. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 24 (2003) 245-252
59. Zandbergen F., and Plutzky J. PPARalpha in atherosclerosis and inflammation. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1771 (2007) 972-982
60. Agouni A., et al. Sonic hedgehog carried by microparticles corrects endothelial injury through nitric oxide release. FASEB J. 21 (2007) 2735-2741
61. Rader D.J., and Daugherty A. Translating molecular discoveries into new therapies for atherosclerosis. Nature 451 (2008) 904-913
62. Goligorsky M.S. Endothelial cell dysfunction and nitric oxide synthase. Kidney Int. 58 (2000) 1360-1376
63. Bolz S.S., et al. Intact endothelial and smooth muscle function in small resistance arteries after 48 h in vessel culture. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 279 (2000) H1434-H1439
64. Bakker E.N., et al. Organoid culture of cannulated rat resistance arteries: effect of serum factors on vasoactivity and remodeling. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 278 (2000) H1233-H1240
65. Esper R.J., et al. Endothelial dysfunction: a comprehensive appraisal. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 5 (2006) 4
66. Giannotti G., and Landmesser U. Endothelial dysfunction as an early sign of atherosclerosis. Herz 32 (2007) 568-572
67. Tesfamariam B., and DeFelice A.F. Endothelial injury in the initiation and progression of vascular disorders. Vascul. Pharmacol. 46 (2007) 229-237
68. Kirii H., et al. Lack of interleukin-1beta decreases the severity of atherosclerosis in ApoE-deficient mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23 (2003) 656-660
69. Elhage R., et al. Reduced atherosclerosis in interleukin-18 deficient apolipoprotein E-knockout mice. Cardiovasc. Res. 59 (2003) 234-240
70. Eefting D., et al. The effect of interleukin-10 knock-out and overexpression on neointima formation in hypercholesterolemic APOE*3-Leiden mice. Atherosclerosis 193 (2007) 335-342
71. Merhi-Soussi F., et al. Interleukin-1 plays a major role in vascular inflammation and atherosclerosis in male apolipoprotein E-knockout mice. Cardiovasc. Res. 66 (2005) 583-593
72. Miller A.M., et al. IL-33 reduces the development of atherosclerosis. J. Exp. Med. 205 (2008) 339-346
73. King V.L., et al. Interleukin-4 does not influence development of hypercholesterolemia or angiotensin II-induced atherosclerotic lesions in mice. Am. J. Pathol. 171 (2007) 2040-2047
74. Huber S.A., et al. Interleukin-6 exacerbates early atherosclerosis in mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19 (1999) 2364-2367
75. Upadhya S., et al. Atherogenic effect of interleukin-2 and antiatherogenic effect of interleukin-2 antibody in apo-E-deficient mice. Angiology 55 (2004) 289-294
76. Schieffer B., et al. Impact of interleukin-6 on plaque development and morphology in experimental atherosclerosis. Circulation 110 (2004) 3493-3500
77. Davenport P., and Tipping P.G. The role of interleukin-4 and interleukin-12 in the progression of atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Am. J. Pathol. 163 (2003) 1117-1125
78. Binder C.J., et al. IL-5 links adaptive and natural immunity specific for epitopes of oxidized LDL and protects from atherosclerosis. J. Clin. Invest. 114 (2004) 427-437
79. Branen L., et al. Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor-alpha reduces atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 24 (2004) 2137-2142
80. Mallat Z., et al. Inhibition of transforming growth factor-beta signaling accelerates atherosclerosis and induces an unstable plaque phenotype in mice. Circ. Res. 89 (2001) 930-934
81. Buono C., et al. Influence of interferon-gamma on the extent and phenotype of diet-induced atherosclerosis in the LDLR-deficient mouse. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23 (2003) 454-460
82. Robertson A.K., et al. Disruption of TGF-beta signaling in T cells accelerates atherosclerosis. J. Clin. Invest. 112 (2003) 1342-1350
83. Caligiuri G., et al. Interleukin-10 deficiency increases atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and low-density lipoproteins in apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Mol. Med. 9 (2003) 10-17
84. von der Thusen J.H., et al. Interleukins in atherosclerosis: molecular pathways and therapeutic potential. Pharmacol. Rev. 55 (2003) 133-166
85. Vink H., et al. Oxidized lipoproteins degrade the endothelial surface layer: implications for platelet-endothelial cell adhesion. Circulation 101 (2000) 1500-1502
