Morphological and functional changes in experimental ocular hypertension and role of neuroprotective drugs

Histology and Histopathology

Volumn 22, Issue 10-12, 2007, Pages 1399-1411

  Garcia Campos J ^a   Villena, A ^a   Diaz F ^a   Vidal, L ^a   Moreno, M ^a   Perez de Vargas I ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MÁLAGA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Experimental glaucoma; Ganglion cell death; Neuroprotection; Optic nerve head; Retina

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; AMINOGUANIDINE; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BETAXOLOL; BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; BRIMONIDINE; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; DIZOCILPINE; ENDOTHELIN 1; FLUNARIZINE; FLUPIRTINE; GLUTAMIC ACID; LATANOPROST; LOMERIZINE; MEMANTINE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENT; NIFEDIPINE; NIPRADILOL; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE INHIBITOR; PLACEBO; PROSTAGLANDIN DERIVATIVE; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHASE; RAUWOLSCINE; RILUZOLE; SC 51; TIMOLOL; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VERAPAMIL; GLUTAMIC ACID DERIVATIVE; PROSTAGLANDIN;

ALLERGIC REACTION; APOPTOSIS; AQUEOUS HUMOR; CELL DEATH; CELL LEVEL; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG MECHANISM; ELECTROLYTE DISTURBANCE; FUNCTIONAL MORPHOLOGY; GLAUCOMA; HUMAN; INTRAOCULAR HYPERTENSION; INTRAOCULAR PRESSURE; LOW DRUG DOSE; MICROGLIA; NERVE CELL NECROSIS; NERVE FIBER; NEUROPATHY; NEUROPROTECTION; NEUROTOXICITY; NONHUMAN; OPTIC NERVE; PHAGOCYTOSIS; RETINA; RETINA GANGLION CELL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; ANIMAL; DISEASE MODEL; DRUG ANTAGONISM; METABOLISM; NERVE CELL; PATHOLOGY; RAT; TIME;

RATTUS;

ADRENERGIC BETA-ANTAGONISTS; ANIMALS; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS; CLINICAL TRIALS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; GLUTAMATES; HUMANS; NEURONS; NEUROPROTECTIVE AGENTS; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; OCULAR HYPERTENSION; PHAGOCYTOSIS; PROSTAGLANDINS; RATS; TIME FACTORS;

EID: 34748898390     PISSN: 02133911     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (158)

1. Adachi K., Kashii S., Masai H., Ueda M., Morizane C., Kaneda K., Kume T., Akaike A. and Honda Y. (1998). Mechanism of the pathogenesis of glutamate neurotoxicity in retinal ischemia. Graefes Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 236, 766-774.
2. AGIS Investigators (2000). The advanced glaucoma intervention study. (AGIS): 7. The relationship between control of intraocular pressure and visual field deterioration. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 130, 429-440.
3. 2-agonist (brimomidine) on adult rat retina ganglion cells after increased intraocular pressure. Brain Res. 913, 133-139.
4. Anderson D.R. and Hendrickson A. (1974). Effect of intraocular pressure on rapid axonal transport in monkey optic nerve. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 13, 771-783.
5. Araie M. and Muta K. (1997). Effect of long-term topical betaxolol on tissue circulation in the iris and optic nerve head. Exp. Eye Res. 64, 167-172.
6. Araque A., Purpura V., Sanzgiri R.P. and Haydon P.G. (1999). Tripartite synapses: glia, the unacknowledged partner. TINS 22, 208-215.
7. Armaly M.F., Krueger D.E., Maunder L., Becker B., Hetherington J., Kolker A.E., Levene R.Z., Maumenee A.E., Pollack I.P. and Shaffer R.N. (1980). Biostatistical analysis of the collaborative glaucoma study. I. Summary report of the risk factors for glaucomatous visual field defects. Arch. Ophthalmol. 98, 2163-2171.
8. Barkana Y. and Belkin M. (2004). Neuroprotection in ophthalmology: a review. Brain Res. Bull. 62, 447-453.
9. Bayer A.U., Danias J., Brodie S., Maag K.P., Chen B., Shen F., Podos S.M. and Mittag T.W. (2001). Electroretinographic abnormalities in a rat glaucoma model with chronic elevated intraocular pressure. Exp. Eye Res. 72, 667-677.
10. Benozzi J., Nahum L.P., Campanelli J.L. and Rosenstein R.E. (2002). Effect of hyaluronic acid on intraocular pressure in rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43, 2196-2200.
