Pharmacogenomics: The influence of genomic variation on drug response

Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry

Volumn 4, Issue 13, 2004, Pages 1399-1409

  Thomas, Fabienne J ^a   McLeod, Howard L ^a,b   Watters, James W ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b USA   (United States)

Author keywords

Drug therapy; Pharmacogenetics; Pharmacogenomics; SNP

Indexed keywords

ABC TRANSPORTER; ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTILEUKEMIC AGENT; ANTIVIRUS AGENT; AZATHIOPRINE; CARRIER PROTEIN; COUMARIN DERIVATIVE; CYTOCHROME P450 2C9; DIGOXIN; DNA; DRUG METABOLITE; DRUG METABOLIZING ENZYME; FEXOFENADINE; HYPOXANTHINE PHOSPHORIBOSYLTRANSFERASE; INDINAVIR; MERCAPTOPURINE; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE PROTEIN 1; NUCLEOTIDE DERIVATIVE; PRODRUG; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RITONAVIR; SAQUINAVIR; THIOGUANOSINE; THIOPURINE METHYLTRANSFERASE; TIOGUANINE; UNINDEXED DRUG; WARFARIN; XANTHINE OXIDASE; XENOBIOTIC AGENT;

BLEEDING; BLOOD TOXICITY; BONE MARROW SUPPRESSION; CELL LEVEL; DNA POLYMORPHISM; DNA REPAIR; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DISPOSITION; DRUG DOSE REGIMEN; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG TISSUE LEVEL; DRUG TRANSPORT; DRUG USE; GENE IDENTIFICATION; GENETIC CODE; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HUMAN; INHERITANCE; PHARMACOGENOMICS; PREDICTION; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT PLANNING;

EID: 4544291786     PISSN: 15680266     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1568026043387638     Document Type: Review

References (81)

1. Evans, W.E.; McLeod, H.L. Pharmacogenomics - drug disposition, drug targets, and side effects. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 348, 538-549.
2. Weinshilboum, R.M.; Sladek, S.L. Mercaptopurine pharmacogenetics: monogenic inheritance of erythrocyte thiopurine methyltransferase activity. American Journal of Human Genetics 1980, 32, 651-662.
3. McLeod, H.L.; Relling, M.V.; Liu, Q.; Pui, C.H.; Evans, W.E. Polymorphic thiopurine methyltransferase in erythrocytes is indicative of activity in leukemic blasts from children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 1995, 85, 1897-1902.
4. McLeod, H.L.; Miller, D.R.; Evans, W.E. Azathioprine-induced myelosuppression in thiopurine methyltransferase deficient heart transplant recipient. Lancet 1993, 341, 1151.
5. McLeod, H.L.; Krynetski, E.Y.; Relling, M.V.; Evans, W.E. Genetic polymorphism of thiopurine methyltransferase and its clinical relevance for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Leukemia 2000, 14, 567-572.
6. Krynetski, E.Y.; Schuetz, J.D.; Galpin, AJ.; Pui, C.H.; Relling, M.V.; Evans, W.E. A single point mutation leading to loss of catalytic activity in human thiopurine S-methyltransferase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1995, 92, 949-953.
7. Tai, H.L.; Krynetski, E.Y.; Yates, C.R.; Loennechen, T.; Fessing, M.Y.; Krynetskaia, N.F.; Evans, W.E. Thiopurine S-methyltransferase deficiency: two nucleotide transitions define the most prevalent mutant allele associated with loss of catalytic activity in Caucasians. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 1996, 58, 694-702.
8. Otterness, D.; Szumlanski, C.; Lennard, L.; Klemetsdal, B.; Aarbakke, J.; Park-Hah, J.O.; Iven, H.; Schmiegelow, K.; Branum, E.; O'Brien, J.; Weinshilboum, R. Human thiopurine methyltransferase pharmacogenetics: gene sequence polymorphisms. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1997, 62, 60-73.