86. Gawaz M., et al. Platelets in inflammation and atherogenesis. J. Clin. Invest. 115 (2005) 3378-3384
87. Kofler S., et al. Role of cytokines in cardiovascular diseases: a focus on endothelial responses to inflammation. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 108 (2005) 205-213
88. Guzik T.J., et al. Adipocytokines - novel link between inflammation and vascular function?. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 57 (2006) 505-528
89. Vannini N., et al. Endothelial cell aging and apoptosis in prevention and disease: E-selectin expression and modulation as a model. Curr. Pharm. Des. 14 (2008) 221-225
90. Holderfield M.T., and Hughes C.C. Crosstalk between vascular endothelial growth factor, notch, and transforming growth factor-beta in vascular morphogenesis. Circ. Res. 102 (2008) 637-652
91. Cooney M.M., et al. Drug insight: vascular disrupting agents and angiogenesis - novel approaches for drug delivery. Nat. Clin. Pract. Oncol. 3 (2006) 682-692
92. Wang H., et al. Cyclin A transcriptional suppression is the major mechanism mediating homocysteine-induced endothelial cell growth inhibition. Blood 99 (2002) 939-945
93. Cardoso L.S., et al. Polymyxin B as inhibitor of LPS contamination of Schistosoma mansoni recombinant proteins in human cytokine analysis. Microb. Cell Fact. 6 (2007) 1
94. Nogueras S., et al. Coupling of endothelial injury and repair: an analysis using an in vivo experimental model. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 294 (2008) H708-H713
95. Martinez M.C., et al. Transfer of differentiation signal by membrane microvesicles harboring hedgehog morphogens. Blood 108 (2006) 3012-3020
96. Danese S., et al. Immune regulation by microvascular endothelial cells: directing innate and adaptive immunity, coagulation, and inflammation. J. Immunol. 178 (2007) 6017-6022
97. Limmer A., and Knolle P.A. Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells: a new type of organ-resident antigen-presenting cell. Arch. Immunol. Ther. Exp. (Warsz) 49 Suppl. 1 (2001) S7-S11
98. Satoh S., et al. Glomerular endothelium exhibits enhanced expression of costimulatory adhesion molecules, CD80 and CD86, by warm ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats. Lab. Invest. 82 (2002) 1209-1217
99. Yang X.F. Immunology of stem cells and cancer stem cells. Cell. Mol. Immunol. 4 (2007) 161-171
100. Marelli-Berg F.M., and Jarmin S.J. Antigen presentation by the endothelium: a green light for antigen-specific T cell trafficking?. Immunol. Lett. 93 (2004) 109-113
101. Rose M.L. Endothelial cells as antigen-presenting cells: role in human transplant rejection. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 54 (1998) 965-978
102. Bagai R., et al. Mouse endothelial cells cross-present lymphocyte-derived antigen on class I MHC via a TAP1- and proteasome-dependent pathway. J. Immunol. 174 (2005) 7711-7715
103. Buckanovich R.J., et al. Endothelin B receptor mediates the endothelial barrier to T cell homing to tumors and disables immune therapy. Nat. Med. 14 (2008) 28-36
104. Belizna C., et al. Antiendothelial cell antibodies in vasculitis and connective tissue disease. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 65 (2006) 1545-1550
105. Campanella G.S., et al. Oligomerization of CXCL10 is necessary for endothelial cell presentation and in vivo activity. J. Immunol. 177 (2006) 6991-6998
106. Ng B., et al. Increased noncanonical splicing of autoantigen transcripts provides the structural basis for expression of untolerized epitopes. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 114 (2004) 1463-1470
107. Xiong Z., et al. Alternative splicing factor ASF/SF2 is down regulated in inflamed muscle. J. Clin. Pathol. 59 (2006) 855-861
108. Yang F., et al. Model of stimulation-responsive splicing and strategies in identification of immunogenic isoforms of tumor antigens and autoantigens. Clin. Immunol. 121 (2006) 121-133
109. Rubinsztein D.C., et al. Potential therapeutic applications of autophagy. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 6 (2007) 304-312
110. Levine B., and Yuan J. Autophagy in cell death: an innocent convict?. J. Clin. Invest. 115 (2005) 2679-2688
111. Bredesen D.E., et al. Cell death in the nervous system. Nature 443 (2006) 796-802