11. Benz D., Cadet P., Mantione K., Zhu W. and Stefano G. (2002). Total nitric oxide and health: anti-bacterial and viral actions and implications for HIV. Med. Sci. Monit. 8, 27-31.
12. Brandstatter J.H., Hartveit E., Sassoe Pognetto M. and Wassle H. (1994). Expression of NMDA and high-affinity kainate receptor subunit mRNAs in the adult rat retina. Eur. J. Neurosci. 6, 1100-1112.
13. Brubaker R.F. (1996). Delayed functional loss in glaucoma: LII Edward Jackson Memorial Lecture. Am. J. Ophthalmol 121, 473-483.
14. Brubaker R.F. (2003). Targeting outflow facility in glaucoma management. Surv. Ophthalmol. 48, 517-520.
15. Budd S.L, Tenneti L., Lishnak T. and Lipton S.A. (2000). Mitochondrial and extramitochondrial apoptotic signaling pathways in cerebrocortical neurons. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97, 6161-6166.
16. Bullock R. (1995). Strategies for neuroprotection with glutamate antagonists. Extrapolating from evidence taken from the first stroke and head injurie studies. Am. NY Acad. Sci. 765, 272-278.
17. Carter-Dawson L., Crawford L.J., Harwerth R.S., Smith E.L., Feldman R, Shen F.F., Mitchell C.K. and Whitetree A. (2002). Vitreal glutamate concentration in monkeys with experimental glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43, 2633-2637.
18. Cassacia-Bonnefil P., Gu C. and Chao M.V. (1999). Neurotrophins in cell survival death decisions. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 468, 275-282.
19. Cellerino A., Galli-Resta L. and Colombaioni L. (2000) The dynamics of neuronal death: a time lapse study in the retina. J. Neurosci. 20, 92-94.
20. Chidlow G., Melena J. and Osborne N.N. (2000). Betaxolol, a β1-adrenoreceptor antagonist, reduces Na (+) influx into cortical synaptosomen by direct interaction with Na (+) channels: comparison with other β-adrenoreceptor antagonists. Br. J. Pharmacol. 130, 759-766.
21. a ed. Koliatson V.E. and Ratan R.R. (eds). St Francisco. pp 3-28.
22. Collaborative Normal-Tension Glaucoma Study Group. (1988). The effectiveness of intraocular pressure reduction in the treatment of normal-tension glaucoma. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 126,498-505.
23. Dawson V.L., Dawson T.M., Bartley D.A., Uhl G.R. and Snyder S.H. (1993). Mechanisms of nitric oxide-mediated neurotoxicity in primary brain cultures. J. Neurosci. 13, 2651-2661.
24. Diaz F., Villena A., Moreno M., Vidal L., Parrado C., Garcia-Campos J. and Pérez de Vargas I. (2005). Effects of a non selective β-blocker on adult rat anterograde axonal transport and retinal ganglion layer after increased intraocular pressure. Histol. Histopathol. 20, 1077-1085.
25. Donello J.E., Padillo E.U., Webster M.L., Wheeler M.A. and Gil D.W. (2001). Alpha 2-adrenorerceptor agonists inhibit vitreal glutamate and aspartate accumulation and preserve retinal function after transient ischaemia. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 296, 216-223.
26. Drago F., Valzelli S., Emmi I., Marino A., Scalia C.C. and Marino V. (2001). Latanoprost exerts neuroprotective activity in vitro and in vivo. Exp. Eye Res. 72, 479-486.
27. Drance S. (1998). A comparison of the effects of betaxolol, timolol, and pilocarpine on visual function in patients with open-angle glaucoma. J. Glaucoma 7, 247-252.
28. Dreyer E.B., Zurakowski D., Schumer R.A., Podos S.M. and Lipton S.A. (1996). Elevated glaucoma levels in the vitreous body of humans and monkeys with glaucoma. Arch. Ophthalmol. 114, 299-305.
29. Endo S., Tomita H., Ishiguro S. and Tamai M. (2002). Effect of betaxolol on aspartate aminotransferase activity in hypoxic rat retina in vitro. Jpn. J. Pharmacol. 90, 121-124.
30. Ernest T.J. (1976). Optic disk flow. Trans. Ophthalmol. Soc. UK. 96, 348-351.
31. Eschweiler G.W. and Bahr M. (1993). Flunarizine enhances rat retinal ganglion cell survival after axotomy. J. Neurol. Sci. 116, 34-40.
32. Eti Y., Wheeler L.A. and Schwartz M. (1999). Alpha 2-adrenoceptor agonists are neuroprotective in a rat model of optic nerve degeneration. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40, 65-73.
