Acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase (AMP forming)

Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences

Volumn 61, Issue 16, 2004, Pages 2020-2030

  Starai, V J ^a,b   Escalante Semerena, J C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

^b DARTMOUTH MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

Author keywords

Acetate; Acetyl coenzyme A; Chromosome stability; CoA ligase; Gene expression; Gene silencing; Lifespan; Sirtuins; Two carbon metabolism

Indexed keywords

ACETIC ACID; ACETYL COENZYME A; ACETYL COENZYME A SYNTHETASE; CARBON; NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE; SIRTUIN;

ACETYLATION; BIOSYNTHESIS; CATALYSIS; CELL METABOLISM; CELL SURVIVAL; CONFORMATION; DEACETYLATION; ENERGY; ENZYME ACTIVITY; ENZYME SYNTHESIS; EUKARYOTIC CELL; GENE CONTROL; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETIC CODE; METABOLITE; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; MONITORING; PROKARYOSIS; REVIEW;

EUKARYOTA; PROKARYOTA;

EID: 4344570067     PISSN: 1420682X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00018-004-3448-x     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. Buckel W. (1999) Anaerobic energy generation, In: Biology of the Procaryotes, pp. 278-326, (Lengler J. W., Drews G. and Chlegel H. G. (eds) Thieme, Stuttgart
2. Cummings J. H., Pomare E. W., Branch W. J., Naylor C. P. and Macfarlane G. T. (1987) Short chain fatty acids in human large intestine, portal, hepatic and venous blood. Gut 28: 1221-1227
3. Cummings J. H. (1995) Short chain fatty acids. In: Human Colonic Bacteria: Role in Nutrition, Physioloogy and Pathology, pp. 101-105, Gibson G. and Macfarlane G. (eds), CRC Press, London
4. Brown T. D., Jones-Mortimer M. C. and Kornberg H. L. (1977) The enzymic interconversion of acetate and acetyl-coenzyme A in Escherichia coli. J. Gen. Microbiol. 102: 327-336
5. Buss K. A., Cooper D. R., Ingram-Smith C., Ferry J. G., Sanders D. A. and Hasson M. S. (2001) Urkinase: structure of acetate kinase, a member of the ASKHA superfamily of phosphotransferases. J. Bacteriol. 183: 680-686
6. Rose I. A., Grunberg-Manago M., Korey R. S. and Ochoa S. (1954) Enzymatic phosphorylation of acetate. J. Biol. Chem. 211: 737-756
7. McCleary W. R., Stock J. B. and Ninfa A. J. (1993) Is acetyl phosphate a global signal in Escherichia coli? J. Bacteriol. 175: 2793-2798
8. McCleary W. R. and Stock J. B. (1994) Acetyl phosphate and the activation of two-component response regulators. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 31567-31572
9. Bentley R. (2000) From 'reactive C2 units' to acetyl coenzyme A: a long trail with an acetyl phosphate detour. Trends Biochem. Sci. 25: 302-305
10. Wolfe A. J., Chang D. E., Walker J. D., Seitz-Partridge J. E., Vidaurri M. D. and Lange C. F. et al. (2003) Evidence that acetyl phosphate functions as a global signal during biofilm development. Mol. Microbiol. 48: 977-988
11. Wanner B. L. and Wilmes-Riesenberg M. R. (1992) Involvement of phosphotransacetylase, acetate kinase and acetyl phosphate synthesis in control of the phosphate regulon in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 174: 2124-2130
12. Reeves R. E., Warren L. G., Susskind B. and Lo H. S. (1977) An energy-conserving pyruvate-to-acetate pathway in Entamoeba histolytica. Pyruvate synthase and a new acetate thiokinase. J. Biol. Chem. 252: 726-731
13. Lindmark D. G. (1980) Energy metabolism of the anaerobic protozoon Giardia lamblia. Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 1: 1-12
14. Muller M. (1988) Energy metabolism of protozoa without mitochondria. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 42: 465-488
15. Schäfer T. and Schönheit P. (1991) Pyruvate metabolism of the hyperthermophilic archaebacterium Pyrococcus furiosus. Acetate formation from acetyl-CoA and ATP synthesis are catalyzed by an acetyl-CoA synthetase (ADP-forming). Arch. Microbiol. 155: 366-377
