Venom therapy in multiple sclerosis

Neuropharmacology

Volumn 53, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 353-361

  Mirshafiey, Abbas ^a  

^a TEHRAN UNIVERSITY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES   (Iran)

Author keywords

Alternative medicine; Bee venom; Complementary medicine; Multiple sclerosis; Scorpion venom; Sea anemone toxin; Snake venom

Indexed keywords

3,4 DIAMINOPYRIDINE; 4 AMINOPYRIDINE; ANCROD; BATROXOBIN; BEE VENOM; BETA BUNGAROTOXIN; BETA INTERFERON; BOTHROMBIN; CHARYBDOTOXIN; COBROTOXIN; CYTOKINE; DENDROTOXIN; DENDROTOXIN I; FIBRINOGEN; FIBRINOPEPTIDE A; FIBRINOPEPTIDE B; GLATIRAMER; IBERIOTOXIN; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; KALIOTOXIN; MAUROTOXIN; NEUROTOXIN; NOXIUSTOXIN; POTASSIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; SCORPION VENOM; SEA ANEMONE TOXIN; SNAKE VENOM; THROMBIN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VOLTAGE GATED POTASSIUM CHANNEL;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ABSENCE OF SIDE EFFECTS; ALLERGIC ENCEPHALOMYELITIS; ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; CONTRAST ENHANCEMENT; DEEP VEIN THROMBOSIS; DEMYELINATING DISEASE; DISEASE ACTIVITY; DISEASE COURSE; DIZZINESS; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; FIBRINOGEN BLOOD LEVEL; FIBRINOLYSIS; GAIT DISORDER; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPOFIBRINOGENEMIA; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; PALLIATIVE THERAPY; PARESTHESIA; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; STROKE; SYMPTOM; TOXIN ANALYSIS; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; VOMITING;

ANIMALS; HUMANS; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; VENOMS;

EID: 34547681342     PISSN: 00283908     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2007.05.002     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Abrahamson H.A. Prevention of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis with cobra venom factor. J. Asthma Res. 8 (1971) 151-152
2. Adams R.A., Passino M., Sachs B.D., Nuriel T., and Akassoglou K. Fibrin mechanisms and functions in nervous system pathology. Mol. Intervent 4 (2004) 163-176
3. Akassoglou K., Kombrinck K.W., Degen J.L., and Strickland S. Tissue plasminogen activator-mediated fibrinolysis protects against axonal degeneration and demyelination after sciatic nerve injury. J. Cell Biol. 149 (2000) 1157-1166
4. Akassoglou K., Adams R.A., Bauer J., Mercado P., Tseveleki V., Lassmann H., Probert L., and Strickland S. Fibrin depletion decreases inflammation and delays the onset of demyelination in a tumor necrosis factor transgenic mouse model for multiple sclerosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101 (2004) 6698-6703
5. Alcaro M.C., and Papini A.M. Contribution of peptides to multiple sclerosis research. Biopolymers 84 (2006) 349-367
6. Anderluh G., and Macek P. Cytolytic peptide and protein toxins from sea anemones (Anthozoa: Actiniaria). Toxicon 40 (2002) 111-124
7. Avdonin V., Nolan B., Sabatier J.M., De Waard M., and Hoshi T. Mechanisms of maurotoxin action on Shaker potassium channels. Biophys. J. 79 (2000) 776-787
8. Bar-Or A. Human immune studies in multiple sclerosis. Adv. Neurol 98 (2006) 91-109
9. Beeton C., Barbaria J., Giraud P., Devaux J., Benoliel A.M., Gola M., Sabatier J.M., Bernard D., Crest M., and Beraud E. Selective blocking of voltage-gated K+ channels improves experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and inhibits T cell activation. J. Immunol. 166 2 (Jan 15 2001) 936-944
10. Beeton C., Wulff H., Barbaria J., Clot-Faybesse O., Pennington M., Bernard D., Cahalan M.D., Chandy K.G., and Beraud E. Selective blockade of T lymphocyte K(+) channels ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a model for multiple sclerosis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (2001) 13942-13947