9. Yates, C.R.; Krynetski, E.Y.; Loennechen, T.; Fessing, M.Y.; Tai, H.L.; Pui, C.H.; Relling, M.V.; Evans, W.E. Molecular diagnosis of thiopurine S-methyltransferase deficiency: genetic basis for azathioprine and mercaptopurine intolerance. Ann. Intern. Med. 1997, 126, 608-614.
10. Tai, H.L.; Krynetski, E.Y.; Schuetz, E.G.; Yanishevski, Y.; Evans, W.E. Enhanced proteolysis of thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT) encoded by mutant alleles in humans (TPMT*3A, TPMT*2): mechanisms for the genetic polymorphism of TPMT activity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1997, 94, 6444-6449.
11. Aithal, G.P.; Day, C.P.; Kesteven, P.J.; Daly, A.K. Association of polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 CYP2C9 with warfarin dose requirement and risk of bleeding complications. Lancet 1999, 353, 717-719.
12. Tai, H.L.; Fessing, M.Y.; Bonten, E.J.; Yanishevsky, Y.; d'Azzo, A.; Krynetski, E.Y.; Evans, W.E. Enhanced proteasomal degradation of mutant human thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT) in mammalian cells: mechanism for TPMT protein deficiency inherited by TPMT*2, TPMT*3A, TPMT*3B or TPMT*3C. Pharmacogenetics 1999, 9, 641-650.
13. Lennard, L.; Van Loon, J.A.; Weinshilboum, R.M. Pharmacogenetics of acute azathioprine toxicity: relationship to thiopurine methyltransferase genetic polymorphism. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 1989, 46, 149-154.
14. Ben Ari, Z.; Mehta, A.; Lennard, L.; Burroughs, A.K. Azathioprine-induced myelosuppression due to thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency in a patient with autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol. 1995, 23, 351-354.
15. Evans, W.E.; Horner, M.; Chu, Y.Q.; Kalwinsky, D.; Roberts, W.M. Altered mercaptopurine metabolism, toxic effects, and dosage requirement in a thiopurine methyltransferase-deficient child with acute lymphocytic leukemia. J. Pediatr. 1991, 119, 985-989.
16. Lennard, L.; Gibson, B.E.; Nicole, T.; Lilleyman, J.S. Congenital thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency and 6-mercaptopurine toxicity during treatment for acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Arch. Dis. Child. 1993, 69, 577-579.
17. McBride, K.L.; Gilchrist, G.S.; Smithson, W.A.; Weinshilboum, R.M.; Szumlanski, C.L. Severe 6-thioguanine-induced marrow aplasia in a child with acute lymphoblastic leukemia and inhibited thiopurine methyltransferase deficiency. J. Pediatr. Hematol. Oncol. 2000, 22, 441-445.
18. Relling, M.V.; Hancock, M.L.; Rivera, G.K.; Sandlund, J.T.; Ribeiro, R.C.; Krynetski, E.Y.; Pui, C.H.; Evans, W.E. Mercaptopurine therapy intolerance and heterozygosity at the thiopurine S-methyltransferase gene locus. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1999, 91, 2001-2008.
19. McLeod, H.L.; Coulthard, S.; Thomas, A.E.; Pritchard, S.C.; King, D.J.; Richards, S.M.; Eden, O.B.; Hall, A.G.; Gibson, B.E. Analysis of thiopurine methyltransferase variant alleles in childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Br. J. Haematol. 1999, 105, 696-700.
20. Black, A.J.; McLeod, H.L.; Capell, H.A.; Powrie, R.H.; Matowe, L.K.; Pritchard, S.C.; Collie-Duguid, E.S.; Reid, D.M. Thiopurine methyltransferase genotype predicts therapy-limiting severe toxicity from azathioprine. Ann. Intern. Med. 1998, 129, 716-718.