16. Glasemacher J., Bock A. K., Schmid R. and Schönheit P. (1997) Purification and properties of acetyl-CoA synthetase (ADP-forming), an archaeal enzyme of acetate formation and ATP synthesis, from the hyperthermophile Pyrococcus furiosus. Eur. J. Biochem. 244: 561-567
17. Fraser M. E., James M. N., Bridger W. A. and Wolodko W. T. (1999) A detailed structural description of Escherichia coli succinyl-CoA synthetase. J. Mol. Biol. 285: 1633-1653
18. Joyce M. A., Fraser M. E., James M. N., Bridger W. A. and Wolodko W. T. (2000) ADP-binding site of Escherichia coli succinyl-CoA synthetase revealed by x-ray crystallography. Biochemistry 39: 17-25
19. Marahiel M. A., Stachelhaus T. and Mootz H. D. (1997) Modular peptide synthetases involved in nonribosomal peptide synthesis. Chem. Rev. 97: 2651-2674
20. Hutchinson C. R. (2003) Polyketide and non-ribosomal peptide synthases: falling together by coming apart. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 100: 3010-3012
21. Diaz E., Ferrandez A., Prieto M. A. and Garcia J. L. (2001) Biodegradation of aromatic compounds by Escherichia coli. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 65: 523-5269
22. May J. J., Wendrich T. M. and Marahiel M. A. (2001) The dhb operon of Bacillus subtilis encodes the biosynthetic template for the catecholic siderophore 2,3-dihydroxybenzoate-glycine-threonine trimeric ester bacillibactin. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 7209-7217
23. Yamashita H., Fukuura A., Nakamura T., Kaneyuki T., Kimoto M. and Hiemori M. et al. (2002) Purification and partial characterization of acetyl-coA synthetase in rat liver mitochondria. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. (Tokyo) 48: 359-364
24. Fujino T., Kondo J., Ishikawa M., Morikawa K. and Yamamoto T. T. (2001) Acetyl-CoA synthetase 2, a mitochondrial matrix enzyme involved in the oxidation of acetate. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 11420-11426
25. Van den Berg M. A. and Steensma H. Y. (1995) ACS2, a Saccharomyces cerevisiae gene encoding acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase, essential for growth on glucose. Eur. J. Biochem. 231: 704-713
26. De Virgilio C., Burckert N., Barth G., Neuhaus J. M., Boller T. and Wiemken A. (1992) Cloning and disruption of a gene required for growth on acetate but not on ethanol: the acetylcoenzyme A synthetase gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Yeast 8: 1043-1051
27. Loikkanen I., Haghighi S., Vainio S. and Pajunen A. (2002) Expression of cytosolic acetyl-CoA synthetase gene is developmentally regulated. Mech. Dev. 115: 139-141
28. Ikeda Y., Yamamoto J., Okamura M., Fujino T., Takahashi S. and Takenshi K. et al. (2001) Transcriptional regulation of the murine acetyl-CoA synthetase 1 gene through multiple clustered binding sites for sterol regulatory element-binding proteins and a single neighboring site for Sp1. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 34259-34269
29. Woodnutt G. and Parker D. S. (1986) Acetate metabolism by tissues of the rabbit. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B 85: 487-490
30. Kispal G., Cseko J., Alkonyi I. and Sandor A. (1991) Isolation and characterization of carnitine acetyltransferase from S. cerevisiae. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1085: 217-222
31. Kornberg H. L. (1966) The role and control of the glyoxylate cycle in Escherichia coli. Biochem. J. 99: 1-11
32. Davis W. L., Goodman D. B., Crawford L. A., Cooper O. J. and Matthews J. L. (1990) Hibernation activates glyoxylate cycle and gluconeogenesis in black bear brown adipose tissue. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1051: 276-278
