Signaling in muscle atrophy and hypertrophy

Physiology

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 160-170

  Sandri, Marco ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PADOVA   (Italy)

^b DULBECCO TELETHON INSTITUTE   (Italy)

^c VENETIAN INSTITUTE OF MOLECULAR MEDICINE   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONTRACTILE PROTEIN;

ANIMAL; HUMAN; HYPERTROPHY; METABOLISM; MUSCLE ATROPHY; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; SKELETAL MUSCLE;

ANIMALS; CONTRACTILE PROTEINS; HUMANS; HYPERTROPHY; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; MUSCULAR ATROPHY; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION;

EID: 49049083353     PISSN: 15489213     EISSN: 15489221     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00041.2007     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Acharyya S, Butchbach ME, Sahenk Z, Wang H, Saji M, Carathers M, Ringel MD, Skipworth RJ, Fearon KC, Hollingsworth MA, Muscarella P, Burghes AH, Rafael-Fortney JA, Guttridge DC. Dystrophin glycoprotein complex dysfunction: a regulatory link between muscular dystrophy and cancer cachexia. Cancer Cell 8: 421-432, 2005.
2. Acharyya S, Villalta SA, Bakkar N, Bupha-Intr T, Janssen PM, Carathers M, Li ZW, Beg AA, Ghosh S, Sahenk Z, Weinstein M, Gardner KL, Rafael-Fortney JA, Karin M, Tidball JG, Baldwin AS, Guttridge DC. Interplay of IKK/NF-kappaB signaling in macrophages and myofibers promotes muscle degeneration in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. J Clin Invest 117: 889-901, 2007.
3. Adams CM. Role of the transcription factor ATF4 in the anabolic actions of insulin and the anti-anabolic actions of glucocorticoids. J Biol Chem 282: 16744-16753, 2007.
4. Aguilar V, Alliouachene S, Sotiropoulos A, Sobering A, Athea Y, Djouadi F, Miraux S, Thiaudiere E, Foretz M, Viollet B, Diolez P, Bastin J, Benit P, Rustin P, Carling D, Sandri M, Ventura-Clapier R, Pende M. S6 kinase deletion suppresses muscle growth adaptations to nutrient availability by activating AMP kinase. Cell Metab 5: 476-487, 2007.
5. Allen DL, Unterman TG. Regulation of myostatin expression and myoblast differentiation by FoxO and SMAD transcription factors. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 292: C188-C199, 2007.
6. Alzghoul MB, Gerrard D, Watkins BA, Hannon K. Ectopic expression of IGF-I and Shh by skeletal muscle inhibits disuse-mediated skeletal muscle atrophy and bone osteopenia in vivo. FASEB J 18: 221-223, 2004.
7. Amthor H, Macharia R, Navarrete R, Schuelke M, Brown SC, Otto A, Voit T, Muntoni F, Vrbova G, Partridge T, Zammit P, Bunger L, Patel K. Lack of myostatin results in excessive muscle growth but impaired force generation. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104: 1835-1840, 2007.
8. Awede BL, Thissen JP, Lebacq J. Role of IGF-I and IGFBPs in the changes of mass and phenotype induced in rat soleus muscle by clenbuterol. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 282: E31-E37, 2002.
9. Bodine SC, Latres E, Baumhueter S, Lai VK, Nunez L, Clarke BA, Poueymirou WT, Panaro FJ, Na E, Dharmarajan K, Pan ZQ, Valenzuela DM, DeChiara TM, Stitt TN, Yancopoulos GD, Glass DJ. Identification of ubiquitin ligases required for skeletal muscle atrophy. Science 294: 1704-1708, 2001.
10. Bodine SC, Stitt TN, Gonzalez M, Kline WO, Stover GL, Bauerlein R, Zlotchenko E, Scrimgeour A, Lawrence JC, Glass DJ, Yancopoulos GD. Akt/mTOR pathway is a crucial regulator of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and can prevent muscle atrophy in vivo. Nat Cell Biol 3: 1014-1019, 2001.
