Earth's atmosphere - Hadean to early Proterozoic

Chemie der Erde

Volumn 68, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 235-264

  Shaw, George H ^a  

^a UNION COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

Early atmosphere; Earth; Faint young sun; Mars; Volatiles

Indexed keywords

CARBON ISOTOPE; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; HADEAN; MARS; PROTEROZOIC;

EID: 48049083323     PISSN: 00092819     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.chemer.2008.05.001     Document Type: Article

References (234)

1. Abe Y., and Matsui T. Early evolution of the Earth: accretion, atmosphere formation, and thermal history. J. Geophys. Res. 91 suppl. (1986) E291-E302
2. 2 atmosphere and formation of a hot proto-ocean on Earth. J. Atmos. Sci. 45 (1988) 3081-3101
3. Abe Y., Ohtani E., Okuchi T., Righter K., and Drake M.J. In: Canup R.M., and Righter K. (Eds). Origin of the Earth and Moon (2000), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 413-433
4. Ahrens T.J., O'Keefe J.D., and Lange M.A. Formation of atmospheres during accretion of the terrestrial planets. In: Atreya S.K., Pollack J.B., and Matthews M.S. (Eds). Origin and Evolution of Planetary and Satellite Atmospheres (1989), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 328-385
5. Alemi A., and Stevenson D. Why Venus has no Moon. Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 38 (2006) 491
6. Allwood A.C., Walter M.R., Kamber B.S., Marshall C.P., and Burch I.W. Stromatolite reef from the early Archean era of Australia. Nature 441 (2006) 714-718
7. Anbar A.D., Zahnle K.J., Arnold G.L., and Mojzsis S.J. Extraterrestrial iridium, sediment accumulation and the habitability of the early Earth's surface. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (2001) 3219-3236
8. Atreya S. Titan's organic factory. Science 316 (2007) 843-845
9. In: Atreya S.K., Pollock J.B., and Matthews M.S. (Eds). Origin and Evolution of Planetary and Satellite Atmospheres (1989), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 881pp
10. Bach W., Peucker-Ehrenbrink B., Hart S.R., and Blusztajn J.S. Geochemistry of hydrothermally altered oceanic crust: DSDP/ODP Hole 504B - implications for seawater-crust exchange budgets and Sr- and Pb-isotopic evolution of the mantle. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 4 (2003) 10.1029/2002GC000419
11. Baker V.R. The Channels of Mars (1982), University of Texas Press, Austin pp. 41-51
12. Baker V.R. Water and the Martian landscape. Nature 412 (2001) 228-236
13. Barabash S., Fedorov A., Lundin R., and Sauvaud J.-A. Martian atmosphere erosion rates. Science 315 (2007) 501-503
14. Bekker A., Holland H.D., Wang P.-L., Rumble III D., Stein H.J., Hannah J.L., Coetzee L.L., and Beukes H.J. Dating the rise of atmospheric oxygen. Nature 427 (2004) 117-120
15. Bezdicek D.F., and Kennedy A.C. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation and nitrogen cycling in terrestrial environments. In: Lynch J.M., and Hobbie J.E. (Eds). Microorganisms in Action (1998), Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford 241-260
16. Bibring J.-P., Langevin Y., Mustard J.F., Poulet F., Arvidson R., Gendrin A., Gondet B., Mangold N., Pinet P., Forget F., and and the OMEGA team. Global mineralogical and aqueous Mars history derived from OMEGA/Mars Express data. Science 312 (2006) 400-404
17. Bjerrum C.J., and Canfield D.E. Ocean productivity before about 1.9 Gyr ago limited by phosphorus adsorption onto iron oxides. Nature 417 (2002) 159-162
18. Bjerrum C.J., and Canfield D.E. New insights into the burial history of organic carbon on the early Earth. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 5 (2004) 10.1029/2004GC000713
19. Blankenship R.E. Origin and early evolution of photosynthesis. Photosynth. Res. 33 (1992) 91-111
20. Bowring S.A., and Williams I.S. Priscoan (4.00-4.03 Ga) orthogneisses from northwestern Canada. Cont. Miner. Petrol. 134 (1999) 3-16
21. 142Nd evidence for early (>4.53 Ga) global differentiation of the silicate Earth. Science 309 (2005) 576-581
22. Bradley J.P. Interplanetary dust particles. In: Holland H.D., and Turekian K.K. (Eds). Treatise on Geochemistry vol. 1 (2004), Elsevier, Amsterdam 689-711
23. Brasier M.D., Green O.R., Jephcoat A.P., Kleppe A.K., Van Kranendonk M.J., Lindsay J.F., Steele A., and Grassineau N.V. Questioning the evidence for Earth's oldest fossils. Nature 417 (2002) 76-81
24. Briceno C., Vivas A.K., Calvet N., Hartmann L., Pacheco R., Herrera D., Romero L., Berlind P., Sanchez G., Snyder J.A., and Andrews P. The CIDA-QUEST large-scale survey of Orion OB1: evidence for a rapid disk dissipation in a dispersed stellar population. Science 291 (2001) 93-96