33. Karan D., David J. R. and Capy P. (2001) Molecular evolution of the AMP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase. Gene 265: 95-101
34. Webster J., L. T. (1963) Studies of the acetyl coenzyme A synthetase reaction: Isolation and characterization of enzyme-bound acetyl adenylate. J. Biol. Chem. 238: 4010-4015
35. Webster L. T. Jr (1965) Studies of the acetyl coenzyme A synthetase reaction. II. Crystalline acetyl coenzyme A synthetase. J. Biol. Chem. 240: 4158-4163
36. Webster L. T. Jr (1965) Studies of the acetyl coenzyme A synthetase reaction. 3. Evidence of a double requirement for divalent cations. J. Biol. Chem. 240: 4164-4169
37. Webster L. T. Jr (1966) Studies of the acetyl coenzyme A synthetase reaction. IV. The requirement for monovalent cations. J. Biol. Chem. 241: 5504-5510
38. Londensborough J. C., Yuan S. L. and Webster L. T. Jr (1973) The molecular weight and thiol residues of acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase from ox heart mitochondria. Biochem. J. 133: 23-36
39. Guynn R. W., Webster L. T. Jr and Veech R. L. (1974) Equilibrium constants of the reactions of acetyl coenzyme A synthetase and the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate to adenosine monophosphate and inorganic pyrophosphate. J. Biol. Chem. 249: 3248-3254
40. Frenkel E. P. and Kitchens R. L. (1977) Purification and properties of acetyl coenzyme A synthetase from bakers' yeast. J. Biol. Chem. 252: 504-507
41. Eckstein F. and Goody R. S. (1976) Synthesis and properties of diastereoisomers of adenosine 5′-(O-1-thiotriphosphate) and adenosine 5′-(O-2-thiotriphosphate). Biochemistry 15: 1685-1691
42. Verma S. and Eckstein F. (1998) Modified oligonucleotides: synthesis and strategy for users. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 67: 99-134
43. Midelfort C. F. and Sarton-Miller I. (1978) The stereochemical course of acetate activation by yeast acetyl-CoA synthetase. J. Biol. Chem. 253: 7127-7129
44. Gulick A. M., Starai V. J., Horswill A. R., Homick K. M. and Escalante-Semerena J. C. (2003) The 1.75 Å crystal structure of acetyl-CoA synthetase bound to adenosine-5′-propylphosphate and coenzyme A. Biochemistry 42: 2866-2873
45. Jogl G. and Tong L. (2004) Crystal structure of yeast acetylcoenzyme A synthetase in complex with AMP. Biochemistry 43: 1425-1431
46. May J. J., Kessler N., Marahiel M. A. and Stubbs M. T. (2002) Crystal structure of DhbE, an archetype for aryl acid activating domains of modular nonribosomal peptide synthetases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99: 12120-121205
47. Conti E., Stachelhaus T., Marahiel M. A. and Brick P. (1997) Structural basis for the activation of phenylalanine in the nonribosomal biosynthesis of gramicidin S. EMBO J. 16: 4174-4183
48. Conti E., Franks N. P. and Brick P. (1996) Crystal structure of firely luciferase throws light on a superfamily of adenylate-forming enzymes. Structure 4: 287-298
49. Branchini B. R., Murtiashaw M. H., Magyar R. A. and Anderson S. M. (2000) The role of lysine 529, a conserved residue of the acyl-adenylate- forming enzyme superfamily, in firefly luciferase. Biochemistry 39: 5433-5440
50. Horswill A. R. and Escalante-Semerena J. C. (2002) Characterization of the propionyl-CoA synthetase (PrpE) enzyme of Salmonella enterica: residue Lys592 is required for propionyl-AMP synthesis. Biochemistry 41: 2379-2387
51. Lee H. Y., Na K. B., Koo H. M. and Kim Y. S. (2001) Identification of active site residues in Bradyrhizobium japonicum acetyl-CoA synthetase. J. Biochem. (Tokyo) 130: 807-813
52. Kumari S., Beatty C. M., Browning D. F., Busby S. J., Simel E. J. and Hovel-Miner G. et al. (2000) Regulation of acetyl coenzyme A synthetase in Escherichia coll. J. Bacteriol. 182: 4173-4179
53. Gimenez R., Nunez M. F., Badia J., Aguilar J. and Baldoma L. (2003) The gene yjcG, cotranscribed with the gene acs, encodes an acetate permease in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 185: 6448-6455