33. Ettaiche M., Fillacier K., Widmann C., Heurteaux C. and Lazdunski M. (1999). Riluzole improves functional recovery after ischaemia in the rat retina. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40, 729-736.
34. Flammer J. and Orgul S. (1998). Optic nerve blood-flow abnormalities in glaucoma. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 17, 267-289.
35. Franco-Bourland RE., Guizar-Sahagun G., Garcia G.A., Odor-Morales A., Alvarez A., Esquivel F. and Rodriguez S. (1998). Retinal vulnerability to glutamate excitotoxicity in canine glaucoma: induction of neuronal nitric oxide synthase in retinal ganglion cells. Proc. West Pharmacol. Soc. 41, 201-204.
36. Friedel H.A. and Fitton A. (1993). Flupirtine. A review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy in pain states. Drugs 45, 548-569.
37. Gao H., Qiao X., Cantor L.B. and WuDunn D. (2002). Up regulation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression by brominidine in rat retinal ganglion cells. Arch. Ophthalmol. 120, 797-803.
38. Garcia-Valenzuela E., Shareef S., Walsh J. and Sharma S.C. (1995). Programmed cell death of retinal ganglion cells during experimental glaucoma. Exp. Eye Res. 61, 33-44.
39. Goldberg I. (2003). Relationship between intraocular pressure and preservation of visual field in glaucoma. Surv. Ophthalmol. 48, S3-S7.
40. Goldblum D. and Mittag T. (2002). Prospects for revelant glaucoma models with retinal ganglion cell damage in the rodent eye. Vision Res. 42, 471-478.
41. Goto W., Ota T., Morikawa N., Otori Y., Hara H., Kawazu K., Miyawaki N. and Tano Y. (2002). Protective effects of timolol against the neuronal damage induced by glutamate and ischemia in the rat retina. Brain Res. 958, 10-19.
42. Graham S.L., Drance S.M., Chauhan B.C., Swindale N.V., Hnik P., Mikelberg F.S. and Douglas G.R. (1996). Comparison of psychophysical and electrophysiological testing in early glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 37, 2651-2662.
43. Greenfield D.S., Liebmann J.M. and Ritch R. (1997). Brimonidine: a new alpha2-adrenoreceptor agonist for glaucoma treatment. J. Glaucoma 6, 250-258.
44. Gross R.L., Hensley S.H., Gao F. and Wu S.M. (1999). Retinal ganglion cell dysfunction induced by hypoxia and glutamate: potential neuroprotective effects of beta-blockers. Surv. Ophthalmol. 43, S162-S170.
45. Grozdanic S.D., Betts D.M., Sakaguchi D.S., Kwon Y.H., Kardon R.H. and Sonea I.M (2003). Temporary elevation of the intraocular pressure by cauterization of vortex and episcleral veins in rats causes functional deficits in the retina and optic nerve. Exp. Eye Res. 77, 27-33.
46. Grozdanic S.D., Kwon Y.H., Sakaguchi D.S., Kardon R.H. and Sonea I.M. (2004). Functional evaluation of retina and optic nerve in the rat model of chronic ocular hypertension. Exp. Eye Res. 79, 75-83.
47. Guo L., Moss S.E., Alexander R.A., Ali R.R., Fitzke F.W. and Cordeiro F.M. (2005). Retinal ganglion cell apoptosis in glaucoma is related to intraocular pressure and IOP-induced effects on extracellular matrix. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46, 175-182.
48. Hamburger V. and Levi-Montalcini R. (1949). Proliferation, differentiation and degeneration in the spinal ganglio of the chick embryo under normal and experimental conditions. J. Exp. Zool. 111, 457-502.
49. Hara H., Shimazawa M., Hashimoto M. and Sukamoto T. (1998). Antimigraine effects of lomerizine. Nippon Yakurigaku Zasshi 112, 138-142.
50. Hare W., WoldeMussie E., Weinreb R., Ton H., Ruiz G., Wijono M., Feldmann B., Zangwill L. and Wheeler L. (2004). Efficacy and safety of memantine treatment for reduction of changes associated with experimental glaucoma in monkeys. II: Structural measures. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45, 2640-2651.
51. Hejkal T.W. and Camras C.B. (1999). Prostaglandin analogs in the treatment of glaucoma. Semin. Ophthalmol. 14, 114-123.
52. Hernández M.R. (2000). The optic nerve head in glaucoma: role of astrocytes in tissue remodeling. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 19, 297-321.