21. Relling, M.V.; Hancock, M.L.; Boyett, J.M.; Pui, C.H.; Evans, W.E. Prognostic importance of 6-mercaptopurine dose intensity in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Blood 1999, 93, 2817-2823.
22. Lennard, L.; Lilleyman, J.S.; Van Loon, J.; Weinshilboum, R.M. Genetic variation in response to 6-mercaptopurine for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Lancet 1990, 336, 225-229.
23. Daly, A.K.; King, B.P. Pharmacogenetics of oral anticoagulants. Pharmacogenetics 2003, 13, 247-252.
24. Scordo, M.G.; Aklillu, E.; Yasar, U.; Dahl, M.L.; Spina, E.; Ingelman-Sundberg, M. Genetic polymorphism of cytochrome P450 2C9 in a Caucasian and a black African population. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2001, 52, 447-450.
25. Cascorbi, I. A novel CYP2C9 intron 2 T/C tgransition and linkage to mutations Leu359 and Cys144. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 1998, 63, 198.
26. Shintani, M.; Ieiri, I.; Inoue, K.; Mamiya, K.; Ninomiya, H.; Tashiro, N.; Higuchi, S.; Otsubo, K. Genetic polymorphisms and functional characterization of the 5′-flanking region of the human CYP2C9 gene: in vitro and in vivo studies. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 2001, 70, 175-182.
27. Crespi, C.L.; Miller, V.P. The R144C change in the CYP2C9*2 allele alters interaction of the cytochrome P450 with NADPH:cytochrome P450. oxidoreductase. Pharmacogenetics 1997, 7, 203-210.
28. Takahashi, H.; Echizen, H. Pharmacogenetics of warfarin elimination and its clinical implications. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2001, 40, 587-603.
29. Yamazaki, H.; Inoue, K.; Chiba, K.; Ozawa, N.; Kawai, T.; Suzuki, Y.; Goldstein, J.A.; Guengerich, F.P.; Shimada, T. Comparative studies on the catalytic roles of cytochrome P450 2C9 and its Cys- and Leu-variants in the oxidation of warfarin, flurbiprofen, and diclofenac by human liver microsomes. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1998, 56, 243-251.
30. Haining, R.L.; Hunter, A.P.; Veronese, M.E.; Trager, W.F.; Rettie, A.E. Allelic variants of human cytochrome P450 2C9: baculovirus-mediated expression, purification, structural characterization, substrate stereoselectivity, and prochiral selectivity of the wild-type and I359L mutant forms. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1996, 333, 447-458.
31. Rettie, A.E.; Wienkers, L.C.; Gonzalez, F.J.; Trager, W.F.; Korzekwa, K.R. Impaired (S)-warfarin metabolism catalysed by the R144C allelic variant of CYP2C9. Pharmacogenetics 1994, 4, 39-42.
32. Higashi, M.K.; Veenstra, D.L., Kondo, L.M.; Wittkowsky, A.K.; Srinouanprachanh, S.L.; Farin, F.M.; Rettie, A.E. Association between CYP2C9 genetic variants and anticoagulation-related outcomes during warfarin therapy. JAMA 2002, 287, 1690-1698.
33. Ameyaw, M.M.; Regateiro, F.; Li, T.; Liu, X.; Tariq, M.; Mobarek, A.; Thornton, N.; Folayan, G.O.; Githang'a, J.; Indalo, A.; Ofori-Adjei, D.; Price-Evans, D.A.; McLeod, H.L. MDR1 pharmacogenetics: frequency of the C3435T mutation in exon 26 is significantly influenced by ethnicity. Pharmacogenetics 2001, 11, 217-221.
34. de Lannoy, I.A.; Silverman, M. The MDR1 gene product, P-glycoprotein, mediates the transport of the cardiac glycoside, digoxin. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1992, 189, 551-557.
35. Lee, C.G.; Gottesman, M.M.; Cardarelli, C.O.; Ramachandra, M.; Jeang, K.T.; Ambudkar, S.V.; Pastan, I.; Dey, S. HIV-1 protease inhibitors are substrates for the MDR1 multidrug transporter. Biochemistry 1998, 37, 3594-3601.