11. Cai D, Frantz JD, Tawa NE Jr, Melendez PA, Oh BC, Lidov HG, Hasselgren PO, Frontera WR, Lee J, Glass DJ, and Shoelson SE. IKKbeta/NF-kappaB activation causes severe muscle wasting in mice. Cell 119: 285-298, 2004.
12. Charge SB, Brack AS, Hughes SM. Aging-related satellite cell differentiation defect occurs prematurely after Ski-induced muscle hypertrophy. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 283: C1228-C1241, 2002.
13. Clarke BA, Drujan D, Willis MS, Murphy LO, Corpina RA, Burova E, Rakhilin SV, Stitt TN, Patterson C, Latres E, Glass DJ. The E3 Ligase MuRF1 degrades myosin heavy chain protein in dexamethasone-treated skeletal muscle. Cell Metab 6: 376-385, 2007.
14. Clop A, Marcq F, Takeda H, Pirottin D, Tordoir X, Bibe B, Bouix J, Caiment F, Elsen JM, Eychenne F, Larzul C, Laville E, Meish F, Milenkovic D, Tobin J, Charlier C, Georges M. A mutation creating a potential illegitimate microRNA target site in the myostatin gene affects muscularity in sheep. Nat Genet 38: 813-818, 2006.
15. Coffey VG, Shield A, Canny BJ, Carey KA, Cameron-Smith D, Hawley JA. Interaction of contractile activity and training history on mRNA abundance in skeletal muscle from trained athletes. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 290: E849-E855, 2006.
16. Dalla Libera L, Sabbadini R, Renken C, Ravara B, Sandri M, Betto R, Angelini A, Vescovo G. Apoptosis in the skeletal muscle of rats with heart failure is associated with increased serum levels of TNF-alpha and sphingosine. J Mol Cell Cardiol 33: 1871-1878, 2001.
17. de Alvaro C, Teruel T, Hernandez R, Lorenzo M. Tumor necrosis factor alpha produces insulin resistance in skeletal muscle by activation of inhibitor kappaB kinase in a p38 MAPK-dependent manner. J Biol Chem 279: 17070-17078, 2004.
18. Deval C, Mordier S, Obled C, Bechet D, Combaret L, Attaix D, Ferrara M. Identification of cathepsin L as a differentially expressed message associated with skeletal muscle wasting. Biochem J 360: 143-150, 2001.
19. Dogra C, Changotra H, Wedhas N, Qin X, Wergedal JE, Kumar A. TNF-related weak inducer of apoptosis (TWEAK) is a potent skeletal muscle-wasting cytokine. FASEB J 21: 1857-1869, 2007.
20. Du J, Wang X, Miereles C, Bailey JL, Debigare R, Zheng B, Price SR, Mitch WE. Activation of caspase-3 is an initial step triggering accelerated muscle proteolysis in catabolic conditions. J Clin Invest 113: 115-123, 2004.
21. Durieux AC, Amirouche A, Banzet S, Koulmann N, Bonnefoy R, Pasdeloup M, Mouret C, Bigard X, Peinnequin A, Freyssenet D. Ectopic expression of myostatin induces atrophy of adult skeletal muscle by decreasing muscle gene expression. Endocrinology 148: 3140-3147, 2007.
22. Ferreira R, Neuparth MJ, Vitorino R, Appell HJ, Amado F, Duarte JA. Evidences of apoptosis during the early phases of soleus muscle atrophy in hindlimb suspended mice. Physiol Res. In press.
23. Fielitz J, Kim MS, Shelton JM, Latif S, Spencer JA, Glass DJ, Richardson JA, Bassel-Duby R, Olson EN. Myosin accumulation and striated muscle myopathy result from the loss of muscle RING finger 1 and 3. J Clin Invest 117: 2486-2495, 2007.