53. Hernández M.R. and Pena J.D. (1997). The optic nerve head in glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Arch. Ophthalmol. 115, 389-395.
54. Hollander H., Makarov F., Stefani F.H. and Stone J. (1995). Evidence of constriction of optic nerve axons at the lamina cribrosa in the normotensive eye in humans and other mammals. Ophthalmic Res. 17, 296-309.
55. ++ channel blockers on directional selectivity of rabbit retinal ganglion cells. J. Neurophysiol. 74, 12-23.
56. Johnson E.C., Deppmeier L.M., Wentzien S.K., Hsu I. and Morrison J.C. (2000). Chronology of optic nerve head and retinal responses to elevated intraocular pressure. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41, 431-442.
57. Johnson E.C., Morrison J.C., Farrell S., Deppmeier L., Moore C.G. and McGinty M.R. (1996). The effect of chronically elevated intraocular pressure in the rat optic nerve extracellular matrix. Exp. Eye Res. 62, 663-674.
58. Joo C.K., Choi J.S., Ko H.W., Park K.Y., Sohn S., Chun M.H., Oh Y.J. and Gwag B.J. (1999). Necrosis and apoptosis after retinal ischemia: involvement of NMDA-mediated excitotoxicity and P53. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40, 713-720.
59. Kalloniatis M., Harwerth R.S., Smith E.L. and Debantis L (1993). Colour vision anomalies following experimental glaucoma in monkeys. Ophthalmic Physiol. Opt. 13, 56-67.
60. Kanno M., Araie M., Tomita K. and Sawanobori K. (1998). Effects of topical nipradiol, a β-blocking agent with α-blocking and nitrogliceryn-like activities, on aqueous humor dynamics and fundus circulation. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39, 736-743.
61. Kashii S., Mandai M., Kikuchi M., Honda Y., Tamura Y., Kaneda K. and Akaike A. (1996). Dual actions of nitric oxide in N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated neurotoxicity in cultured retinal neurons. Brain Res. 711, 93-101.
62. Katz L.J. (2002). Twelve-month evaluation of brimonidine-purite versus brimonidine in patients with glaucoma or ocular hypertension. J. Glaucoma 11, 119-126.
63. Kaushik S., Pandav S.S. and Ram J. (2003). Neuroprotection in glaucoma. J. Postgrad. Med. 49, 90-95.
64. Kendell K.R., Quigley H.A., Kerrigan L.A., Pease M.E and Quigley E.N. (1995). Primary open-angle glaucoma is not associated with photoreceptor loss. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 36, 200-205.
65. Kerr J.F., Wyllie A.H. and Currie A.R. (1972). Apoptosis: a basic biological phenoneuron with mide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics. Br. J. Cancer 26, 239-257.
66. Kerrigan L.A., Zack D.J., Quigley H.A., Smith S.D. and Pease M.E. (1997). Tunel positive ganglion cells in human primary open-angle glaucoma. Arch. Ophthalmol. 115, 1031-1035.
67. ++ antagonist on visual field in low tension glaucoma. Graefe's Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 227, 408-412.
68. Koistinaho J. and Sagar S.M. (1995). NAPDH-diaphorase-reactive neurones in the retina. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 15, 69-87.
69. Kudo H., Nakazawa T., Shimura M., Takahashi H., Fuse N., Kashiwagi K. and Tamai M. (2006). Neuroprotective effect of latanoprost on rat retinal ganglion cells. Graefe's Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol 13, 1-7.
70. Lafuente M., Villegas-Pérez M.P., Sobrado-Calvo P., Garcia-Avilés A., Miralles de Imperial J. and Vidal-Sanz M. (2001). Neuroprotective effects of alpha-2-selective adrenergic agonists against ischaemia induced retinal ganglion cell death. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42, 2074-2084.
71. Lai R.K., Chun T.Y., Hasson D.V., Lee S., Mehrbod F., and Wheeler L.A. (2002). Alpha-2 adrenoreceptor agonist protects retinal function after acute retinal ischaemia injury in the rat. Vis. Neurosci. 19, 175-185.
72. Lamas S., Marsden P.A., Li G.K., Tempst P. and Michel T. (1992). Endothelial nitric oxide synthase: molecular cloning and characterization of a distinct constitutive enzyme isoform. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 6348-6352.
73. Lan T.K., Chan W.Y., Kuang G.B., Wei H., Shum A.S. and Yew D.T. (1995). Differential expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the retinae and visual cortices of rats with experimental retinal hypertension. Neurosci. Lett. 198, 165-168.