25. Brobst, D.A., Pratt, W.P., 1973. United States mineral resources. USGS Prof. Paper 820, pp. 302-304.
26. Brocks J.J., Logan G.A., Buick R., and Summons R.E. Archean microfossils and the rise of eukaryotes. Science 285 (1999) 1033-1036
27. Broecker W.S. A boundary condition on the evolution of atmospheric oxygen. J. Geophys. Res. 75 (1970) 3553-3557
28. Brown H. Rare gases and the formation of the Earth's atmosphere. In: Kuiper G.P. (Ed). The Atmospheres of the Earth and Planets (1949), University of Chicago Press, Chicago 258-266
29. Buick R. The antiquity of oxygenic photosynthesis: evidence from stromatolites in sulfate-deficient Archean lakes. Nature 255 (1992) 74-77
30. Bukvic, D.S., 1979. Outgassing of chondritic planets. M.S. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA, 80pp.
31. Burbine T.H., and O'Brien K.M. Determining the possible building blocks of the Earth and Mars. Meteor. Planet. Sci. 39 (2004) 667-681
32. Cameron A.G.W. High resolution simulations of the giant impact. In: Canup R.M., and Righter K. (Eds). Origin of the Earth and Moon (2000), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 133-144
33. Cameron A.G.W., and Benz W. The origin of the Moon and the single impact hypothesis IV. Icarus 92 (1991) 204-216
34. Cameron E.M., and Baumann A. Carbonate sedimentation during the Archean. Chem. Geol. 10 (1972) 17-30
35. Canfield D.E. The early history of atmospheric oxygen. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 33 (2005) 1-36
36. Canil D. Vanadium partitioning and the oxidation state of komatiite magmas. Nature 389 (1997) 842-845
37. Canup R. Dynamics of Lunar formation. Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 42 (2004) 441-475
38. In: Canup R.M., and Righter K. (Eds). Origin of the Earth and Moon (2000), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 555pp
39. Catling D.C., and Claire M.W. How Earth's atmosphere evolved to an oxic state: a status report. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 237 (2005) 1-20
40. Catling D.C., Zahnle K.J., and McKay C.P. Biogenic methane, hydrogen escape, and the irreversible oxidation of early Earth. Science 293 (2001) 839-843
41. Chambers J.E. Planetary accretion in the inner solar system. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 223 (2004) 241-252
42. Choi I.-G., and Kim S.-H. Global extent of horizontal gene transfer. PNAS 104 (2006) 4489-4494
43. Chorus I., and Mur L. Preventative measures. In: Chorus I., and Bartram J. (Eds). Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: a Guide to their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management (1999), E. and F.N. Spon, London 235-273
44. Cloud P.E. Atmospheric and hydrospheric evolution on the primitive Earth. Science 160 (1968) 729-736
45. Cloud P.E. A working model of the primitive Earth. Am. J. Sci. 272 (1972) 537-548
46. Cruse A.M., and Seewald J.S. Geochemistry of low-molecular weight hydrocarbons in hydrothermal fluids from Middle Valley, northern Juan de Fuca Ridge. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70 (2006) 2073-2092
47. Delano J.W. Redox history of the Earth's interior since approximately 3900 Ma: implications for prebiotic molecules. Origins Life Evol. Biosphere 31 (2001) 311-341
48. Delsemme A. The origin of the atmosphere and the oceans. In: Thomas P.J., Chyba C.F., and McKay C.P. (Eds). Comets and the Origin of Life (1997), Springer, New York 29-67
49. Doolittle W.F. Phylogenetic classification and the universal tree. Science 284 (1999) 2124-2128
50. Drake M.J., and Righter K. Determining the composition of the Earth. Nature 416 (2002) 39-44
51. Eigenbrode J.L., and Freeman K.H. Late Archean rise of aerobic microbial ecosystems. PNAS 103 (2006) 15759-15764
52. Ellwood Madden M.E., Kring D.A., and Bodnar R.J. Shock reequilibration of fluid inclusions in Coconino Sandstone from Meteor Crater, Arizona. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 241 (2006) 32-46
53. Falkowski P.G., Barber R.T., and Smetacek V. Biogeochemical controls and feedbacks on ocean primary production. Science 281 (1998) 200-206
54. Farquhar J.H., and Wing B.A. Multiple sulfur isotopes and the evolution of the atmosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213 (2003) 1-13
55. Farquhar J., Bao H.M., and Thiemens M. Atmospheric influence of Earth's earliest sulfur cycle. Science 289 (2000) 756-758
56. Fiske P.S., Nellis W.J., Lipp M., Lorenzana H., Kikuchi M., and Syono Y. Pseudotachylites generated in shock experiments: implications for impact cratering products and processes. Science 270 (1995) 281-283
57. Forget F., and Pierrehumbert R.T. Warming early Mars with carbon dioxide clouds that scatter infrared radiation. Science 278 (1997) 1273-1275
58. Formisano V., Atreya S., Encrenaz T., Ignatiev N., and Giuranna M. Detection of methane in the atmosphere of Mars. Science 306 (2004) 1758-1761