11. Beeton C., Wulff H., Singh S., Botsko S., Crossley G., Gutman G.A., Cahalan M.D., Pennington M., and Chandy K.G. A novel fluorescent toxin to detect and investigate Kv1.3 channel up-regulation in chronically activated T lymphocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 278 (2003) 9928-9937
12. Bell Jr. W.R. Defibrinogenating enzymes. Drugs 54 Suppl. 3 (1997) 18-30
13. Bellinghausen I., Metz G., Enk A.H., Christmann S., Knop J., and Saloga J. Insect venom immunotherapy induces interleukin-10 production and a Th2-to-Th1 shift, and changes surface marker expression in venom-allergic subjects. Eur. J. Immunol. 27 (1997) 1131-1139
14. Bidard J.N., Mourre C., and Lazdunski M. Two potent central convulsant peptides, a bee venom toxin, the MCD peptide, and a snake venom toxin, dendrotoxin I, known to block K+ channels, have interacting receptor sites. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 143 (1987) 383-389
15. Bidard J.N., Mourre C., Gandolfo G., Schweitz H., Widmann C., Gottesmann C., and Lazdunski M. Analogies and differences in the mode of action and properties of binding sites (localization and mutual interactions) of two K+ channel toxins, MCD peptide and dendrotoxin I. Brain Res. 495 (1989) 45-57
16. Birnbaum G. Making the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Adv. Neurol. 98 (2006) 111-124
17. Blatteis C.M., Li S., Li Z., Perlik V., and Feleder C. Signaling the brain in systemic inflammation: the role of complement. Front. Biosci. 9 (2004) 915-931
18. Breland A.E., and Currier R.D. Scorpion venom and multiple sclerosis. Lancet 2 (1983) 1021
19. Brook E., Herbert A.P., Jenkins H.T., Soares D.C., and Barlow P.N. Opportunities for new therapies based on the natural regulators of complement activation. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1056 (2005) 176-188
20. Cai Q., Meng J.M., and Han X.H. Clinical study on effect of Agkistrodon antithrombogenase in auxiliary treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi 22 (2002) 166-168
21. Canto J., Fernandez Y., Pons M., Giralt E., and Perez J.J. Molecular dynamics study of kaliotoxin in water. Int. J. Biol. Macromol 24 (1999) 1-9
22. Carlson M.J., and Krahn G. Use of complementary and alternative medicine practitioners by people with physical disabilities: estimates from a National US Survey. Disabil. Rehabil. 28 (2006) 505-513
23. Castro H.C., Zingali R.B., Albuquerque M.G., Pujol-Luz M., and Rodrigues C.R. Snake venom thrombin-like enzymes: from reptilase to now. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 61 (2004) 843-856
24. Castro H.J., Mendez-Lnocencio J.I., Omidvar B., Omidvar J., Santilli J., Nielsen Jr. H.S., Pavot A.P., Richert J.R., and Bellanti J.A. A phase I study of the safety of honeybee venom extract as a possible treatment for patients with progressive forms of multiple sclerosis. Allergy Asthma Proc. 26 (2005) 470-476
25. Cerrato P.L. A therapeutic bee sting?. RN 61 (1998) 57-58
26. Cho S.Y., Hahn B.S., Yang K.Y., and Kim Y.S. Purification and characterization of calobin II, a second type of thrombin-like enzyme from Agkistrodon caliginosus (Korean viper). Toxicon 39 (2001) 499-506
27. Crest M., Jacquet G., Gola M., Zerrouk H., Benslimane A., Rochat H., Mansuelle P., and Martin-Eauclaire M.F. Kaliotoxin, a novel peptidyl inhibitor of neuronal BK-type Ca(2+)-activated K+ channels characterized from Androctonus mauretanicus mauretanicus venom. J. Biol. Chem. 267 (1992) 1640-1647