24. Furuno K, Goodman MN, Goldberg AL. Role of different proteolytic systems in the degradation of muscle proteins during denervation atrophy. J Biol Chem 265: 8550-8557, 1990.
25. Goldspink G. Changes in muscle mass and phenotype and the expression of autocrine and systemic growth factors by muscle in response to stretch and overload. J Anat 194: 323-334, 1999.
26. Gomes MD, Lecker SH, Jagoe RT, Navon A, Goldberg AL. Atrogin-1, a muscle-specific F-box protein highly expressed during muscle atrophy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 14440-14445, 2001.
27. Gomis RR, Alarcon C, He W, Wang Q, Seoane J, Lash A, Massague J. A FoxO-Smad synexpression group in human keratinocytes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 12747-12752, 2006.
28. Grater F, Shen J, Jiang H, Gautel M, Grubmuller H. Mechanically induced titin kinase activation studied by force-probe molecular dynamics simulations. Biophys J 88: 790-804, 2005.
29. Greer EL, Dowlatshahi D, Banko MR, Villen J, Hoang K, Blanchard D, Gygi SP, Brunet A. An AMPK-FOXO pathway mediates longevity induced by a novel method of dietary restriction in C. elegans. Curr Biol 17: 1646-1656, 2007.
30. Greer EL, Oskoui PR, Banko MR, Maniar JM, Gygi MP, Gygi SP, Brunet A. The energy sensor AMP-activated protein kinase directly regulates the mammalian FOXO3 transcription factor. J Biol Chem 282: 30107-30119, 2007.
31. Hanai JI, Cao P, Tanksale P, Imamura S, Koshimizu E, Zhao J, Kishi S, Yamashita M, Phillips PS, Sukhatme VP, Lecker SH. The muscle-specific ubiquitin ligase atrogin-1/MAFbx mediates statin-induced muscle toxicity. J Clin Invest 117: 3940-3951, 2007.
32. Hay N, Sonenberg N. Upstream and downstream of mTOR. Genes Dev 18: 1926-1945, 2004.
33. Hirosumi J, Tuncman G, Chang L, Gorgun CZ, Uysal KT, Maeda K, Karin M, Hotamisligil GS. A central role for JNK in obesity and insulin resistance. Nature 420: 333-336, 2002.
34. Huang H, Tindall DJ. Dynamic FoxO transcription factors. J Cell Sci 120: 2479-2487, 2007.
35. Hunter RB, Kandarian SC. Disruption of either the Nfkb1 or the Bcl3 gene inhibits skeletal muscle atrophy. J Clin Invest 114: 1504-1511, 2004.
36. Iezzi S, Di Padova M, Serra C, Caretti G, Simone C, Maklan E, Minetti G, Zhao P, Hoffman EP, Puri PL, Sartorelli V. Deacetylase inhibitors increase muscle cell size by promoting myoblast recruitment and fusion through induction of follistatin. Dev Cell 6: 673-684, 2004.
37. Izumiya Y, Hopkins T, Morris C, Sato K, Zeng L, Viereck J, Hamilton JA, Ouchi N, Lebrasseur NK, Walsh K. Fast/glycolytic muscle fiber growth reduces fat mass and improves metabolic parameters in obese mice. Cell Metab 7: 159-172, 2008.
38. Judge AR, Koncarevic A, Hunter RB, Liou HC, Jackman RW, Kandarian SC. Role for IkappaBalpha, but not c-Rel, in skeletal muscle atrophy. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 292: C372-C382, 2007.
39. Kamei Y, Miura S, Suzuki M, Kai Y, Mizukami J, Taniguchi T, Mochida K, Hata T, Matsuda J, Aburatani H, Nishino I, Ezaki O. Skeletal muscle FOXO1 (FKHR) transgenic mice have less skeletal muscle mass, down-regulated type I (slow twitch/red muscle) fiber genes, and impaired glycemic control. J Biol Chem 279: 41114-41123, 2004.