59. Garrels R.M., and Mackenzie F.T. A quantitative model for the sedimentary rock cycle. Mar. Chem. 1 (1972) 27-41
60. Gomes R., Levison H.F., Tsiganis K., and Morbidelli A. Origin of the cataclysmic Late Heavy Bombardment period of the terrestrial planets. Nature 435 (2005) 466-469
61. Gough D.O. Solar interior structure and luminosity variations. Sol. Phys. 74 (1981) 21-34
62. Grieve R.A.F., Cintala M.J., and Therriault A.M. Large-scale impacts and the evolution of the Earth's crust: the early years. In: Reimold U.W., and Gibson R.L. (Eds). Processes on the Early Earth. Geological Society of America Special Paper 405 (2006) 23-31
63. Grossman J. The Meteoritical Bulletin, No. 76, 1994 January: the US Antarctic meteorite collection. Meteoritics 29 (1994) 100-143
64. Grossman L., and Larimer J.W. Early chemical history of the solar system. Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. 12 (1974) 71-101
65. Grotzinger J.P., and Kasting J.F. New constraints on Precambrian ocean composition. J. Geol. 101 (1993) 235-243
66. Guedel M. The Sun in time: activity and environment. Living Rev. Solar Phys. 4 (2007) 3. [(Online Article): cited 16/4/2008] 〈http://www.livingreviews.org/lrsp-2007-3〉
67. Haldane J.B.S. The origins of life. New Biol. 16 (1954) 21-26
68. Halliday A.N. Mixing, volatile loss and compositional change during impact-driven accretion of the Earth. Nature 427 (2004) 505-509
69. Halliday A.N., Lee D.-C., and Jacobsen S.B. Tungsten isotopes, the timing of metal-silicate fractionation, and the origin of the Earth and Moon. In: Canup R.M., and Righter K. (Eds). Origin of the Earth and Moon (2000), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 45-62
70. Hanks T.C., and Anderson D.L. The early thermal history of the Earth. Phys. Earth Planet. Interiors 2 (1969) 19-29
71. Haqq-Misra, J.D., Domagal-Goldman, S.D., Kasting, P.J., Kasting, J.F., 2007. A revised, hazy methane greenhouse for the Archean Earth. Pers. Comm. (preprint).
72. Harrison T.M., Blichert-Toft J., Mueller J.W., Albarede F., Holden P., and Mojzsis S.J. Heterogeneous Hadean hafnium: evidence of continental crust at 4.4 to 4.5 Ga. Science 310 (2005) 1947-1950
73. Hartmann W.K., and Davis D.R. Satellite-sized planetesimals and lunar origin. Icarus 24 (1975) 504-515
74. Hartmann W.K., Ryder G., Dones L., and Grinspoon D. The time-dependent intense bombardment of the primordial Earth/Moon system. In: Canup R.M., and Righter K. (Eds). Origin of the Earth and Moon (2000), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 493-512
75. Hayes J.M. Organic constituents of meteorites - a review. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 31 (1967) 1395-1440
76. Hayes J.M., and Waldbauer J.R. The carbon cycle and associated redox processes through time. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 361 (2006) 931-950
77. Hayes J.M., Kaplan I.R., and Wedeking K.W. Precambrian organic geochemistry, preservation of the record. In: Schopf J.W. (Ed). Earth's Earliest Biosphere (1983), Princeton University Press, Princeton 93-134
78. Hessler A.M., Lowe D.R., Jones R.L., and Bird D.K. A lower limit for atmospheric carbon dioxide levels 3.2 billion years ago. Nature 428 (2004) 736-738
79. Hofmann H.J., Grey K., Hickman A.H., and Thorpe R.I. Origin of 3.45 Ga coniform stromatolites in Warrawoona Group, Western Australia. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 111 (1999) 1256-1262
80. Holland H.D. The Chemical Evolution of the Atmosphere and Oceans (1984), Princeton University Press, Princeton 582pp
81. Holland H.D. Volcanic gases, black smokers, and the great oxidation event. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 66 (2002) 3811-3826
82. Holland H.D. The oxygenation of the atmosphere and oceans. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 361 (2006) 903-915
83. Hu G.X., Rumble D., and Wang P.L. An ultraviolet laser microprobe for the in situ analysis of multisulfur isotopes and its use in measuring Archean sulfur isotope mass-independent anomalies. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67 (2003) 3101-3118
84. Humayun M., and Cassen P. Processes determining the volatile abundances of the meteorites and terrestrial planets. In: Canup R.M., and Righter K. (Eds). Origin of the Earth and Moon (2000), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 3-24
85. Johnston D.T., Farquhar J., Wing B.A., Kaufman J., Canfield D.E., and Habicht K.S. Multiple sulfur isotope fractionations in biological systems: a case study with sulfate reducers and sulfur disproportionators. Am. J. Sci. 305 (2005) 645-660
86. Junge C.E., Schidlowski M., Eichmann R., and Pietrek H. Model calculations for the terrestrial carbon cycle: carbon isotope geochemistry and evolution of photosynthetic oxygen. J. Geophys. Res. 80 (1975) 4542-4552