28. Cristina Pico M., Basulto A., del Monte A., Hidalgo A., Eliana Lanio M., Alvarez C., Felico E., and Otero A. Cross-reactivity and inhibition of haemolysis by polyclonal antibodies raised against St II, a cytolysin from the sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus. Toxicon 43 (2004) 167-171
29. Dayan D., Barr-Nea L., Sandback M., Binderman I., Mechanic G.L., and Ishay J.S. Oriental hornet venom enhances wound healing and repair in rat skin, possibly through its collagenolytic activity. Acta Trop 40 (1983) 147-153
30. Dempfle C.E., Argiriou S., Kucher K., Muller-Peltzer H., Rubsamen K., and Heene D.L. Analysis of fibrin formation and proteolysis during intravenous administration of ancrod. Blood 96 (2000) 2793-2802
31. Dempfle C.E., Alesci S., Kucher K., Muller-Peltzer H., Rubsamen K., and Borggrefe M. Plasminogen activation without changes in tPA and PAI-1 in response to subcutaneous administration of ancrod. Thromb. Res. 104 (2001) 433-438
32. Dempfle C.E., Argiriou S., Alesci S., Kucher K., Muller-Peltzer H., Rubsamen K., and Heene D.L. Fibrin formation and proteolysis during ancrod treatment. Evidence for des-A-profibrin formation and thrombin independent factor XIII activity. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 936 (2001) 210-214
33. Derwenskus J., and Lublin F.D. Use of interferon-beta in the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Adv. Neurol. 98 (2006) 257-271
34. Devaux J., Beeton C., Beraud E., and Crest M. Ion channels and demyelination: basis of a treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) by potassium channel blockers. Rev. Neurol. (Paris) 160 (2004) S16-S27
35. Drakopoulou E., Vizzavona J., Neyton J., Aniort V., Bouet F., Virelizier H., Menez A., and Vita C. Consequence of the removal of evolutionary conserved disulfide bridges on the structure and function of charybdotoxin and evidence that particular cysteine spacings govern specific disulfide bond formation. Biochemistry 37 (1998) 1292-1301
36. Eder C., Klee R., and Heinemann U. Blockade of voltage-gated outward K+ currents of ramified murine microglia by scorpion peptide toxins. Neurosci. Lett. 219 (1996) 29-32
37. Eiseman J.L., Vonbredow J., and Alvares A.P. Effect of honeybee (Apis mellifera) venom on course of adjuvant-induced arthritis and depression of drug metabolism in the rat. Biochem. Pharmacol. 31 (1982) 1139-1146
38. Farrell R., Heaney D., and Giovannoni G. Emerging therapies in multiple sclerosis. Expert Opin. Emerg. Drugs 10 (2005) 797-816
39. Fernandez I., Romi R., Szendeffy S., Martin-Eauclaire M.F., Rochat H., Van Rietschoten J., Pons M., and Giralt E. Kaliotoxin (1-37) shows structural differences with related potassium channel blockers. Biochemistry 33 (1994) 14256-14263
40. Fisher R.B. Bee venom and chronic inflammatory disease. N.Z. Med. J. 99 (1986) 639-639
41. Foray M.F., Lancelin J.M., Hollecker M., and Marion D. Sequence-specific 1H-NMR assignment and secondary structure of black mamba dendrotoxin I, a highly selective blocker of voltage-gated potassium channels. Eur. J. Biochem 211 (1993) 813-820
42. Gatineau E., Toma F., Montenay-Garestier T., Takechi M., Fromageot P., and Menez A. Role of tyrosine and tryptophan residues in the structure-activity relationships of a cardiotoxin from Naja nigricollis venom. Biochemistry 26 (1987) 8046-8055
43. Girish K.S., and Kemparaju K. Inhibition of Naja naja venom hyaluronidase by plant-derived bioactive components and polysaccharides. Biochemistry (Mosc.) 70 (2005) 948-952
44. Goldman M.D., Cohen J.A., Fox R.J., and Bethoux F.A. Multiple sclerosis: treating symptoms, and other general medical issues. Cleve Clin. J. Med. 73 (2006) 177-186
45. Goodin D.S. Treatment of multiple sclerosis with human beta interferon. Int. MS J 12 (2005) 96-108
46. Gornitskaia O.V., Platonova T.N., and Volkov G.L. Enzymes of snake venoms. Ukr. Biokhim. Zh 75 (2003) 22-32