36. Loscher, W.; Potschka, H. Role of multidrug transporters in pharmacoresistance to antiepileptic drugs. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2002, 301, 7-14.
37. Cascorbi, I.; Gerloff, T.; Johne, A.; Meisel, C.; Hoffmeyer, S.; Schwab, M.; Schaeffeler, E.; Eichelbaum, M.; Brinkmann, U.; Roots, I. Frequency of single nucleotide polymorphisms in the P-glycoprotein drug transporter MDR1 gene in white subjects. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2001, 69, 169-174.
38. Thiebaut, F.; Tsuruo, T.; Hamada, H.; Gottesman, M.M.; Pastan, I.; Willingham, M.C. Cellular localization of the multidrug-resistance gene product P-glycoprotein in normal human tissues. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1987, 84, 7735-7738.
39. Borst, P.; Schinkel, A.H. Genetic dissection of the function of mammalian P-glycoproteins. Trends Genet. 1997, 13, 217-222.
40. Hoffmeyer, S.; Burk, O.; von Richter, O.; Arnold, H.P.; Brockmoller, J.; Johne, A.; Cascorbi, I.; Gerloff, T.; Roots, I.; Eichelbaum, M.; Brinkmann, U. Functional polymorphisms of the human multidrug-resistance gene: multiple sequence variations and correlation of one allele with P-glycoprotein expression and activity in vivo. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97, 3473-3478.
41. Kim, R.B.; Leake, B,F.; Choo, E.F.; Dresser, G.K.; Kubba, S.V.; Schwarz, U.I.; Taylor, A.; Xie, H.G.; McKinsey, J.; Zhou, S.; Lan, L.B.; Schuetz, J.D.; Schuetz, E.G.; Wilkinson, G.R. Identification of functionally variant MDR1 alleles among European Americans and African Americans. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2001, 70, 189-199.
42. Kim, R.B.; Fromm, M.F.; Wandel, C.; Leake, B.; Wood, A.J.; Roden, D.M.; Wilkinson, G.R. The drug transporter P-glycoprotein limits oral absorption and brain entry of HIV-1 protease inhibitors. J. Clin. Invest 1998, 101, 289-294.
43. Fellay, J.; Marzolini, C.; Meaden, E.R.; Back, D.J.; Buclin, T.; Chave, J.P.; Decosterd, L.A.; Furrer, H.; Opravil, M.; Pantaleo, G.; Retelska, D.; Ruiz, L.; Schinkel, A.H.; Vernazza, P.; Eap, C.B.; Telenti, A.; The Swiss, H.I.V.C.S. Response to antiretroviral treatment in HIV-1-infected individuals with allelic variants of the multidrug resistance transporter 1: a pharmacogenetics study. Lancet 2002, 359, 30-36.
44. Lucia, M.B.; Cauda, R.; Landay, A.L.; Malorni, W.; Donelli, G.; Ortona, L. Transmembrane P-glycoprotein (P-gp/P-170) in HIV infection: analysis of lymphocyte surface expression and drug-unrelated function. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 1995, 11, 893-901.
45. Browne, T.R.; Holmes, G.L. Epilepsy. N. Engl. J. Med. 2001, 344, 1145-1151.
46. Sisodiya, S.M.; Lin, W.R.; Harding, B.N.; Squier, M.V.; Thom, M. Drug resistance in epilepsy: expression of drug resistance proteins in common causes of refractory epilepsy. Brain 2002, 125, 22-31.
47. Kwan, P.; Sills, G.J.; Butler, E.; Gant, T.W.; Meldrum, B.S.; Brodie, M.J. Regional expression of multidrug resistance genes in genetically epilepsy-prone rat brain after a single audiogenic seizure. Epilepsia 2002, 43, 1318-1323.