74. Laquis S., Chaudhary P. and Sharma S.C. (1998). The patterns of retinal ganglion cell death in hypertensive eyes. Brain Res. 784, 100-104.
75. Levkovitch-Verbin H., Quigley H.A., Martin K.R., Valenta D., Baumrind L.A. and Pease M.E. (2002). Translimbar laser photocoagulation to the trabecular meshwork as a model of glaucoma in rats. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43, 402-410.
76. Levy D.I. and Lipton S.A. (1990). Comparison of delayed administration of competitive and uncompetitive antagonists in preventing NMDA receptor mediated neuronal death. Neurology 40, 852-855.
77. Lipton S.A. and Rosenberg P.A. (1994). Excitatory amino acids as a final common pathway for neurologic disorders. N. Engl. J. Med. 330, 613-622.
78. Ma Y.T., Hsieh T., Forbes M.E., Johnson J.E. and Frost D.O. (1998). BDNF injected into the superior colliculus reduces development retinal ganglion cell death. J. Neurosci. 18, 2097-2107.
79. Mabuchi F., Aihara M., Mackey M.R., Lindsey J.D. and Weinreb R.N. (2004). Regional optic nerve damage in experimental mouse glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 45, 4352-4358.
80. Martin K.R., Levkovitch-Verbin H., Valenta D., Baumrind L., Pease M.E. and Quigley H. (2002). Retinal glutamate transporter changes in experimental glaucoma and after optic nerve transection in the rat. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43, 2236-2243.
81. Maumenee A.E. (1977). The pathogenesis of visual field loss in glaucoma. In: Controversy in ophthalmology. Brockhurst R.J., Boruchoff A.S. and Hutchison B.T. (eds). WB Saunders. Philadelphia. pp 301-311.
82. McKinnon S.J., Lehman D.M., Kerrigan-Baumrind L.A., Merges C.A., Pease M.E., Kerrigan D.F., Ransom N.L., Tahzib N.G., Reitsamer H.A., Levkovitch-Verbin H., Quigley H.A. and Zack D. (2002). Caspase activation and amyloid precursor protein cleavage in rat ocular hypertension. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43, 1077-1087.
83. Meier P., Finch A. and Evan G. (2000). Apoptosis in development. Nature 407, 796-801.
84. Melamed S. (2002). Neuroprotective properties of a synthetic docosanoid unoprostone isopropyl: clinical benefits in the treatment of glaucoma. Drugs Exp. Clin. Res. 28, 63-73.
85. Melena J., Stanton D. and Osborne N.N. (2001). Comparative effects of antiglaucoma drugs on voltage-dependent calcium channels. Graefe's Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 239, 522-530.
86. Meril J.E. (1994). The role of microglial cells and astrocytes in pathology: introduction. Dev. Neurosci. 16, 113-117.
87. Mikheytseva I.N, Kashintseva L.T., Krizhanovsky G.N., Kopp O.P. and Lipovetskaya E.M. (2004). The influence of the calcium channel blocker verapamil on experimental glaucoma. Int. Ophthalmol. 25, 75-79.
88. Mittag T.W., Danias J., Pohorenec G., Yuan H.M., Burakgazi E., Chalmers-Redman R., Podos S.M. and Tatton W.G. (2000). Retinal damage after 3 or 4 months of elevated intraocular pressure in rat glaucoma model. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41, 3451-3459.
89. Moncada S. (1992). L-arginine: nitric oxide pathway. Acta Physiol. Scand. 145, 201-227.
90. Moreno M.C., Aldana H.J., Croxatto J.O., Sande P.M., Campanelli J., Jaliffa C.O., Benozzi J. and Rosentein R.E. (2005). A new experimental model of glaucoma in rats through intracameral injections of hyaluronic acid. Exp. Eye Res. 81, 71-80.
91. Morgan J.E. (1994). Selective cell death in glaucoma: does is really occur? Br. J. Ophthalmol. 78, 875-879.
92. Morrison J., Johnson E., Jia L. and Cepurna W. (2001). Effect of aminoguanidine on optic nerve injury following intraocular pressure elevation in the rat. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42, S413-S418.
93. Morrison J.C., Moore C.G., Deppmeier L.M., Gold B.G., Meshul C.K. and Johnson E.C. (1997). A rat model of chronic pressure induced optic nerve damage. Exp. Eye Res. 64, 85-96.
94. Nash M.S., Wood J.P., Melena J. and Osborne N.N. (2000). Flupirtine ameliorates ischaemic-like death of rat retinal ganglion cells by preventing calcium influx. Brain Res. 856, 236-239.