54. Kumari S., Simel E. J. and Wolfe A. J. (2000) Sigma(70) is the principal sigma factor responsible for transcription of acs, which encodes acetyl coenzyme A synthetase in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 182: 551-554
55. Beatty C. M., Browning D. F., Busby S. J. and Wolfe A. J. (2003) Cyclic AMP receptor protein-dependent activation of the Escherichia coli acsP2 promoter by a synergistic class III mechanism. J. Bacteriol. 185: 5148-5157
56. Busby S. and Ebright R. H. (1999) Transcription activation by catabolite activator protein (CAP). J. Mol. Biol. 293: 199-213
57. Browning D. F., Beatty C. M., Sanstad E. A., Gunn K. E., Busby S. J. and Wolfe A. J. (2004) Modulation of CRP-dependent transcription at the Escherichia coli acsP2 promoter by nucleoprotein complexes: anti-activation by the nucleoid proteins FIS and IHF. Mol. Microbiol. 51: 241-254
58. Ball C. A., Osuna R., Ferguson K. C. and Johnson R. C. (1992) Dramatic changes in Fis levels upon nutrient upshift in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 174: 8043-8056
59. Azam T. A. and Ishihama A. (1999) Twelve species of the nucleoid-associated protein from Escherichia coli. Sequence recognition specificity and DNA binding affinity. J. Biol. Chem. 274: 33105-33113
60. Gonzalez-Gil G., Kahmann R. and Muskhelishvili G. (1998) Regulation of crp transcription by oscillation between distinct nucleoprotein complexes. EMBO J. 17: 2877-2885
61. Nasser W., Schneider R., Travers A. and Muskhelishvili G. (2001) CRP modulates fis transcription by alternate formation of activating and repressing nucleoprotein complexes. J. Biol. Chem. 276: 17878-17886
62. Shin S., Song S. G., Lee D. S., Pan J. G. and Park C. (1997) Involvement of iclR and rpoS in the induction of acs, the gene for acetyl coenzyme A synthetase of Escherichia coli K12. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 146: 103-108
63. Blankenhorn D., Phillips J. and Slonczewski J. L. (1999) Acid- and base-induced proteins during aerobic and anaerobic growth of Escherichia coli revealed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. J. Bacteriol. 181: 2209-2216
64. Warner J. B. and Lolkema J. S. (2003) CcpA-dependent carbon catabolite repression in bacteria. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 67: 475-490
65. Henkin T. M. (1996) The role of CcpA transcriptional regulator in carbon metabolism in Bacillus subtilis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 135: 9-15
66. Klein H. P. and Jahnke L. (1979) Effects of aeration on formation and localization of the acetyl coenzyme A synthetases of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Bacteriol. 137: 179-184
67. Kratzer S. and Schuller H. J. (1997) Transcriptional control of the yeast acetyl-CoA synthetase gene, ACS1, by the positive regulators CAT8 and ADR1 and the pleiotropic repressor UME6. Mol. Microbiol. 26: 631-641
68. Schöler A. and Schüller H. J. (1994) A carbon source-responsive promoter element necessary for activation of the isocitrate lyase gene ICL1 is common to genes of the gluconeogenic pathway in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol. Cell Biol. 14: 3613-3622
69. Caspary F., Hartig A. and Schuller H. J. (1997) Constitutive and carbon source-responsive promoter elements are involved in the regulated expression of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae malate synthase gene MLS1. Mol. Gen. Genet. 255: 619-627
70. Thukral S. K., Eisen A. and Young E. T. (1991) Two monomers of yeast transcription factor ADR1 bind a palindromic sequence symmetrically to activate ADH2 expression. Mol. Cell Biol. 11: 1566-1577
71. Hedges D., Proft M. and Entian K. D. (1995) CAT8, a new zinc cluster-encoding gene necessary for derepression of gluconeogenic enzymes in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol. Cell Biol. 15: 1915-1922