40. Kline WO, Panaro FJ, Yang H, Bodine SC. Rapamycin inhibits the growth and muscle-sparing effects of clenbuterol. J Appl Physiol 102: 740-747, 2007.
41. Lai KM, Gonzalez M, Poueymirou WT, Kline WO, Na E, Zlotchenko E, Stitt TN, Economides AN, Yancopoulos GD, Glass DJ. Conditional activation of akt in adult skeletal muscle induces rapid hypertrophy. Mol Cell Biol 24: 9295-9304, 2004.
42. Lange S, Ehler E, Gautel M. From A to Z and back? Multicompartment proteins in the sarcomere. Trends Cell Biol 16: 11-18, 2006.
43. Lange S, Xiang F, Yakovenko A, Vihola A, Hackman P, Rostkova E, Kristensen J, Brandmeier B, Franzen G, Hedberg B, Gunnarsson LG, Hughes SM, Marchand S, Sejersen T, Richard I, Edstrom L, Ehler E, Udd B, Gautel M. The kinase domain of titin controls muscle gene expression and protein turnover. Science 308: 1599-1603, 2005.
44. Latres E, Amini AR, Amini AA, Griffiths J, Martin FJ, Wei Y, Lin HC, Yancopoulos GD, Glass DJ. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) inversely regulates atrophy-induced genes via the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR) pathway. J Biol Chem 280: 2737-2744, 2005.
45. Lecker SH, Jagoe RT, Gilbert A, Gomes M, Baracos V, Bailey J, Price SR, Mitch WE, Goldberg AL. Multiple types of skeletal muscle atrophy involve a common program of changes in gene expression. FASEB J 18: 39-51, 2004.
46. Lee SJ. Quadrupling muscle mass in mice by targeting TGF-beta signaling pathways. PLoS ONE 2: e789, 2007.
47. Lee SJ, McPherron AC. Regulation of myostatin activity and muscle growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98: 9306-9311, 2001.
48. Lee SJ, Reed LA, Davies MV, Girgenrath S, Goad ME, Tomkinson KN, Wright JF, Barker C, Ehrmantraut G, Holmstrom J, Trowell B, Gertz B, Jiang MS, Sebald SM, Matzuk M, Li E, Liang LF, Quattlebaum E, Stotish RL, Wolfman NM. Regulation of muscle growth by multiple ligands signaling through activin type II receptors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 18117-18122, 2005.
49. Lee SW, Dai G, Hu Z, Wang X, Du J, Mitch WE. Regulation of muscle protein degradation: coordinated control of apoptotic and ubiquitin-proteasome systems by phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase. J Am Soc Nephrol 15: 1537-1545, 2004.
50. Li P, Waters RE, Redfern SI, Zhang M, Mao L, Annex BH, Yan Z. Oxidative phenotype protects myofibers from pathological insults induced by chronic heart failure in mice. Am J Pathol 170: 599-608, 2007.
51. Li S, Czubryt MP, McAnally J, Bassel-Duby R, Richardson JA, Wiebel FF, Nordheim A, Olson EN. Requirement for serum response factor for skeletal muscle growth and maturation revealed by tissue-specific gene deletion in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102: 1082-1087, 2005.
52. Liu CM, Yang Z, Liu CW, Wang R, Tien P, Dale R, Sun LQ. Effect of RNA oligonucleotide targeting Foxo-1 on muscle growth in normal and cancer cachexia mice. Cancer Gene Ther 14: 945-952, 2007.
53. Mammucari C, Milan G, Romanello V, Masiero E, Rudolf R, Del Piccolo P, Burden SJ, Di Lisi R, Sandri C, Zhao J, Goldberg AL, Schiaffino S, Sandri M. FoxO3 controls autophagy in skeletal muscle in vivo. Cell Metab 6: 458-471, 2007.