112. Fink S.L., and Cookson B.T. Apoptosis, pyroptosis, and necrosis: mechanistic description of dead and dying eukaryotic cells. Infect. Immun. 73 (2005) 1907-1916
113. Willingham S.B., et al. Microbial pathogen-induced necrotic cell death mediated by the inflammasome components CIAS1/cryopyrin/NLRP3 and ASC. Cell Host Microbe 2 (2007) 147-159
114. Bonetti P.O., et al. Endothelial dysfunction: a marker of atherosclerotic risk. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 23 (2003) 168-175
115. Geng Y.J. Molecular signal transduction in vascular cell apoptosis. Cell Res. 11 (2001) 253-264
116. Wassmann S., et al. Improvement of endothelial function by systemic transfusion of vascular progenitor cells. Circ. Res. 99 (2006) e74-e83
117. Bombeli T., et al. Apoptotic vascular endothelial cells become procoagulant. Blood 89 (1997) 2429-2442
118. Zhang X., et al. Protection against oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced vascular endothelial cell death by integrin-linked kinase. Circulation 104 (2001) 2762-2766
119. Yang J., et al. Endothelial overexpression of Fas ligand decreases atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 24 (2004) 1466-1473
120. Erridge C. The roles of pathogen-associated molecular patterns in atherosclerosis. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 18 (2008) 52-56
121. Palsson-McDermott E.M., and O'Neill L.A. Building an immune system from nine domains. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 35 Pt 6 (2007) 1437-1444
122. Takeda K., and Akira S. Toll-like receptors in innate immunity. Int. Immunol. 17 (2005) 1-14
123. Dunne A., and O'Neill L.A. Adaptor usage and Toll-like receptor signaling specificity. FEBS Lett. 579 (2005) 3330-3335
124. Pasare C., and Medzhitov R. Toll-like receptors: balancing host resistance with immune tolerance. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 15 (2003) 677-682
125. Stehlik C., and Dorfleutner A. COPs and POPs: modulators of inflammasome activity. J. Immunol. 179 (2007) 7993-7998
126. Karin M. Nuclear factor-kappaB in cancer development and progression. Nature 441 (2006) 431-436
127. Lee M.S., and Kim Y.J. Signaling pathways downstream of pattern-recognition receptors and their cross talk. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 76 (2007) 447-480
128. Poltorak A., et al. Defective LPS signaling in C3H/HeJ and C57BL/10ScCr mice: mutations in Tlr4 gene. Science 282 (1998) 2085-2088
129. Leon C.G., et al. Discovery and development of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) antagonists: a new paradigm for treating sepsis and other diseases. Pharm. Res. 25 (2008) 1751-1761
130. Liew F.Y., et al. Negative regulation of toll-like receptor-mediated immune responses. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 5 (2005) 446-458
131. Shaw M.H., et al. NOD-like receptors (NLRs): bona fide intracellular microbial sensors. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 20 (2008) 377-382
132. Martinon F., and Tschopp J. Inflammatory caspases and inflammasomes: master switches of inflammation. Cell Death Differ. 14 (2007) 10-22
133. Masumoto J., et al. ASC, a novel 22-kDa protein, aggregates during apoptosis of human promyelocytic leukemia HL-60 cells. J. Biol. Chem. 274 (1999) 33835-33838
134. Boyden E.D., and Dietrich W.F. Nalp1b controls mouse macrophage susceptibility to anthrax lethal toxin. Nat. Genet. 38 (2006) 240-244
135. Feldmeyer L., et al. The inflammasome mediates UVB-induced activation and secretion of interleukin-1beta by keratinocytes. Curr. Biol. 17 (2007) 1140-1145
136. Eisenbarth S.C., et al. Crucial role for the Nalp3 inflammasome in the immunostimulatory properties of aluminium adjuvants. Nature 453 7198 (2008) 1122-1126
137. Dostert C., et al. Innate immune activation through Nalp3 inflammasome sensing of asbestos and silica. Science 320 (2008) 674-677
138. Ye Z., and Ting J.P. NLR, the nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat containing gene family. Curr. Opin. Immunol. 20 (2008) 3-9
139. Poyet J.L., et al. Identification of Ipaf, a human caspase-1-activating protein related to Apaf-1. J. Biol. Chem. 276 (2001) 28309-28313
140. Yajima N., et al. Critical role of bone marrow apoptosis-associated speck-like protein, an inflammasome adaptor molecule, in neointimal formation after vascular injury in mice. Circulation 117 (2008) 3079-3087