47. Grissmer S., Nguyen A.N., Aiyar J., Hanson D.C., Mather R.J., Gutman G.A., Karmilowicz M.J., Auperin D.D., and Chandy K.G. Pharmacological characterization of five cloned voltage-gated K+ channels, types Kv1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, and 3.1, stably expressed in mammalian cell lines. Mol. Pharmacol. 45 (1994) 1227-1234
48. Hamedani M., Vatanpour H., Saadat F., Khorramizadeh M.R., and Mirshafiey A. Bee venom, immunostimulant or immunosuppressor?, insight into the effect on matrix metalloproteinases and interferons. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 27 (2005) 671-681
49. Harvey A.L., Vatanpour H., Rowan E.G., Pinkasfeld S., Vita C., Menez A., and Martin-Eauclaire M.F. Structure-activity studies on scorpion toxins that block potassium channels. Toxicon 33 (1995) 425-436
50. He Y.Y., Lee W.H., and Zhang Y. Cloning and purification of alpha-neurotoxins from king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah). Toxicon 44 (2004) 295-303
51. Herkert M., Shakhman O., Schweins E., and Becker C.M. Beta-bungarotoxin is a potent inducer of apoptosis in cultured rat neurons by receptor-mediated internalization. Eur. J. Neurosci. 14 (2001) 821-828
52. Hinman C.L., Stevens-Truss R., Schwarz C., and Hudson R.A. Sequence determinants of modified cobra venom neurotoxin which induce immune resistance to experimental allergic encephalomyelitis: molecular mechanisms for immunologic action. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 21 (1999) 483-506
53. Hudson R.A., Montgomery I.N., and Rauch H.C. Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis: prevention with a nontoxic derivative of a cobra neurotoxin. Mol. Immunol. 20 (1983) 229-232
54. Huntley A. A review of the evidence for efficacy of complementary and alternative medicines in MS. Int. MS J 13 (2006) 5-12
55. Inoue A., Koh C.S., Shimada K., Yanagisawa N., and Yoshimura K. Suppression of cell-transferred experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in defibrinated Lewis rats. J. Neuroimmunol. 71 (1996) 131-137
56. Iwai S., Okazaki M., Kiuchi Y., and Oguchi K. Changes in mRNA levels of fibrinogen subunit polypeptides in rats defibrinogenated with batroxobin. Thromb. Res. 96 (1999) 421-426
57. Jang M.H., Shin M.C., Lim S., Han S.M., Park H.J., Shin I., Lee J.S., Kim K.A., Kim E.H., and Kim C.J. Bee venom induces apoptosis and inhibit expression of cyclooxygenase-2 mRNA in human lung cancer cell line NCL-H1299. J. Pharmacol. Sci. 91 (2003) 95-104
58. Jensen B.S., Hertz M., Christophersen P., and Madsen L.S. The Ca2+-activated K+ channel of intermediate conductance: a possible target for immune suppression. Expert Opin. Ther. Targets 6 (2002) 623-636
59. Judge S.I., and Bever Jr. C.T. Potassium channel blockers in multiple sclerosis: neuronal K(v) channels and effects of symptomatic treatment. Pharmacol. Ther. 111 (2006) 224-259
60. Judge R.K., Henry P.J., d'Aprile A.C., Lynch D., Jelinek G.A., Wilce M.C., and Wilce J.A. Identification of PLA(2) and alpha-neurotoxin proteins in the venom of Pseudonaja affinis (dugite). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 181 (2002) 184-191
61. Jutel M., Pichler W.J., Skrbic D., Urwyler A., Dahinden C., and Muller U.R. Bee venom immunotherapy results in decrease of IL-4 and IL-5 and increase of IFN-gamma secretion in specific allergen-stimulated T cell cultures. J. Immunol. 154 (1995) 4187-4194
62. Kang S.S., Pak S.C., and Choi S.H. The effect of whole bee venom on arthritis. Am. J. Chin. Med. 30 (2002) 73-80
63. Kharrat R., Mansuelle P., Sampieri F., Crest M., Oughideni R., Van Rietschoten J., Martin-Eauclaire M.F., Rochat H., and El AyebMaurotoxin M. a four disulfide bridge toxin from Scorpio maurus venom: purification, structure and action on potassium channels. FEBS Lett. 406 (1997) 284-290