54. Massague J, Seoane J, Wotton D. Smad transcription factors. Genes Dev 19: 2783-2810, 2005.
55. McCall GE, Allen DL, Haddad F, Baldwin KM. Transcriptional regulation of IGF-I expression in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 285: C831-C839, 2003.
56. McCarthy JJ, Esser KA. Counterpoint: Satellite cell addition is not obligatory for skeletal muscle hypertrophy. J Appl Physiol 103: 1100-1102, 2007.
57. McFarlane C, Hennebry A, Thomas M, Plummer E, Ling N, Sharma M, Kambadur R. Myostatin signals through Pax7 to regulate satellite cell self-renewal. Exp Cell Res 314: 317-329, 2007.
58. McFarlane C, Plummer E, Thomas M, Hennebry A, Ashby M, Ling N, Smith H, Sharma M, Kambadur R. Myostatin induces cachexia by activating the ubiquitin proteolytic system through an NFkappaB-independent, FoxO1-dependent mechanism. J Cell Physiol 209: 501-514, 2006.
59. McPherron AC, Lee SJ. Double muscling in cattle due to mutations in the myostatin gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 94: 12457-12461, 1997.
60. Mieulet V, Roceri M, Espeillac C, Sotiropoulos A, Ohanna M, Oorschot V, Klumperman J, Sandri M, Pende M. S6 kinase inactivation impairs growth and translational target phosphorylation in muscle cells maintaining proper regulation of protein turnover. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 293: C712-C722, 2007.
61. Minetti GC, Colussi C, Adami R, Serra C, Mozzetta C, Parente V, Fortuni S, Straino S, Sampaolesi M, Di Padova M, Illi B, Gallinari P, Steinkuhler C, Capogrossi MC, Sartorelli V, Bottinelli R, Gaetano C, Puri PL. Functional and morphological recovery of dystrophic muscles in mice treated with deacetylase inhibitors. Nat Med 12: 1147-1150, 2006.
62. Mizushima N, Yamamoto A, Matsui M, Yoshimori T, Ohsumi Y. In vivo analysis of autophagy in response to nutrient starvation using transgenic mice expressing a fluorescent autophagosome marker. Mol Biol Cell 15: 1101-1111, 2004.
63. Mordier S, Deval C, Bechet D, Tassa A, Ferrara M. Leucine limitation induces autophagy and activation of lysosome-dependent proteolysis in C2C12 myotubes through a mammalian target of rapamycin-independent signaling pathway. J Biol Chem 275: 29900-29906, 2000.
64. Morissette MR, Cook SA, Foo S, McKoy G, Ashida N, Novikov M, Scherrer-Crosbie M, Li L, Matsui T, Brooks G, Rosenzweig A. Myostatin regulates cardiomyocyte growth through modulation of Akt signaling. Circ Res 99: 15-24, 2006.
65. Moss FP, Leblond CP. Satellite cells as the source of nuclei in muscles of growing rats. Anat Rec 170: 421-435, 1971.
66. Mourkioti F, Kratsios P, Luedde T, Song YH, Delafontaine P, Adami R, Parente V, Bottinelli R, Pasparakis M, Rosenthal N. Targeted ablation of IKK2 improves skeletal muscle strength, maintains mass, and promotes regeneration. J Clin Invest 116: 2945-2954, 2006.
67. Murgia M, Serrano AL, Calabria E, Pallafacchina G, Lomo T, Schiaffino S. Ras is involved in nerve-activity-dependent regulation of muscle genes. Nat Cell Biol 2: 142-147, 2000.
68. Musaro A, McCullagh K, Paul A, Houghton L, Dobrowolny G, Molinaro M, Barton ER, Sweeney HL, Rosenthal N. Localized IGF1 transgene expression sustains hypertrophy and regeneration in senescent skeletal muscle. Nat Genet 27: 195-200, 2001.