95. Naskar R. and Dreyer E.B. (2001). New horizons in neuroprotection. Surv. Ophthalmol. 45, S250-S255.
96. Naskar R., Wissing M. and Thanos S. (2002). Detection of early neuron degeneration and accompanying microglial responses in the retina of a rat model of glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43, 2962-2968.
97. Neal M.J., Cunningham J.R., Hutson P.H. and Hogg J. (1994) Effects of ischaemia on neurotransmitter release from the isolated retina. J. Neurochem. 62, 1025-1033.
98. Netland P.A., Chaturvedi N. and Dreyer E. B. (1993). Calcium channel blockers in the management of low tension and open-angle glaucoma. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 115, 608-613.
99. Neufeld A.H. (2004). Pharmacological neuroprotection with an inhibitor of nitric oxide synthase for the treatment of glaucoma. Brain Res. Bull. 62, 455-459.
100. Neufeld A.H, Hernández M.R., González M. and Géller A. (1997a). Cyclooxigenase-1 and cyclooxigenase-2 in the human optic nerve head. Exp. Eye Res. 65, 739-745.
101. Neufeld A.H., Hernández M.R. and González M. (1997b). Nitric oxide synthase in the human glaucomatous optic nerve head. Arch. Ophthalmol. 115, 497-503.
102. Neufeld A.H, Sawada A. and Becker B. (1999). Inhibition of nitric oxide synthase 2 by aminoguanidine provides neuroprotection of retinal ganglion cells in a rat model of chronic glaucoma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 96, 9944-9948.
103. Neufeld A.H., Kawai S., Das S., Vora S., Gachie E., Gonnor J.R. and Manning P.T. (2002). Loss of retinal ganglion cells following retinal ischaemia: the role of inducible nitric oxide synthase. Exp. Eye Res. 75, 521-528.
104. Newman E.A. (2001). Propagation of intercellular calcium waves in retinal astrocytes and Müller cells. J. Neurosci. 21, 2215-2223.
105. Nickells R.W. (1999). Apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells in glaucoma: an update of the molecular pathways involved in cell death. Surv. Ophthalmol. 43, S151-S161.
106. Nickells R.W. and Zack D.J. (1996). Apoptosis in ocular disease: a molecular overview. Ophthalmic Genet. 17, 145-165.
107. Oppenheim R.W. (1991). Cell death during development of the nervous system. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 14, 453-501.
108. Osborne N.N., Ugarte M., Chao M., Chidlow G., Bae J.H., Wood J.P. and Nash M.S. (1993). Neuroprotection in relation to retinal ischaemia and relevance to glaucoma. Surv. Ophthalmol. 43, 5102-5128.
109. Osborne N.N., Chidlow G., Nash M.S. and Wood J.P. (1999a). The potential of neuroprotection in glaucoma treatment. Curr. Opin. Ophthalmol. 10, 82-92.
110. Osborne N.N., Wood J.P., Chidlow G., Bae J.H., Melena J. and Nash M.S. (1999b). Ganglion cell death in glaucoma. What do we really know?. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 83, 980-986.
111. Osborne N.N., DeSantis L., Bae J.H., Ugarte M., Wood J.P., Nash M.S. and Chidlow G. (1999c). Topically applied betaxolol attenuates NMDA-induced toxicity to ganglion cells and the effects of ischaemia to the retina. Exp. Eye Res. 69, 331-342.
112. Osborne N.N., Wood J.P., Chidlow G., Casson R., DeSantis L. and Schmidt K.G. (2004). Effectiveness of levobetaxolol and timolol at blunting retinal ischaemia is related to their calcium and sodium blocking activities: relevance to glaucoma. Brain Res. Bull. 62, 525-528
113. Pang I.H., Johnson E.C., Jia L., Cepurna W.O., Shepard A.R., Hellberg M.R., Clark A.F. and Morrison J.C. (2005). Evaluation of inducible nitric oxide synthase in glaucomatous optic neuropathy and pressure-induced optic nerve damage. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46, 1313-1321.
114. Pease M.E., McKinnon S.J., Quigley H.A., Kerrigan-Baumrind L.A. and Zack D.J. (2000). Obstructed axonal transport of BDNF and its receptor TrkB in experimental glaucoma. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 41, 764-774.
115. Pena J.D., Taylor A.W., Ricard C.S., Vidal I. and Hernández, M.R. (1999). Transforming growth factor β isoforms in human optic nerve heads Br. J. Ophthalmol. 83, 209-218.