64. Kim H.W., Kwon Y.B., Ham T.W., Roh D.H., Yoon S.Y., Lee H.J., Han H.J., Yang S., Beitz A.J., and Lee J.H. Acupoint stimulation using bee venom attenuates formalin-induced pain behavior and spinal cord fos expression in rats. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 65 (2003) 349-355
65. Kock M.A., Hew B.E., Bammert H., Fritzinger D.C., and Vogel C.W. Structure and function of recombinant cobra venom factor. J. Biol. Chem. 279 (2004) 30836-30843
66. Kwon Y.B., Lee H.J., Han H.J., Mar W.C., Beitz A.J., and Lee H.J. Bee venom injection into an acupuncture point reduces arthritis associated edema and nociceptive responses. Pain 90 (2001) 271-280
67. Kwon Y.B., Lee H.J., Han H.J., Mar W.C., Kang S.K., Yoon O.B., Beitz A.J., and Lee J.H. The water-soluble fraction of bee venom produces antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects on rheumatoid arthritis in rats. Life Sci. 71 (2002) 191-204
68. Kwon Y.B., Kim H.W., Ham T.W., Yoon S.Y., Roh D.H., Han H.J., Beitz H.J., Yang I.S., and Lee J.H. The anti-inflammatory effect of bee venom stimulation in a mouse air pouch model is mediated by adrenal medullary activity. J. Neuroendocrinol. 15 (2003) 93-96
69. Lancelin J.M., Foray M.F., Poncin M., Hollecker M., and Marion D. Proteinase inhibitor homologues as potassium channel blockers. Nat. Struct. Biol. 1 (1994) 246-250
70. Langer J. Ueber das Gift un serer Monig biene. Arch. Exp. Path. Pharmak 38 (1897) 381-395
71. Lanigan M.D., Pennington M.W., Lefievre Y., Rauer H., and Norton R.S. Designed peptide analogues of the potassium channel blocker ShK toxin. Biochemistry 40 (2001) 15528-15537
72. Lariviere W.R., and Melzack R. The bee venom test. A new tonic-pain test. Pain 66 (1996) 271-277
73. Lee J.H., Kown Y.B., Han H.J., Mar W.C., Lee H.J., Yang I.S., Beitz A.J., and Kang S.K. Bee venom pretreatment has both an antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effect on carrageenan-induced inflammation. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 63 (2001) 251-259
74. Levine S., Cochrane C.G., Carpenter C.B., and Behan P.O. Allergic encephalomyelitis: effect of complement depletion with cobra venom. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 138 (1971) 285-289
75. Linington C., Morgan B.P., Scolding N.J., Wilkins P., Piddlesden S., and Compston D.A. The role of complement in the pathogenesis of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Brain 112 (1989) 895-911
76. Liu X., Chen D., and Zhang R. Effect of honeybee venom on proliferation of K1735M2 mouse melanoma cells in vitro and growth of murine B16 melanomas in vivo. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 54 (2002) 1083-1089
77. Liukmanova E.N., Shul'ga A.A., Aren'eva D.A., Pluzhnikov K.A., Dolgikh D.A., Arsen'ev A.S., and Kirpichnikov M.P. Expression of neurotoxin II from Naja oxiana cobra venom in Escherichia coli in a hybrid form with thioredoxin. Bioorg. Khim 30 (2004) 30-40
78. Lucchesi K., and Moczydlowski E. Subconductance behavior in a maxi Ca2(+)-activated K+ channel induced by dendrotoxin-I. Neuron 4 (1990) 141-148
79. Magnan A., Marin V., Mely L., Birnbaum J., Romanet S., Bongrand P., and Vervloet D. Venom immunotherapy induces monocyte activation. Clin. Exp. Allergy 31 (2001) 1303-1309
80. Mancheno J.M., Martin-Benito J., Martinez-Ripoll M., Gavilanes J.G., and Hermoso J.A. Crystal and electron microscopy structures of sticholysin II actinoporin reveal insights into the mechanism of membrane pore formation. Structure 11 (2003) 1319-1328
81. Marsh N., and Williams V. Practical applications of snake venom toxins in haemostasis. Toxicon 45 (2005) 1171-1181