69. Nader GA, Esser KA. Intracellular signaling specificity in skeletal muscle in response to different modes of exercise. J Appl Physiol 90: 1936-1942, 2001.
70. Nakashima K, Yakabe Y. AMPK activation stimulates myofibrillar protein degradation and expression of atrophy-related ubiquitin ligases by increasing FOXO transcription factors in C2C12 myotubes. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 71: 1650-1656, 2007.
71. Ohanna M, Sobering AK, Lapointe T, Lorenzo L, Praud C, Petroulakis E, Sonenberg N, Kelly PA, Sotiropoulos A, Pende M. Atrophy of S6K1(-/-) skeletal muscle cells reveals distinct mTOR effectors for cell cycle and size control. Nat Cell Biol 7: 286-294, 2005.
72. Pallafacchina G, Calabria E, Serrano AL, Kalhovde JM, Schiaffino S. A protein kinase B-dependent and rapamycin-sensitive pathway controls skeletal muscle growth but not fiber type specification. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 9213-9218, 2002.
73. Rehfeldt C, Mantilla CB, Sieck GC, Hikida RS, Booth FW, Kadi F, Bodine SC, Lowe DA. Satellite cell addition is/is not obligatory for skeletal muscle hypertrophy. J Appl Physiol 103: 1104-1106, 2007.
74. Reisz-Porszasz S, Bhasin S, Artaza JN, Shen R, Sinha-Hikim I, Hogue A, Fielder TJ, Gonzalez-Cadavid NF. Lower skeletal muscle mass in male transgenic mice with muscle-specific overexpression of myostatin. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 285: E876-E888, 2003.
75. Rommel C, Bodine SC, Clarke BA, Rossman R, Nunez L, Stitt TN, Yancopoulos GD, Glass DJ. Mediation of IGF1-induced skeletal myotube hypertrophy by PI(3)K/Akt/mTOR and PI(3)K/Akt/GSK3 pathways. Nat Cell Biol 3: 1009-1013, 2001.
76. Sacheck JM, Hyatt JP, Raffaello A, Jagoe RT, Roy RR, Edgerton VR, Lecker SH, Goldberg AL. Rapid disuse and denervation atrophy involve transcriptional changes similar to those of muscle wasting during systemic diseases. FASEB J 21: 140-155, 2007.
77. Sacheck JM, Ohtsuka A, McLary SC, Goldberg AL. IGF-I stimulates muscle growth by suppressing protein breakdown and expression of atrophy-related ubiquitin ligases, atrogin-1 and MuRF1. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 287: E591-E601, 2004.
78. Sakamoto K, Arnolds DE, Ekberg I, Thorell A, Goodyear LJ. Exercise regulates Akt and glycogen synthase kinase-3 activities in human skeletal muscle. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 319: 419-425, 2004.
79. Sakamoto K, Aschenbach WG, Hirshman MF, Goodyear LJ. Akt signaling in skeletal muscle: regulation by exercise and passive stretch. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 285: E1081-E1088, 2003.
80. Sakamoto K, Hirshman MF, Aschenbach WG, Goodyear LJ. Contraction regulation of Akt in rat skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem 277: 11910-11917, 2002.
81. Sandri M, Lin J, Handschin C, Yang W, Arany ZP, Lecker SH, Goldberg AL, Spiegelman BM. PGC-1alpha protects skeletal muscle from atrophy by suppressing FoxO3 action and atrophy-specific gene transcription. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 16260-16265, 2006.
82. Sandri M, Sandri C, Gilbert A, Skurk C, Calabria E, Picard A, Walsh K, Schiaffino S, Lecker SH, Goldberg AL. Foxo transcription factors induce the atrophy-related ubiquitin ligase atrogin-1 and cause skeletal muscle atrophy. Cell 117: 399-412, 2004.
83. Sartorelli V, Fulco M. Molecular and cellular determinants of skeletal muscle atrophy and hypertrophy. Sci STKE 2004: re11, 2004.