87. Kappler A., Pasquero C., Konhauser K.O., and Newman D.K. Deposition of banded iron formations by anoxygenic phototrophic Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria. Geology 33 (2005) 865-868
88. Kasting J.F. Stability of ammonia in the primitive terrestrial atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 87 (1982) 3091-3098
89. Kasting J.F. Bolide impacts and the oxidation state of carbon in the Earth's early atmosphere. Origin Life Evol. Biosphere 20 (1990) 199-231
90. 2 condensation and the climate of early Mars. Icarus 94 (1991) 1-13
91. Kasting J.F. Earth's early atmosphere. Science 259 (1993) 920-926
92. Kasting J.F. Warming early Earth and Mars. Science 276 (1997) 1213-1215
93. Kasting J.F. Archaean atmosphere and climate. Nature 432 (2004) 10.1038/nature03166
94. Kasting J.F. Methane and climate during the Precambrian era. Precambrian Res. 137 (2005) 119-129
95. Kasting J.F., and Brown L.L. Setting the stage: the early atmosphere as a source of biogenic compounds. In: Brack A. (Ed). The Molecular Origins of Life: Assembling the Pieces of the Puzzle (1998), Cambridge University Press, New York 35-56
96. Kasting J.F., and Ono S. Paleoclimates: the first two billion years. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 361 (2006) 917-929
97. Kasting J.F., and Siefert J.L. Life and the evolution of Earth's atmosphere. Science 298 (2002) 1066-1068
98. Kasting J.F., Zahnle K.J., and Walker J.C.G. Photochemistry of methane in the Earth's early atmosphere. Precambrian Res. 20 (1983) 121-148
99. Kasting J.F., Eggler D.H., and Raeburn S.P. Mantle redox evolution and the oxidation state of the Archean atmosphere. J. Geol. 101 (1993) 245-257
100. Kasting J.F., Pavlov A.A., and Siefert J.L. A coupled ecosystem-climate model for predicting the methane concentration in the Archean atmosphere. Origin Life Evol. Biosphere 31 (2001) 271-285
101. Kelley D.S., Karson J.A., Blackman D.K., Früh-Green G.L., Butterfield D.A., Lilley M.D., Olson E.J., Schrenk. M.O., Roe K.K., Lebon. G.T., Rivizzigno P., and and the AT3-60 Shipboard Party. An off-axis hydrothermal vent field near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 30°N. Nature 412 (2001) 145-149
102. Kelley D.S., Karson J.A., Früh-Green G.L., Yoerger D.R., Shank T.M., Butterfield D.A., Hayes J.M., Schrenk M.O., Olson E.J., Proskurowski G., Jakuba M., Bradley A., Larson B., Ludwig K., Glickson D., Buckman K., Bradley A.S., Brazelton W.J., Roe K., Elend M.J., Delacour A., Bernasconi S.M., Lilley M.D., Baross J.A., Summons R.E., and Sylva S.P. A serpentinite-hosted ecosystem: the Lost City hydrothermal field. Science 307 (2005) 1428-1434
103. Kerr R.A. What was a 'wet and warm' early Mars really like?. Science 319 (2008) 1757
104. Kharecha P., Kasting J., and Siefert J. A coupled atmosphere-ecosystem model of the early Archean Earth. Geobiology 3 (2005) 53-76
105. 4 on early Earth surface temperatures. J. Geophys. Res. 92 (1987) 2991-2998
106. Kleine T., Munker C., Mezger K., and Palme H. Rapid accretion and early core formation on asteroids and the terrestrial planets from Hf-W chronometry. Nature 418 (2002) 952-955
107. Köberl C. The late heavy bombardment in the inner solar system: is there a connection to Kuiper Belt objects?. Earth, Moon Planets 92 (2004) 79-87
108. Köberl C. Impact processes on the early Earth. Elements 2 (2006) 211-216
109. Köberl C. Record of impact processes on the early Earth: a review of the first 2.5 billion years. In: Reimold U.W., and Gibson R.L. (Eds). Processes on the early Earth. Geological Society of America Special Paper 405 (2006) 1-22
110. Kopp R.E., Kirschvink J.L., Hilburn I.A., and Nash C.Z. The Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: a climate disaster triggered by the evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis. PNAS 102 (2005) 11131-11136
111. Kramers J. Volatile element abundance patterns and an early liquid water ocean on Earth. Precambrian Res. 126 (2003) 379-395
112. Krasnopolsky V.A., Maillard J.P., and Owen T.C. Detection of methane in the Martian atmosphere: evidence for life?. Icarus 172 (2004) 537-547
113. Kuhn W.R., and Atreya S.K. Ammonia photolysis and the greenhouse effect in the primordial atmosphere of the Earth. Icarus 37 (1979) 207-213
114. Landsberg H.E. The origin of the atmosphere. Sci. Am. 189 August (1953) 82-86
115. Lange M.A., and Ahrens T.J. The evolution of an impact generated atmosphere. Icarus 51 (1982) 96-120
116. Lehninger A.L. Biochemistry (1975), Worth, New York pp. 591-592
117. Levine J.S. The photochemistry of the early atmosphere. In: Levine J.S. (Ed). The Photochemistry of Atmospheres (1985), Academic Press, Orlando 3-38
118. 2 through time inferred from V/Sc ratios in basalts. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 228 (2004) 483-493
119. Loveday J.S., Nelmes R.J., Guthrie M., Belmonte S.A., Allan D.R., Klug D.D., Tse J.S., and Handa Y.P. Stable methane hydrate above 2 GPa and the source of Titan's atmospheric methane. Nature 410 (2001) 661-663