141. Fernandes-Alnemri T., et al. The pyroptosome: a supramolecular assembly of ASC dimers mediating inflammatory cell death via caspase-1 activation. Cell Death Differ. 14 (2007) 1590-1604
142. Yu J.W., et al. Pyrin activates the ASC pyroptosome in response to engagement by autoinflammatory PSTPIP1 mutants. Mol. Cell 28 (2007) 214-227
143. Shao W., et al. The caspase-1 digestome identifies the glycolysis pathway as a target during infection and septic shock. J. Biol. Chem. 282 (2007) 36321-36329
144. King A.R., et al. A role for caspase-1 in serum withdrawal-induced apoptosis of endothelial cells. Lab. Invest. 83 (2003) 1497-1508
145. Hilbi H., et al. Tripeptidyl peptidase II promotes maturation of caspase-1 in Shigella flexneri-induced macrophage apoptosis. Infect. Immun. 68 (2000) 5502-5508
146. Squires R.C., et al. Proteasomes control caspase-1 activation in anthrax lethal toxin-mediated cell killing. J. Biol. Chem. 282 (2007) 34260-34267
147. Merkle S., et al. A role for caspase-1 in heart failure. Circ. Res. 100 (2007) 645-653
148. Nakagawa T., et al. Caspase-12 mediates endoplasmic-reticulum-specific apoptosis and cytotoxicity by amyloid-beta. Nature 403 (2000) 98-103
149. Saleh M., et al. Enhanced bacterial clearance and sepsis resistance in caspase-12-deficient mice. Nature 440 (2006) 1064-1068
150. Barksby H.E., et al. The expanding family of interleukin-1 cytokines and their role in destructive inflammatory disorders. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 149 (2007) 217-225
151. Simon A.D., et al. Circulating levels of IL-1beta, a prothrombotic cytokine, are elevated in unstable angina versus stable angina. J. Thromb. Thrombolysis 9 (2000) 217-222
152. Rubartelli A., et al. A novel secretory pathway for interleukin-1 beta, a protein lacking a signal sequence. EMBO J. 9 (1990) 1503-1510
153. Burnstock G. Purinergic signaling and vascular cell proliferation and death. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 22 (2002) 364-373
154. Carta S., et al. Histone deacetylase inhibitors prevent exocytosis of interleukin-1beta-containing secretory lysosomes: role of microtubules. Blood 108 (2006) 1618-1626
155. Dinarello C.A. Interleukin-18 and the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. Semin. Nephrol. 27 (2007) 98-114
156. Russell J.C., and Proctor S.D. Small animal models of cardiovascular disease: tools for the study of the roles of metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, and atherosclerosis. Cardiovasc. Pathol. 15 (2006) 318-330
157. Zhang S.H., et al. Spontaneous hypercholesterolemia and arterial lesions in mice lacking apolipoprotein E. Science 258 (1992) 468-471
158. Kawamura A., et al. Apolipoprotein E interrupts interleukin-1beta signaling in vascular smooth muscle cells. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 27 (2007) 1610-1617
159. Veniant M.M., et al. Lipoprotein size and atherosclerosis susceptibility in Apoe(-/-) and Ldlr(-/-) mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 21 (2001) 1567-1570
160. Mullick A.E., et al. Modulation of atherosclerosis in mice by Toll-like receptor 2. J. Clin. Invest. 115 (2005) 3149-3156
161. Shishido T., et al. Central role of endogenous Toll-like receptor-2 activation in regulating inflammation, reactive oxygen species production, and subsequent neointimal formation after vascular injury. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 345 (2006) 1446-1453
162. Michelsen K.S., et al. Lack of Toll-like receptor 4 or myeloid differentiation factor 88 reduces atherosclerosis and alters plaque phenotype in mice deficient in apolipoprotein E. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 101 (2004) 10679-10684
163. Dasu M.R., et al. Candesartan inhibits Toll-like receptor expression and activity both in vitro and in vivo. Atherosclerosis (2008) Apr 18. [Epub ahead of print]
164. Galea J., et al. Interleukin-1 beta in coronary arteries of patients with ischemic heart disease. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 16 (1996) 1000-1006
165. Isoda K., et al. Lack of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist modulates plaque composition in apolipoprotein E-deficient mice. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 24 (2004) 1068-1073
166. Abbate A., et al. Anakinra, a recombinant human interleukin-1 receptor antagonist, inhibits apoptosis in experimental acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 117 (2008) 2670-2683