84. Schakman O, Gilson H, Thissen JP. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid-induced myopathy. J Endocrinol 197: 1-10, 2008.
85. Schiaffino S, Bormioli SP, Aloisi M. The fate of newly formed satellite cells during compensatory muscle hypertrophy. Virchows Arch B Cell Pathol 21: 113-118, 1976.
86. Schiaffino S, Hanzlikova V. Studies on the effect of denervation in developing muscle. II. The lysosomal system. J Ultrastruct Res 39: 1-14, 1972.
87. Schuelke M, Wagner KR, Stolz LE, Hubner C, Riebel T, Komen W, Braun T, Tobin JF, Lee SJ. Myostatin mutation associated with gross muscle hypertrophy in a child. N Engl J Med 350: 2682-2688, 2004.
88. Schulze PC, Fang J, Kassik KA, Gannon J, Cupesi M, MacGillivray C, Lee RT, Rosenthal N. Transgenic overexpression of locally acting insulin-like growth factor-1 inhibits ubiquitin-mediated muscle atrophy in chronic left-ventricular dysfunction. Circ Res 97: 418-426, 2005.
89. Shintani T, Klionsky DJ. Autophagy in health and disease: a double-edged sword. Science 306: 990-995, 2004.
90. Sneddon AA, Delday MI, Steven J, Maltin CA. Elevated IGF-II mRNA and phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 and p70(S6k) in muscle showing clenbuterol-induced anabolism. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 281: E676-E682, 2001.
91. Song YH, Li Y, Du J, Mitch WE, Rosenthal N, Delafontaine P. Muscle-specific expression of IGF1 blocks angiotensin II-induced skeletal muscle wasting. J Clin Invest 115: 451-458, 2005.
92. Southgate RJ, Neill B, Prelovsek O, El-Osta A, Kamei Y, Miura S, Ezaki O, McLoughlin TJ, Zhang W, Unterman TG, Febbraio MA. FOXO1 regulates the expression of 4E-BP1 and inhibits mTOR signaling in mammalian skeletal muscle. J Biol Chem 282: 21176-21186, 2007.
93. Stitt TN, Drujan D, Clarke BA, Panaro F, Timofeyva Y, Kline WO, Gonzalez M, Yancopoulos GD, Glass DJ. The IGF1/PI3K/Akt pathway prevents expression of muscle atrophy-induced ubiquitin ligases by inhibiting FOXO transcription factors. Mol Cell 14: 395-403, 2004.
94. Sun L, Trausch-Azar JS, Muglia LJ, Schwartz AL. Glucocorticoids differentially regulate degradation of MyoD and Id1 by N-terminal ubiquitination to promote muscle protein catabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105: 3339-3344, 2008.
95. Suzuki N, Motohashi N, Uezumi A, Fukada S, Yoshimura T, Itoyama Y, Aoki M, Miyagoe-Suzuki Y, Takeda S. NO production results in suspension-induced muscle atrophy through dislocation of neuronal NOS. J Clin Invest 117: 2468-2476, 2007.
96. Tassa A, Roux MP, Attaix D, Bechet DM. Class III phosphoinositide 3-kinase: beclin1 complex mediates the amino acid-dependent regulation of autophagy in C2C12 myotubes. Biochem J 376: 577-586, 2003.
97. Teleman AA, Hietakangas V, Sayadian AC, Cohen SM. Nutritional control of protein biosynthetic capacity by insulin via Myc in Drosophila. Cell Metab 7: 21-32, 2008.
98. Tintignac LA, Lagirand J, Batonnet S, Sirri V, Leibovitch MP, Leibovitch SA. Degradation of MyoD mediated by the SCF (MAFbx) ubiquitin ligase. J Biol Chem 280: 2847-2856, 2005.