120. Lowe D.R. Abiological origin of described stromatolites older than 3.2 Ga. Geology 22 (1994) 387-390
121. 2 with an overriding tectonic control. Geology 32 (2004) 493-496
122. Luo W., and Stoddard P.R. Comparative hypsometric analysis of Earth, Venus and Mars: evidence for extraterrestrial plate tectonics?. Lunar Planet. Sci. XXXIII (2002) 1512 pdf
123. Lyons J.R., Manning C., and Nimmo F. Formation of methane on Mars by fluid-rock interaction in the crust. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32 (2005) 10.1029/2004GL022161
124. Malin M.C., Edgett K.S., Posiolova L.V., McColley S.M., and Dobrea E.Z.N. Present-day impact cratering rate and contemporary gully activity on Mars. Science 314 (2006) 1573-1577
125. Matsui T., and Abe Y. Evolution of an impact-induced atmosphere and magma ocean on the accreting Earth. Nature 319 (1986) 303-305
126. Matsui T., and Abe Y. Impact-induced atmospheres and oceans on Earth and Venus. Nature 322 (1986) 526-528
127. McKay C.P., and Stoker C.R. The early environment and its evolution on Mars: implications for life. Rev. Geophys. 27 (1989) 189-214
128. Miller S.L. Production of amino acids under possible primitive earth conditions. Science 11 (1953) 528-529
129. Miller S.L. Production of some organic compounds under possible primitive earth conditions. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 77 (1955) 2351-2361
130. Minton D.A., and Malhotra R. Assessing the massive young Sun hypothesis to solve the warm young Earth puzzle. Astrophys. J. 660 (2007) 1700-1706
131. Mojzsis S.J., Arrhenius G., McKeegan K.D., Harrison T.M., Nutman A.P., and Friend C.R.L. Evidence for life on Earth before 3,800 million years ago. Nature 384 (1996) 55-59
132. Mojzsis S.J., Harrison T.M., and Pidgeon R.T. Oxygen-isotope evidence from ancient zircons for liquid water at the Earth's surface 4,300 Myr ago. Nature 409 (2001) 178-181
133. Mojzsis S.J., Koath C.D., Greenwood J.P., McKeegan K.D., and Harrison T.M. Mass-independent isotope effects in Archean (2.5 to 3.8 Ga) sedimentary sulfides determined by ion microprobe analysis. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 67 (2003) 1635-1658
134. Morbidelli A., Chambers J., Lunine J.I., Petit J.M., Robert F., Valsecchi G.B., and Cyr K.E. Source regions and timescales for the delivery of water on Earth. Meteor. Planet. Sci. 35 (2000) 1309-1320
135. Mottl M.J., Glazer B.T., Kaiser R.I., and Meech K.J. Water and astrobiology. Chem. Erde 67 (2007) 253-282
136. Mumma M.J., Novak R.E., DiSanti M.A., Bonev B.P., and Della Russo N. Detection and mapping of methane and water on Mars. Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 36 (2004) 1127
137. Mumma M.J., Novak R.E., Hewagama T., Villanueva G.L., Bonev B.P., Disanti M.A., Smith M.D., and Della Russo N. Absolute abundance of methane and water on Mars: spatial maps. Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 37 (2005) 669
138. Mur L.R., Skulberg O.M., and Utkilen H. Cyanobacteria in the environment. In: Chorus I., and Bartram J. (Eds). Toxic Cyanobacteria in Water: A Guide to Their Public Health Consequences, Monitoring and Management (1999), E. and F.N. Spon, London 15-40
139. Nakamura K., and Kato Y. Carbonate minerals in the Warrawoona Group, Pilbara Craton: implications for continental crust, life and global carbon cycle in the early Archean. Resour. Geol. 52 (2002) 91-100
140. 2 sink in the early Archean. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 68 (2004) 4595-4618
141. Newman M.J., and Rood R.T. Implications of solar evolution for the Earth's early atmosphere. Science 198 (1977) 1035-1037
142. Nisbet E.G., and Sleep N.H. The habitat and nature of early life. Nature 409 (2001) 1083-1091
143. Nutman A.P. Antiquity of the oceans and continents. Elements 2 (2006) 223-227
144. O'Brien D.P., Morbidelli A., and Levison H.F. Terrestrial planet formation with strong dynamical friction. Icarus 184 (2006) 39-58
145. Ohmoto H. Evidence in pre-2.2 Ga paleosols for the early evolution of atmospheric oxygen and terrestrial biota. Geology 24 (1996) 1135-1138
146. Ohmoto H. When did Earth's atmosphere become oxic?. Geochem. News 93 (1997) 26-27
147. Ohmoto H., and Watanabe Y. Palaeoclimatology: archaean palaeosols and Archaean air (reply). Nature 432 (2004) 10.1038/nature03168
148. 2-rich atmosphere before ∼1.8 billion years ago. Nature 429 (2004) 395-399
149. Ohmoto H., Watanabe Y., Bevacqua D., and Otake T. Biogenic origin for organic matter in chert/jasper and shales of the 3.46 Ga Towers Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia. Earth Systems Processes 2, Geol. Society of America Specialty Meetings Abstracts with Programs 1 (2005) 28
150. O'Leary M.H. Carbon isotope fractionation in plants. Phytochemistry 20 (1981) 553-567