48. Siddiqui, A.; Kerb, R.; Weale, M.E.; Brinkmann, U.; Smith, A.; Goldstein, D.B.; Wood, N.W.; Sisodiya, S.M. Association of multidrug resistance in epilepsy with a polymorphism in the drug-transporter gene ABCB1. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 348, 1442-1448.
49. Leith Cp Fau - Kopecky, K.J.; Kopecky Kj Fau - Godwin, J.; Godwin J Fau - McConnell, T.; McConnell T Fau - Slovak, M.L.; Slovak Ml Fau - Chen, I.M.; Chen Im Fau - Head, D.R.; Head Dr Fan - Appelbaum, F.R.; Appelbaum Fr Fau - Willman, C.L.; Willman, C.L. Acute myeloid leukemia in the elderly: assessment of multidrug resistance. Blood 1997, 89, 3323-3329.
50. Kottaridis Pd Fau - Gale, R.E.; Gale Re Fau - Frew, M.E,; Frew Me Fau - Harrison, G.; Harrison G Fau - Langabeer, S.E.; Langabeer Se Fau - Belton, A.A.; Belton Aa Fau - Walker, H.; Walker H Fau - Wheatley, K.; Wheatley K Fau - Bowen, D.T.; Bowen Dt Fau - Burnett, A.K.; Burnett Ak Fau - Goldstone, A.H.; Goldstone Ah Fau - Linch, D.C.; Linch, D.C. The presence of a FLT3 internal tandem duplication in patients with acute. Blood 2001, 98, 1752-1759.
51. Grimwade D Fau - Walker, H.; Walker H Fau - Oliver, F.; Oliver F Fau - Wheatley, K.; Wheatley K Fau - Harrison, C.; Harrison C Fau - Harrison, G.; Harrison G Fau - Rees, J.; Rees J Fau - Hann, I.; Hann I Fau - Stevens, R.; Stevens R Fau - Burnett, A.; Burnett A Fau - Goldstone, A.; Goldstone, A. The importance of diagnostic cytogenetics on outcome in AML: analysis of Blood 1998, 92, 2322-2333.
52. Dastugue, N.; Payen, C.; Lafage-Pochitaloff, M.; Bernard, P.; Leroux, D.; Huguet-Rigal, F.; Stoppa, A.M.; Marit, G.; Molina, L.; Michallet, M.; et al. Prognostic significance of karyotype in de novo adult acute myeloid leukemia. The BGMT group. Leukemia 1995, 9, 1491-1498.
53. Raspadori, D.; Lauria, F.; Ventura, M.A.; Rondelli, D.; Visani, G.; de Vivo, A.; Tura, S. Incidence and prognostic relevance of CD34 expression in acute myeloblastic leukemia: analysis of 141 cases. Leuk. Res. 1997, 21, 603-607.
54. Zochbauer, S.; Gsur, A.; Brunner, R.; Kyrle, P.A.; Lechner, K.; Pirker, R. P-glycoprotein expression as unfavorable prognostic factor in acute myeloid leukemia. Leukemia 1994, 8, 974-977.
55. Raspadori, D.; Damiani, D.; Michieli, M.; Stocchi, R.; Gentili, S.; Gozzetti, A.; Masolini, P.; Michelutti, A.; Geromin, A.; Fanin, R.; Lauria, F. CD56 and PGP expression in acute myeloid leukemia: impact on clinical outcome. Haematologica 2002, 87, 1135-1140.
56. Illmer, T.; Schuler, U.S., Thiede, C.; Schwarz, U.I.; Kim, R.B.; Gotthard, S.; Freund, D.; Schakel, U.; Ehninger, G.; Schaich, M. MDR1 gene polymorphisms affect therapy outcome in acute myeloid leukemia patients. Cancer Res. 2002, 62, 4955-4962.