99. Turinsky J, Damrau-Abney A. Akt kinases and 2-deoxyglucose uptake in rat skeletal muscles in vivo: study with insulin and exercise. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 276: R277-R282, 1999.
100. Um SH, Frigerio F, Watanabe M, Picard F, Joaquin M, Sticker M, Fumagalli S, Allegrini PR, Kozma SC, Auwerx J, Thomas G. Absence of S6K1 protects against age- and diet-induced obesity while enhancing insulin sensitivity. Nature 431: 200-205, 2004.
101. Vlahopoulos S, Zimmer WE, Jenster G, Belaguli NS, Balk SP, Brinkmann AO, Lanz RB, Zoumpourlis VC, Schwartz RJ. Recruitment of the androgen receptor via serum response factor facilitates expression of a myogenic gene. J Biol Chem 280: 7786-7792, 2005.
102. Wagner KR, McPherron AC, Winik N, Lee SJ. Loss of myostatin attenuates severity of muscular dystrophy in mdx mice. Ann Neurol 52: 832-836, 2002.
103. Wan M, Wu X, Guan KL, Han M, Zhuang Y, Xu T. Muscle atrophy in transgenic mice expressing a human TSC1 transgene. FEBS Lett 580: 5621-5627, 2006.
104. Wang H, Kubica N, Ellisen LW, Jefferson LS, Kimball SR. Dexamethasone represses signaling through the mammalian target of rapamycin in muscle cells by enhancing expression of REDD1. J Biol Chem 281: 39128-39134, 2006.
105. Wang X, Blagden C, Fan J, Nowak SJ, Taniuchi I, Littman DR, Burden SJ. Runx1 prevents wasting, myofibrillar disorganization, and autophagy of skeletal muscle. Genes Dev 19: 1715-1722, 2005.
106. Wang XH, Hu J, Du J, Klein JD. X-chromosome linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein inhibits muscle proteolysis in insulin-deficient mice. Gene Ther 14: 711-720, 2007.
107. Wang Y, Falasca M, Schlessinger J, Malstrom S, Tsichlis P, Settleman J, Hu W, Lim B, Prywes R. Activation of the c-fos serum response element by phosphatidyl inositol 3-kinase and rho pathways in HeLa cells. Cell Growth Differ 9: 513-522, 1998.
108. Welle S, Bhatt K, Pinkert CA, Tawil R, Thornton CA. Muscle growth after postdevelopmental myostatin gene knockout. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 292: E985-E991, 2007.
109. Whittemore LA, Song K, Li X, Aghajanian J, Davies M, Girgenrath S, Hill JJ, Jalenak M, Kelley P, Knight A, Maylor R, O'Hara D, Pearson A, Quazi A, Ryerson S, Tan XY, Tomkinson KN, Veldman GM, Widom A, Wright JF, Wudyka S, Zhao L, Wolfman NM. Inhibition of myostatin in adult mice increases skeletal muscle mass and strength. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 300: 965-971, 2003.
110. Yang H, Wei W, Menconi M, Hasselgren PO. Dexamethasone-induced protein degradation in cultured myotubes is p300/HAT dependent. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 292: R337-R334, 2007.
111. Yang ZZ, Tschopp O, Baudry A, Dummler B, Hynx D, Hemmings BA. Physiological functions of protein kinase B/Akt. Biochem Soc Trans 32: 350-354, 2004.
112. Zhao J, Brault JJ, Schild A, Cao P, Sandri M, Schiaffino S, Lecker SH, Goldberg AL. FoxO3 coordinately activates protein degradation by the autophagic/lysosomal and proteasomal pathways in atrophying muscle cells. Cell Metab 6: 472-483, 2007.
113. Zimmers TA, Davies MV, Koniaris LG, Haynes P, Esquela AF, Tomkinson KN, McPherron AC, Wolfman NM, Lee SJ. Induction of cachexia in mice by systemically administered myostatin. Science 296: 1486-1488, 2002.