151. Ono S., Eigenbrode J.L., Pavlov A.A., Kharecha P., Rumble D., Kasting J.F., and Freeman K.H. New insights into Archean sulfur cycle from mass-independent sulfur isotope records from the Hamersley Basin, Australia. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 213 (2003) 15-30
152. Ono S., Beukes N.J., Rumble D., and Fogel M.F. Early evolution of atmospheric oxygen from multiple-sulur and carbon isotope records of the 2.9 Ga Mozaan Group of the Pongola Supergroup, Southern Africa. S. Afr. J. Geol. 109 (2006) 91-108
153. Ono S., Wing B., Johnston D., Farquhar J., and Rumble D. Mass-dependent fractionation of quadruple stable sulfur isotope system as a new tracer of sulfur biogeochemical cycles. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70 (2006) 2238-2252
154. Oparin A.I. The Origin of Life (1938), Dover, New York 495pp
155. Pace N.R. A molecular view of microbial diversity and the biosphere. Science 276 (1997) 734-740
156. Palme H., and O'Neill H.St.C. Cosmochemical estimates of mantle composition. In: Carlson R.W. (Ed). Treatise on Geochemistry vol. 2 (2003), Elsevier, Amsterdam 1-38
157. Papineau D., Mojzsis S.J., Coath C.D., Karho J.A., and McKeegan K.D. Multi sulfur isotopes of sulfides from sediments in the aftermath of Paleoproterozoic glaciations. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 69 (2005) 5033-5060
158. 4 in the atmosphere of early Earth. J. Geophys. Res. 105 (2000) 11981-11990
159. 2 by organic hazes in the Archean atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (2001) 23267-23287
160. Pavlov A.A., Mills M.J., and Toon O.B. Mystery of the volcanic mass-independent sulfur isotope fractionation signature in the Antarctic ice core. Geophys. Res. Lett. 32 (2005) L12816 10.1029/2005GL022784
161. 18O continental crust and oceans in the early Archean. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 65 (2001) 4215-4229
162. Pepin R.O. On the origin and early evolution of terrestrial planet atmospheres and meteoritic volatiles. Icarus 92 (1991) 2-79
163. Pepin R.O. Atmospheres on the terrestrial planets: clues to origin and evolution. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 252 (2006) 1-14
164. Pollack J.B., Kasting J.F., Richardson S.M., and Poliakoff K. The case for a warm, wet climate on early Mars. Icarus 71 (1987) 203-224
165. Porcelli D., and Pepin R.O. Rare gas constraints on early Earth history. In: Canup R.M., and Righter K. (Eds). Origin of the Earth and Moon (2000), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 435-458
166. Prinn R.G., and Fegley Jr. B. The atmospheres of Venus, Earth and Mars: a critical comparison. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 15 (1987) 171-212
167. Proskurowski G., Lilley M.D., Seewald J.S., Frueh-Green G.L., Olsen E.J., Lupton J.E., Sylva S.P., and Kelley D.S. Abiogenic hydrocarbon production at Lost City hydrothermal field. Science 319 (2008) 604-607
168. Rashby S.E., Sessions A.L., Summons R.E., and Newman D.K. Biosynthesis of 2-methylbacteriohopanepolyols by an anoxygenic autotroph. PNAS 104 (2007) 15014-15099
169. Rasmussen B. Evidence for pervasive petroleum generation and migration in 3.2 and 2.63 Ga shales. Geology 33 (2005) 497-500
170. Raymond S.N., Quinn T., and Lunine J.I. Making other earths: dynamical simulations of terrestrial planet formation and water delivery. Icarus 168 (2004) 1-17
171. Righter K. Not so rare Earth? New developments in understanding the origin of the Earth and Moon. Chem. Erde 67 (2007) 179-200
172. Rose N.M., Rosing M.T., and Bridgewater D. The origin of metacarbonate rocks in the Archaean Isua Supracrustal Belt, West Greenland. Am. J. Sci. 296 (1996) 1004-1044
173. 13C depleted carbon microparticles in >3700-Ma sea-floor sedimentary rocks from West Greenland. Science 283 (1999) 674-676
174. Rosing M.T., and Frei R. U-rich sea-floor sediments from Greenland - indications of >3700 Ma oxygenic photosynthesis. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 217 (2004) 237-244
175. Rosing M.T., Rose N.M., Bridgewater D., and Thomsen H.S. Earliest part of Earth's stratigraphic record: a reappraisal of the >3.7 Ga Isua (Greenland) supracrustal sequence. Geology 24 (1996) 43-46
176. Rubey W.W. Geologic history of sea water: an attempt to state the problem. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 62 (1951) 1111-1147
177. Rubey W.W. Development of the hydrosphere and atmosphere, with special reference to probable composition of the early atmosphere. In: Poldervaart A. (Ed). Crust of the Earth. Geological Society of America Special Paper 62 (1955) 631-664
178. Rye R., Kuo P.H., and Holland H.D. Atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations before 2.2 billion years ago. Nature 378 (1995) 603-605
179. Sackman I.-J., and Boothroyd A.I. Our Sun. V. A bright young sun consistent with helioseismology and warm temperatures on ancient Earth and Mars. Astrophys. J. 583 (2003) 1024-1039