57. Reardon, J.T.; Sancar, A., Molecular mechanism of nucleolide excision repair in mammalian cells, in Advances in DNA damage and repair, M. Dizdaroglu and A. Karakaya, Editors. 1998, Plenum Publishing Corp.: New York. p. 377-393.
58. Johnson, N.P.; Hoeschele, J.D.; Rahn, R.O. Kinetic analysis of the in vitro binding of radioactive cis- and trans-dichlorodiammineplatinum(II) to DNA.PG - 151-69. Chem. Biol. Interact 1980, 30, 151-169.
59. Beck, D.J.; Brubaker, R.R. Effect of cis-platinum(II)diamminodichloride on wild type and deoxyribonucleic acid repair deficient mutants of Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 1973, 116, 1247-1252.
60. Beck, D.J.; Popoff, S.; Sancar, A.; Rupp, W.D. Reactions of the UVRABC excision nuclease with DNA damaged by diamminedichloroplatinum(II). Nucleic Acids Res. 1985, 13, 7395-7412.
61. Brouwer, J.; van de Putte, P.; Fichtinger-Schepman, A.M.; Reedijk, J. Base-pair substitution hotspots in GAG and GCG nucleotide sequences in Escherichia coli K-12 induced by cisdiamminedichloroplatinum (II). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1981, 78, 7010-7014.
62. de Boer, J.; Hoeijmakers, J.H. Nucleotide excision repair and human syndromes. Carcinogenesis 2000, 21, 453-460.
63. Coin, F.; Marinoni, J.C.; Rodolfo, C.; Fribourg, S.; Pedrini, A.M.; Egly, J.M. Mutations in the XPD helicase gene result in XP and TTD phenotypes, preventing interaction between XPD and the p44 subunit of TFIIH. Nat. Genet. 1998, 20, 184-188.
64. Park, D.J.; Stoehlmacher, J.; Zhang, W.; Tsao-Wei, D.D.; Groshen, S.; Lenz, H.J. A Xeroderma pigmentosum group D gene polymorphism predicts clinical outcome to platinum-based chemotherapy in patients with advanced colorectal cancer. Cancer Res. 2001, 61, 8654-8658.
65. Lunn, R.M.; Helzlsouer, K.J.; Parshad, R.; Umbach, D.M.; Harris, E.L.; Sanford, K.K.; Bell, D.A. XPD polymorphisms: effects on DNA repair proficiency. Carcinogenesis 2000, 21, 551-555.
66. Seker, H.; Butkiewicz, D.; Bowman, E.D.; Rusin, M.; Hedayati, M.; Grossman, L.; Harris, C.C. Functional significance of XPD polymorphic variants: attenuated apoptosis in human lymphoblastoid cells with the XPD 312 Asp/Asp genotype. Cancer Res. 2001, 61, 7430-7434.
67. Stoehlmacher, J.; Ghaderi, V.; Iobal, S.; Groshen, S.; Tsao-Wei, D.; Park, D.; Lenz, H.J. A polymorphism of the XRCC1 gene predicts for response to platinum based treatment in advanced colorectal cancer. Anticancer Res. 2001, 21, 3075-3079.
68. Zhang, K.; Mack, P.; Wong, K.P. Glutathione-related mechanisms in cellular resistance to anticancer drugs. Int. J. Oncol. 1998, 12, 871-882.
69. Nishimura T Fau - Newkirk, K.; Newkirk K Fau - Sessions, R.B.; Sessions Rb Fau - Andrews, P.A.; Andrews Pa Fau - Trock, B.J.; Trock Bj Fau - Rasmussen, A.A.; Rasmussen Aa Fau - Montgomery, E.A.; Montgomery Ea Fau - Bischoff, E.K.; Bischoff Ek Fau - Cullen, K.J.; Cullen, K.J. Immunohistochemical staining for glutathione S-transferase predicts. Clin. Cancer Res. 1996, 2, 1859-1865.