167. Chackerian A.A., et al. IL-1 receptor accessory protein and ST2 comprise the IL-33 receptor complex. J. Immunol. 179 (2007) 2551-2555
168. Schwartz R.H. Natural regulatory T cells and self-tolerance. Nat. Immunol. 6 (2005) 327-330
169. Fontenot J.D., and Rudensky A.Y. A well adapted regulatory contrivance: regulatory T cell development and the forkhead family transcription factor Foxp3. Nat. Immunol. 6 (2005) 331-337
170. von Boehmer H. Mechanisms of suppression by suppressor T cells. Nat. Immunol. 6 (2005) 338-344
171. Sakaguchi S. Naturally arising Foxp3-expressing CD25+CD4+ regulatory T cells in immunological tolerance to self and non-self. Nat. Immunol. 6 (2005) 345-352
172. Jiang H., and Chess L. An integrated view of suppressor T cell subsets in immunoregulation. J. Clin. Invest. 114 (2004) 1198-1208
173. Horwitz D.A., et al. The potential of human regulatory T cells generated ex vivo as a treatment for lupus and other chronic inflammatory diseases. Arthritis Res. 4 (2002) 241-246
174. Yang X.F. Factors regulating apoptosis and homeostasis of CD4+CD25 high FOXP3+ regulatory T cells are new therapeutic targets. Front. Biosci. 13 (2008) 1472-1499
175. Ke X.Y., et al. Roles of CD4+CD25 high FOXP3+ Tregs in lymphomas and tumors are complex. Front. Biosci. 13 (2008) 3986-4001
176. Roncarolo M.G., and Battaglia M. Regulatory T-cell immunotherapy for tolerance to self antigens and alloantigens in humans. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 7 (2007) 585-598
177. Camara N.O., et al. Human CD4+CD25+ regulatory cells have marked and sustained effects on CD8+ T cell activation. Eur. J. Immunol. 33 (2003) 3473-3483
178. Wolf A.M., et al. Increase of regulatory T cells in the peripheral blood of cancer patients. Clin. Cancer Res. 9 (2003) 606-612
179. Janssens W., et al. CD4+CD25+ T cells lyse antigen-presenting B cells by Fas-Fas ligand interaction in an epitope-specific manner. J. Immunol. 171 (2003) 4604-4612
180. Taams L.S., and Akbar A.N. Peripheral generation and function of CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 293 (2005) 115-131
181. Lewkowicz P., et al. Lipopolysaccharide-activated CD4+CD25+ T regulatory cells inhibit neutrophil function and promote their apoptosis and death. J. Immunol. 177 (2006) 7155-7163
182. Tiemessen M.M., et al. CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ regulatory T cells induce alternative activation of human monocytes/macrophages. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 104 (2007) 19446-19451
183. Ait-Oufella H., et al. Natural regulatory T cells control the development of atherosclerosis in mice. Nat. Med. 12 (2006) 178-180
184. George J. Mechanisms of disease: the evolving role of regulatory T cells in atherosclerosis. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 5 (2008) 531-540
185. Mor A., et al. Role of naturally occurring CD4+ CD25+ regulatory T cells in experimental atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 27 (2007) 893-900
186. van Puijvelde G.H., et al. Induction of oral tolerance to oxidized low-density lipoprotein ameliorates atherosclerosis. Circulation 114 (2006) 1968-1976
187. van Puijvelde G.H., et al. Induction of oral tolerance to HSP60 or an HSP60-peptide activates T cell regulation and reduces atherosclerosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 27 (2007) 2677-2683
188. Mausner-Fainberg K., et al. The effect of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors on naturally occurring CD4+CD25+ T cells. Atherosclerosis 197 (2008) 829-839
189. Xiong Z., et al. Higher expression of Bax in regulatory T cells increases vascular inflammation. Front. Biosci. 13 (2008) 7143-7155
190. Yan Y., et al. HLA-A2.1-restricted T cells react to SEREX-defined tumor antigen CML66L and are suppressed by CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 20 (2007) 75-89
191. Xiong Z., et al. Expression of TCTP antisense in CD25(high) regulatory T cells aggravates cuff-injured vascular inflammation. Atherosclerosis (2008) Aug 12. [Epub ahead of print]
192. Yang Y., et al. An N-terminal region of translationally controlled tumor protein is required for its antiapoptotic activity. Oncogene 24 (2005) 4778-4788
193. Yan, Y. et al. (2008) CD25high T cells with a prolonged survival inhibit development of diabetes. Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol. 21 (4) (in press)