180. Safronov V.S. The heating of the Earth during its formation. Icarus 33 (1978) 3-12
181. Safronov V.S., and Koslovskaya S.V. Heating of the Earth by impact of accreted bodies. Izvestiya, Earth Phys. 13 (1977) 677-684
182. Sagan C., and Chyba C. The early faint Sun paradox: organic shielding of ultraviolet-labile greenhouse gases. Science 276 (1997) 1217-1221
183. Sagan C., and Mullen G. Earth and Mars: evolution of atmospheres and surface temperatures. Science 177 (1972) 52-56
184. Saxena S.K., and Fei Y. Phase equilibrium in a system of chondritic composition: implications for early mantle-fluid compositions. J. Geol. 96 (1988) 601-607
185. Schaefer L., and Fegley Jr. B. Outgassing of ordinary chondritic material and some of its implications for the chemistry of asteroids, planets and satellites. Icarus 186 (2007) 462-483
186. Schidlowski M., Hayes J.M., and Kaplan I.R. Isotopic inferences of ancient biochemistries: carbon, sulfur, hydrogen, and nitrogen. In: Schopf J.W. (Ed). Earth's Earliest Biosphere (1983), Princeton University Press, Princeton 149-186
187. Schönberg R., Kamber B.S., Kollerson K.D., and Eugster O. New W isotope evidence for rapid terrestrial accretion and very early core formation. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 66 (2002) 3151-3160
188. Schopf J.W. Microfossils of the early Archean Apex Chert: new evidence of the antiquity of life. Science 260 (1993) 640-646
189. Schopf J.W., and Packer B.M. Early Archean microfossils from Warrawoona Group, Australia. Science 237 (1987) 70-73
190. Schopf J.W., Kudryavtsev A.B., Czaja A.D., and Tripathi A.B. Evidence of Archean life: stromatolites and microfossils. Precambrian Res. 158 (2007) 141-155
191. Seewald J.S. Aqueous geochemistry of low molecular weight hydrocarbons at elevated temperatures and pressures: constraints from mineral buffered laboratory experiments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 65 (2001) 1641-1664
192. Seewald J.S., Seyfried Jr. W.E., and Thornton E.C. Organic-rich sediment alteration: an experimental and theoretical study at elevated temperatures and pressures. Appl. Geochem. 5 (1990) 193-209
193. Seewald J.S., Seyfried Jr. W.E., and Shanks III W.C. Variations in the chemical and stable isotope composition of carbon and sulfur species during organic-rich sediment alteration: an experimental and theoretical study of hydrothermal activity at Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 58 (1994) 5065-5082
194. Seewald J.S., Zolotov M.Y., and McCollom T. Experimental investigation of single carbon compounds under hydrothermal conditions. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 70 (2006) 446-460
195. Shields G., and Veizer J. Precambrian marine carbonate isotope database: version 1.1. Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst. 3 (2002) 10.1029/2001GC000266
196. Sill G.T., and Wilkening L.L. Ice clathrate as a possible source of the atmospheres of the terrestrial planets. Icarus 33 (1977) 13-22
197. Sleep N.H. Palaeoclimatology: Archaean paleosols and Archaean air. Nature 432 (2004) 10.1038/nature03167
198. Sleep N.H., and Zahnle K. Carbon dioxide cycling and implications for climate on ancient Earth. J. Geophys. Res. 106 (2001) 1373-1399
199. Sleep N.H., Zahnle K., and Neuhoff P.S. Initiation of clement surface conditions on the earliest Earth. PNAS 98 (2001) 3666-3672
200. Strauss H., and Moore T.B. Abundances and isotopic compositions of carbon and sulfur species in whole rock and kerogen samples. In: Schopf J.W., and Klein C. (Eds). The Proterozoic Biosphere (1992), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 709-798
201. Stribling R., and Miller S.L. Energy yields for hydrogen cyanide and formaldehyde syntheses: the HCN and amino acid concentrations in the primitive ocean. Origin Life Evol. Biosphere 17 (1987) 261-273
202. Tian F., Toon O.B., Pavlov A.A., and De Steck H. A hydrogen-rich early Earth atmosphere. Science 308 (2005) 1014-1017
203. Turekian K.K., and Clark S.P. Inhomogeneous accumulation of the earth from the primitive solar nebula. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 6 (1969) 346-348
204. Turner G. The early chronology of the Moon: evidence for the early collisional history of the Solar System. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A 285 (1977) 97-103
205. Tyburczy J.A., Xiaomei X., Ahrens T.J., and Epstein S. Shock-induced devolatilization and isotopic fractionation of H and C from Murchison meteorite: some implications for planetary accretion. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 192 (2001) 23-30
206. Ueno Y., Yamada K., Yoshida N., Maruyama S., and Isozaki Y. Evidence from fluid inclusions for microbial methanogenesis in the early Archaean era. Nature 440 (2006) 516-519
207. Valley J.W., Peck W.H., King E.M., and Wilde S.A. A cool early earth. Geology 30 (2002) 351-354