70. Shiga H Fau - Heath, E.I.; Heath Ei Fau - Rasmussen, A.A.; Rasmussen Aa Fau Trock, B.; Trock B Fau - Johnston, P.G.; Johnston Pg Fau - Forastiere, A.A.; Forastiere Aa Fau - Langmacher, M.; Langmacher M Fau - Baylor, A.; Baylor A Fau - Lee, M.; Lee M Fau - Cullen, K.J.; Cullen, K.J. Prognostic value of p53, glutathione S-transferase pi, and thymidylate. Clin. Cancer Res. 1999, 5, 4097-4104.
71. Watson Ma Fau - Stewart, R.K.; Stewart Rk Fau - Smith, G.B.; Smith Gb Fau - Massey, T.E.; Massey Te Fau - Bell, D.A.; Bell, D.A. Human glutathione S-transferase P1 polymorphisms: relationship to lung. Carcinogenesis 1998, 19, 275-280.
72. Seki, T.; Tanaka, T.; Nakamura, Y. Genomic structure and multiple single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of the thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT) gene. J. Hum. Genet. 2000, 45, 299-302.
73. Ambudkar Sv Fau - Dey, S.; Dey S Fau - Hrycyna, C.A.; Hrycyna Ca Fau - Ramachandra, M.; Ramachandra M Fau - Pastan, I.; Pastan I Fau - Gottesman, M.M.; Gottesman, M.M. Biochemical, cellular, and pharmacological aspects of the multidrug. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 1999, 39, 361-398.
74. Romkes, M.; Faletto, M.B.; Blaisdell, J.A.; Raucey, J.L.; Goldstein, J.A. Cloning and expression of complementary DNAs for multiple members of the human cytochrome P450IIC subfamily. Biochemistry 1991, 30, 3247-3255.
75. Sullivan-Klose, T.H.; Ghanayem, B.I.; Bell, D.A.; Zhang, Z.Y.; Kaminsky, L.S.; Shenfield, G.M.; Miners, J.O.; Birkett, D.J.; Goldstein, J.A. The role of the CYP2C9-Leu359 allelic variant in the tolbutamide polymorphism. Pharmacogenetics 1996, 6, 341-349.
76. Kidd, R.S.; Straughn, A.B.; Meyer, M.C.; Blaisdell, J.; Goldstein, J.A.; Dalton, J.T. Pharmacokinetics of chlorpheniramine, phenytoin, glipizide and nifedipine in an individual homozygous for the CYP2C9*3 allele. Pharmacogenetics 1999, 9, 71-80.
77. Takanashi, K.; Tainaka, H.; Kobayashi, K.; Yasumori, T.; Hosakawa, M.; Chiba, K. CYP2C9 Ile359 and Leu359 variants: enzyme kinetic study with seven substrates. Pharmacogenetics 2000, 10, 95-104.
78. Imai, J.; Ieiri, I.; Mamiya, K.; Miyahara, S.; Furuumi, H.; Nanba, E.; Yamane, M.; Fukumaki, Y.; Ninomiya, H.; Tashiro, N.; Otsubo, K.; Higuchi, S. Polymorphism of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) 2C9 gene in Japanese epileptic patients: genetic analysis of the CYP2C9 locus. Pharmacogenetics 2000, 10, 85-89.
79. Dickmann, L.J.; Rettie, A.E.; Kneller, M.B.; Kim, R.B.; Wood, A.J.; Stein, C.M.; Wilkinson, G.R.; Schwarz, U.I. Identification and functional characterization of a new CYP2C9 variant (CYP2C9*5) expressed among African Americans. Mol. Pharmacol. 2001, 60, 382-387.
80. Kidd, R.S.; Curry, T.B.; Gallagher, S.; Edeki, T.; Blaisdell, J.; Goldstein, J.A. Identification of a null allele of CYP2C9 in an African-American exhibiting toxicity to phenytoin. Pharmacogenetics 2001, 11, 803-808.
81. Goldstein, J. Polymorphism in the CYP2C subfamily. Drug Metabolism review 2002, 34, 5