72. Randez-Gil F., Bojunga N., Proft M. and Entian K. D. (1997) Glucose derepression of gluconeogenic enzymes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae correlates with phosphorylation of the gene activator Cat8p. Mol. Cell Biol. 17: 2502-2510
73. Walther K. and Schuller H. J. (2001) Adr1 and Cat8 synergistically activate the glucose-regulated alcohol dehydrogenase gene ADH2 of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microbiology 147: 2037-2044
74. Strich R., Surosky R. T., Steber C., Dubois E., Messenguy F. and Esposito R. E. (1994) UME6 is a key regulator of nitrogen repression and meiotic development. Genes Dev. 8: 796-810
75. Lopes J. M., Schulze K. L., Yates J. W., Hirsch J. P. and Henry S. A. (1993) The INO1 promoter of Saccharomyces cerevisiae includes an upstream repressor sequence (URS1) common to a diverse set of yeast genes. J. Bacteriol. 175: 4235-4238
76. Greenberg M. L. and Lopes J. M. (1996) Genetic regulation of phospholipid biosynthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microbiol. Rev. 60: 1-20
77. Schüller H. J., Schutz A., Knab S., Hoffmann B. and Schweizer E. (1994) Importance of general regulatory factors Rap1p, Abf1p and Reb1p for the activation of yeast fatty acid synthase genes FAS1 and FAS2. Eur. J. Biochem. 225: 213-222
78. Chirala S. S., Zhong Q., Huang W. and al-Feel W. (1994) Analysis of FAS3/ACC regulatory region of Saccharomyces cerevisiae: identification of a functional UASINO and sequences responsible for fatty acid mediated repression. Nucleic Acids Res. 22: 412-418
79. Dorsman J. C., Doorenbosch M. M., Maurer C. T., de Winde J. H., Mager W. H., Planta R. J. et al. (1989) An ARS/silencer binding factor also activates two ribosomal protein genes in yeast. Nucleic Acids Res. 17: 4917-4923
80. Chambers A., Stanway C., Tsang J. S., Henry Y., Kingsman A. J. and Kingsman S. M. (1990) ARS binding factor 1 binds adjacent to RAP1 at the UASs of the yeast glycolytic genes PGK and PYK1. Nucleic Acids Res. 18: 5393-5399
81. Lodi T., Saliola M., Donnini C. and Goffrini P. (2001) Three target genes for the transcriptional activator Cat8p of Kluyveromyces lactis: acetyl coenzyme A synthetase genes KlACS1 and KlACS2 and lactate permease gene KlJEN1. J. Bacteriol. 183: 5257-5261
82. Todd R. B., Andrianopoulos A., Davis M. A. and Hynes M. J. (1998) FacB, the Aspergillus nidulans activator of acetate utilization genes, binds dissimilar DNA sequences. EMBO J. 17: 2042-2054
83. Marmorstein R., Carey M., Ptashne M. and Harrison S. C. (1992) DNA recognition by GAL4: structure of a protein-DNA complex. Nature 356: 408-414
84. Graessle S., Loidl P. and Brosch G. (2001) Histone acetylation: plants and fungi as model systems for the investigation of histone deacetylases. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 58: 704-720
85. Moazed D. (2001) Enzymatic activities of Sir2 and chromatin silencing. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol. 13: 232-238
86. Crabtree B., Souter M. J. and Anderson S. E. (1989) Evidence that the production of acetate in rat hepatocytes is a predominantly cytoplasmic process. Biochem. J. 257: 673-678
87. Scheppach W., Pomare E. W., Elia M. and Cummings J. H. (1991) The contribution of the large intestine to blood acetate in man. Clin. Sci. 80: 177-182
88. Wolczunowicz M. and Rous S. (1977) Regulation of cytoplasmic acetyl-CoA and acetoacetyl-CoA synthetases by dexamethasone phosphate in rat liver and adipose tissue. Life Sci. 20: 1347-1352
89. Barth C., Sladek M. and Decker K. (1972) Dietary changes of cytoplasmic acetyl-CoA synthetase in different rat tissues. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 260: 1-9