208. Van Zuilen M.A., Lepland A., Terranes J., Finarelli J., Wahlen M., and Arrhenius G. Graphite and carbonates in the 3.8 Ga-old Isua supracrustal belt, southern West Greenland. Precambrian Res. 126 (2003) 331-348
209. Veizer J. Geologic evolution of the Archean-early Proterozoic Earth. In: Schopf J.W. (Ed). Earth's Earliest Biosphere (1983), Princeton University Press, Princeton 240-259
210. Veizer J., Hoefs J., Lowe D.R., and Thurston P.C. Geochemistry of Precambrian carbonates: II. Archean greenstone belts and Archean sea water. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 53 (1989) 859-871
211. Von Damm K.L., Edmond J.M., Measures C.I., and Grant B. Chemistry of submarine hydrothermal solutions at Guaymas Basin, Gulf of California. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 49 (1985) 2221-2237
212. Walker J.C.G. Evolution of the Atmosphere (1977), Macmillan, New York 318pp
213. Walker J.C.G., Hays P.B., and Kasting J.F. A negative feedback mechanism for the long-term stabilization of Earth's surface temperature. J. Geophys. Res. 86 (1981) 9776-9782
214. Walker R.J., Horan M.F., Shearer C.K., and Papike J.J. Low abundances of highly siderophile elements in the lunar mantle: evidence for prolonged late accretion. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 224 (2004) 399-413
215. Watson E.B., and Harrison T.M. Zircon thermometer reveals minimum melting conditions on early Earth. Science 308 (2005) 841-844
216. Wedepohl K.H. The composition of the continental crust. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 59 (1995) 1217-1239
217. Weidenschilling S.J., and Cuzzi J.N. Formation of planetesimals in the solar nebula. In: Levy E.H., and Lunine J.I. (Eds). Protostars and Planets III (1993), University of Arizona Press, Tucson 1031-1060
218. Westall F., de Wit M.J., Dann J., van der Gaast S., de Ronde C.E.J., and Gerneke D. Early Archean fossil bacteria and biofilms in hydrothermally-influenced sediments from the Barberton Greenstone belt, South Africa. Precambrian Res. 106 (2001) 93-116
219. Wetherill G.W. The role of large bodies in the formation of the Earth and Moon. Seventh Lunar Science Conference vol. 3 (1976) 3245-3257
220. Wetherill G.W., and Stewart G.R. Formation of planetary embryos - effects of fragmentation, low relative velocity, and independent variation of eccentricity and inclination. Icarus 106 (1993) 190-209
221. Widdel F., Schnell S., Heising S., Ehrenreich A., Assmus B., and Schink B. Ferrous iron oxidation by anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria. Nature 362 (1993) 834-836
222. Wilde S.A., Valley J.W., Peck W.H., and Graham C.M. Evidence from detrital zircons for the existence of continental crust and oceans on the Earth 4.4 Gyr ago. Nature 409 (2001) 175-178
223. Wilkinson B.H. Humans as geologic agents: a deep-time perspective. Geology 33 (2005) 161-164
224. Williams S.N., Schaeffer S.J., Cavalche V., and Lopez D. Global carbon dioxide emission to the atmosphere by volcanoes. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 56 (1992) 1765-1770
225. Williams L.B., Canfield B., Vogelsonger K.M., and Holloway J.R. Organic molecules formed in a "primordial womb". Geology 33 (2005) 913-916
226. Woese C.R., and Fox G.E. Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: the primary kingdoms. PNAS 74 (1977) 5088-5090
227. Woese C.R., Kandler O., and Wheelis M.L. Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. PNAS 87 (1990) 4576-4579
228. Wood B.E., Mueller H.-R., Zank G.P., Linsky J.L., and Redfield S. New mass loss measurements from astrospheric Ly-α absorption. Astrophys. J. Lett. 628 (2005) L143-L146
229. Yin Q., Jacobsen S.B., Yamashita K., Blichert-Toft J., Télouk P., and Albarède F. A short timescale for terrestrial planet formation from Hf-W chronometry of meteorites. Nature 418 (2002) 949-952
230. Zahnle K.F. Photochemistry of methane and the formation of hydrocyanic acid (HCN) in the Earth's early atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 91 (1986) 2819-2834
231. Zahnle K. Earth's earliest atmosphere. Elements 2 (2006) 217-222
232. Zahnle K., and Sleep N.H. Carbon dioxide cycling through the mantle and implications for the climate of ancient Earth. In: Fowler C.M.R., Ebinger C.J., and Hawkesworth C.J. (Eds). The Early Earth: Physical, Chemical, and Biological Development. Geological Society of London, London (2002) 231-257
233. Zahnle K., and Sleep N.H. Impacts and the early evolution of life. In: Thomas P., Chyba C., and McKay C. (Eds). Comets and the Origin of Life. Second ed (2006), Springer, Berlin 175-208
234. Zerkle, A.L., Cox, R.P., Junium, C.K., House, C.H., Canfield, D.E., 2005. Metal limitation of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria through time and resulting isotopic trends. Earth Systems Processes 2, Geological Society of America Specialty Meetings Abstracts with Programs 1, 40.