116. Quigley H.A. (1995). Ganglion cell death in glaucoma: pathology recapitulates ontogeny. Aust. N. Z. J. Ophthalmol. 23, 85-91.
117. Quigley H.A. (1996). Number of people with glaucoma worldwide. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 80, 389-393.
118. Quigley H.A. and Anderson D.R. (1976). The dynamics and location of axonal transport blockade by acute intraocular pressure elevation in primate optic nerve. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 15, 606-616.
119. Quigley H.A., Addicks E.M., Green W.R. and Maumenee A.E. (1981). Optic nerve damage in human glaucoma. II. The site of injury and susceptibility to damage. Arch. Ophthalmol. 99, 635-649.
120. Quigley H.A., Dorman-Pease M.E. and Brown A.E. (1991). Quantitative study of collagen and elastin of the optic nerve head and sclera in human and experimental monkey glaucoma. Curr. Eye Res. 10, 877-888.
121. Samali A., Gorman A.M. and Cotter T.G. (1996). Apoptosis- the story so far. Experientia 52, 933-941.
122. Sawada A. and Neufeld A.H. (1999). Confirmation of the rat model of chronic moderately elevated intraocular pressure. Exp. Eye Res. 69, 525-531.
123. Schuman J.S., Erickson K. and Nathanson J.A. (1994). Nitrovasodilator effects on intraocular pressure and outflow facility in monkeys. Exp. Eye Res. 58, 99-105.
124. Schwartz M. (2001). Neuroprotection as a treatment for glaucoma: pharmacological and immunological approaches. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 11, S7-S11.
125. Setoguchi M., Ohya Y., Abe I. and Fujishima M. (1995). Inhibitory action of betaxolol, a β1-selective adrenoprotector antagonist on voltaje-dependent calcium channels a guinea-pig artery and vein. Br. J. Pharmacol. 115, 198-202.
126. Shareef S.R., García-Valenzuela E., Salierno A., Walsh J. and Sharma S.C. (1995). Chronic ocular hipertension following episcleral venous occlusion in rats. Exp. Eye Res. 61, 379-382.
127. Shareef S.R., Sawada A. and Neufeld A.H. (1999). Isoforms of nitric oxide synthase in the optic nerves of rat eyes with chronic moderately elevated intraocular pressure. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40, 2884-2891.
128. Siesjo B.K. (1988). Mechanism of ischaemia brain damage. Crit. Care Med. 16, 954-963.
129. Siliprandi R., Canella R., Carmignoto G., Schiaro N., Zanellato A., Zanoni R. and Vantini G. (1992). N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced neurotoxicity in the adult rat retina. Vis. Neurosci. 8, 567-573.
130. Sisk D.R. and Kuwabara T. (1985). Histologic changes in the inner retina of albino rats following intravitreal injection of monosodium L-glutamate. Graefe's Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol. 223, 250-258.
131. Siu A.W., Leung M.C., To C.H., Siu F.K., Ji J.Z. and So K.F. (2002). Total retinal nitric oxide production is increased in intraocular pressure elevated rats. Exp. Eye Res. 75, 401-406.
132. Tan A.Y., LeVatte T.L., Archibald M.L., Tremblay F., Kelly M.E. and Chauban B.C. (2002). Timolol concentration in rat ocular tissues and plasma after topical and intraperitoneal dosing. J. Glaucoma 11, 134-142.
133. Tanihara H., Hangai M., Sawaguchi S., Abe H., Kageyama M., Nakazawa F., Shirasawa E. and Honda Y. (1997). Up-regulation of glial fibrilary acidic protein in the retina of primate eyes with experimental glaucoma. Arch. Ophthalmol. 115, 752-756.
134. Tatton W.G., Chalmers-Redman R.M. and Tatton N.A. (2001). Apoptosis and anti-apoptosis signalling in glaucomatous retinopathy. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 11, S12-S22.
135. Tempestini A., Schiavone N., Papucci L., Witort E., Lapucci A., Cutri M., Donnini M. and Capaccioli S. (2003). The mechanisms of apoptosis in biology and medicine: a new focus for ophthalmology. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 13, S11-S18.
136. Thanos S. (1992). Sick photoreceptors attract activated microglia from the ganglion cell layer: a model to study the inflammatory cascades in rats with inherited retinal dystrophy. Brain Res. 588, 21-28.
137. Thanos S. and Naskar R. (2004). Correlation between retinal ganglion cells death and chronically developing inherited glaucoma in a new rat mutant. Exp. Eye Res. 79, 119-129.