90. Luong A., Hannah V. C., Brown M. S. and Goldstein J. L. (2000) Molecular characterization of human acetyl-CoA synthetase, an enzyme regulated by sterol regulatory element-binding proteins. J. Biol. Chem. 275: 26458-26466
91. Edwards P. A. and Ericsson J. (1999) Sterols and isoprenoids: signaling molecules derived from the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 68: 157-185
92. Horton J. D. and Shimomura I. (1999) Sterol regulatory element-binding proteins: activators of cholesterol and fatty acid biosynthesis. Curr. Opin. Lipidol. 10: 143-150
93. Ke J., Behal R. H., Back S. L., Nikolau B. J., Wurtele E. S. and Oliver D. J. (2000) The role of pyruvate dehydrogenase and acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase in fatty acid synthesis in developing Arabidopsis seeds. Plant Physiol. 123: 497-508
94. Smith J. S., Brachmann C. B., Celic I., Kenna M. A., Muhammad S. and Starai V. J. et al. (2000) A phylogenetically conserved NAD+-dependent protein deacetylase activity in the Sir2 protein family. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 6658-6663
95. Starai V. J., Celic I., Cole R. N., Boeke J. D. and Escalante-Semerena J. C. (2002) Sir2-dependent activation of acetyl-CoA synthetase by deacetylation of active lysine. Science 298: 2390-2392
96. Takasaki K., Shoun H., Yamaguchi M., Takeo K., Nakamura A. and Hoshino T. et al. (2004) Fungal ammonia fermentation-A novel metabolic mechanism that couples the dissimilatory and assimilatory pathways of both nitrate and ethanol-Role of acetyl. J. Biol. Chem. 279: 12414-12420
97. Starai V. J., Takahashi H., Boeke J. D. and Escalante-Semerena J. C. (2003) Short-chain fatty acid activation by acyl-coenzyme A synthetases requires SIR2 protein function in Salmonella enterica and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics 163: 545-555
98. Tsang A. W. and Escalante-Semerena J. C. (1998) CobB, a new member of the SIR2 family of eucaryotic regulatory proteins, is required to compensate for the lack of nicotinate mononucleotide:5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole phosphoribosyltransferase activity in cobT mutants during cobalamin biosynthesis in Salmonella typhimurium LT2. J. Biol. Chem. 273: 31788-31794
99. Sauve A. A., Celic I., Avalos J., Deng H., Boeke J. D. and Schramm V. L. (2001) Chemistry of gene silencing: the mechanism of NAD(+)-dependent deacetylation reactions. Biochemistry 40: 15456-15463
100. Jackson M. D. and Denu J. M. (2002) Structural identification of 2′- and 3′-O-acetyl-ADP-ribose as novel metabolites derived from the Sir2 family of beta -NAD+-dependent histone/protein deacetylases. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 18535-18544
101. Sauve A. A. and Schramm V. L. (2003) Sir2 regulation by nicotinamide results from switching between base exchange and deacetylation chemistry. Biochemistry 42: 9249-9256
102. Bitterman K. J., Anderson R. M., Cohen H. Y., Latorre-Esteves M. and Sinclair D. A. (2002) Inhibition of silencing and accelerated aging by nicotinamide, a putative negative regulator of yeast sir2 and human SIRT1. J. Biol. Chem. 277: 45099-45107
103. Jackson M. D., Schmidt M. T., Oppenheimer N. J. and Denu J. M. (2003) Mechanism of nicotinamide inhibition and transglycosidation by Sir2 histone/protein deacetylases. J. Biol. Chem. 278: 50985-50998
104. Denu J. M. (2003) Linking chromatin function with metabolic networks: Sir2 family of NAD(+)-dependent deacetylases. Trends Biochem. Sci. 28: 41-48
105. Brachmann C. B., Sherman J. M., Devine S. E., Cameron E. E., Pillus L. and Boeke J. D. (1995) The SIR2 gene family, conserved from bacteria to humans, functions in silencing, cell cycle progression and chromosome stability. Genes Dev. 9: 2888-2902
106. Lin S. J., Kaeberlein M., Andalis A. A., Sturtz L. A., Defossez P. A., Culotta V. C. et al. (2002) Calorie restriction extends Saccharomyces cerevisiae lifespan by increasing respiration. Nature 418: 344-348