138. ++ channel blocker reduces glutamate-induced neurotoxicity and ischaemia/ reperfusion damage in rat retina. Exp. Eye Res. 70, 475-484.
139. Ueda J., Sawaguchi S., Hanyu T., Yaoeda K., Fukuchi T., Abe H. and Ozawa H. (1998). Experimental glaucoma model in the rat induced by laser trabecular photocoagulation after an intracameral injection of India ink. Jpn. J. Ophthalmol. 42, 337-344.
140. Vaux D.L. and Korsmeyer S.J. (1999). Cell death in development. Cell 96, 245-254.
141. Vickers J.C., Schumer R.A., Podos S.M., Wang R.F., Riederer B.M. and Morrison J.H. (1995). Differential vulnerability of neurochemically identified subpopulation of retinal neurons in a monkey model of glaucoma. Brain Res. 680, 23-35.
142. Vidal L., Díaz F., Villena A., Moreno M., García-Campos J. and Pérez de Vargas I. (2006) Nitric oxide synthase in retina and optic nerve head of rat with increased intraocular pressure and effect of timolol. Brain Res. Bull. 70, 406-413.
143. Vidal-Sanz M., Lafuente M.P., Mayor-Torroglosa S., Aguilera M.E., Miralles de Imperial J. and Villegas-Pérez M.P. (2001). Brimonidine neuroprotective effects against transient ischaemia-induced retinal ganglion cell death. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 11, 536-540.
144. Vorwek C.K., Lipton D., Zurakowski D., Hyman B.T., Sabel B.A. and Dreyer E.B. (1996). Chronic low-dose glutamate is toxic to retinal ganglion cells. Toxicity blocked by memantine. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 37, 1618-1624.
145. Wang X., Tay S.S. and Ng Y.K. (2000). An immunohistochemical study of neuronal and glial cell reactions in retinae of rats with experimental glaucoma. Exp. Brain Res. 132, 476-484.
146. Weber A.J., Kaufman L. and Hubbard W.C. (1998). Morphology of single ganglion cells in the glaucomatous primate retina. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 39, 2304-2320.
147. Wheeler L.A., Lai R. and WoldeMussie E. (1999). From the lab to the clinic: activation of an alpha-2-agonist pathway is neuroporotective in models of retinal and optic nerve injury. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 9, 17-21.
148. Wheeler L.A., Gil D. and WoldeMussie E. (2001). Role of alpha 2-adrenergic receptor in neuroprotection and glaucoma. Surv. Ophthalmol. 45, S290-S294.
149. Wijano M., WoldeMussie E. and Ruiz G. (1999). Process of retinal ganglion damage by elevated intraocular pressure in rat eyes. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40, 5672-5677.
150. WoldeMussie E., Ruiz G., Wijono M. and Wheeler A. (2001). Neuroprotection of retinal ganglion cells by brimonidine in rats with laser induced chronic ocular hypertension. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 42, 2849-2855.
151. Wygnanski T., Desatnik H., Glovinsky Y. and Quigley H. (1995). Comparison of ganglion cell loss and cone loss in experimental glaucoma. Am J. Ophthalmol. 120, 184-189.
152. Yan X., Tezel G. and Wax M.B. (2000). Matrix metalloproteinases and tumor necrosis factor alpha in glaucomatous optic nerve head. Arch. Ophthalmol. 118, 866-673.
153. Yoles E. and Schwartz M. (1998). Potential neuroprotective therapy for glaucomatous optic neuropathy. Surv. Ophthalmol. 42, 367-372.
154. Yoles E., Wheeler L.A. and Schwartz M. (1999). Alpha-2-adrenoreceptor agonists are neuroprotective in a rat model of optic nerve degeneration. Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 40, 65-73.
155. Yu D., Su E., Cringle S., Alder V., Yu P. and Desantes L. (1999). Systemic and ocular vascular roles of the antiglaucoma agents β-adrenergic antagonists and Ca2+ entry blockers. Surv. Ophthalmol. 43, S214-S222.
156. Yuan L. and Neufeld A.H. (2001).The activated microglia in the human glaucomatous optic nerve head. J. Neurosci. Res. 64, 523-532.
157. Yücel Y.H., Zhanq Q., Weinreb R., Kaufman P.L. and Gupta N. (2003). Effects of retinal ganglion cells loss on magno-parvo koniocellular pathways in the lateral geniculate nucleus and visual cortex in glaucoma. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 22, 465-481.
158. Zhang Y. and Herman B. (2002). Ageing and apoptosis. Mech. Ageing Develop. 123, 245-260.