82. Martin B.M., Ramirez A.N., Gurrola G.B., Nobile M., Prestipino G., and Possani L.D. Novel K(+)-channel-blocking toxins from the venom of the scorpion Centruroides limpidus limpidus Karsch. Biochem. J. 304 (1994) 51-56
83. Martinez D., Campos A.M., Pazos F., Alvarez C., Lanio M.E., Casallanovo F., Schreier S., Salinas R.K., Vergara C., and Lissi E. Properties of St I and St II, two isotoxins isolated from Stichodactyla helianthus: a comparison. Toxicon 39 (2001) 1547-1560
84. Martinez D., Morera V., Alvarez C., Tejuca M., Pazos F., Garcia Y., Raida M., Padron G., and Eliana Lanio M. Identity between cytolysins purified from two morphos of the Caribbean sea anemone Stichodactyla helianthus. Toxicon 40 (2002) 1219-1221
85. Maruyama M., Kamiguti A.S., Cardoso J.L., Sano-Martins I.S., Chudzinski A.M., Santoro M.L., Morena P., Tomy S.C., Antonio L.C., Mihara H., et al. Studies on blood coagulation and fibrinolysis in patients bitten by Bothrops jararaca (jararaca). Thromb. Haemost 63 (1990) 449-453
86. Middleton R.E., Sanchez M., Linde A.R., Bugianesi R.M., Dai G., Felix J.P., Koprak S.L., Staruch M.J., Bruguera M., Cox R., Ghosh A., Hwang J., Jones S., Kohler M., Slaughter R.S., McManus O.B., Kaczorowski G.J., and Garcia M.L. Substitution of a single residue in Stichodactyla helianthus peptide, ShK-Dap22, reveals a novel pharmacological profile. Biochemistry 42 (2003) 13698-13707
87. Morariu M.A., and Dalmasso A.P. Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis in cobra venom factor-treated and C4-deficient guinea pigs. Ann. Neurol. 4 (1978) 427-430
88. Murray T.J. Complementary and alternative medicine for MS. Int. MS J 13 (2006) 3-3
89. Nam K.W., Je K.H., Lee J.H., Han H.J., Lee H.J., Kang S.K., and Mar W. Inhibition of COX-2 activity and proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha and IL-1beta) production by water-soluble sub-fractionated parts from bee (Apis mellifera) venom. Arch. Pharm. Res. 26 (2003) 383-388
90. Newitt R.A., Houamed K.M., Rehm H., and Tempel B.L. Potassium channels and epilepsy: evidence that the epileptogenic toxin, dendrotoxin, binds to potassium channel proteins. Epilepsy Res. 4 Suppl. (1991) 263-273
91. Nishio H., Inui T., Nishiuchi Y., De Medeiros C.L., Rowan E.G., Harvey A.L., Katoh E., Yamazaki T., Kimura T., and Sakakibara S. Chemical synthesis of dendrotoxin-I: revision of the reported structure. J. Pept. Res. 51 (1998) 355-364
92. Norton R.S., Pennington M.W., and Wulff H. Potassium channel blockade by the sea anemone toxin ShK for the treatment of multiple sclerosis and other autoimmune diseases. Curr. Med. Chem. 11 (2004) 3041-3052
93. Nose T., Shimohigashi Y., Hattori S., Kihara H., and Ohno M. Purification and characterization of a coagulant enzyme, okinaxobin II, from Trimeresurus okinavensis (himehabu snake) venom which release fibrinopeptides A and B. Toxicon 32 (1994) 1509-1520
94. Ogay A.Y., Rzhevsky D.I., Murashev A.N., Tsetlin V.I., and Utkin Y.N. Weak neurotoxin from Naja kaouthia cobra venom affects haemodynamic regulation by acting on acetylcholine receptors. Toxicon 45 (2005) 93-99
95. Orsolic N., Sver L., Verstovsek S., Terzic S., and Basic I. Inhibition of mammary carcinoma cell proliferation in vitro and tumor growth in vivo by bee venom. Toxicon 41 (2003) 861-870
96. Paterson P.Y. Experimental allergic encephalomyelitis: role of fibrin deposition in immunopathogenesis of inflammation in rats. Fed. Proc. 35 (1976) 2428-2434
97. Pazos I.F., Martinez D., Tejuca M., Valle A., del Pozo A., Alvarez C., Lanio M.E., and Lissi E.A. Comparison of pore-forming ability in membranes of a native and a recombinant variant of Sticholysin II from Stichodactyla helianthus. Toxicon 42 (2003) 571-578
98. Pergolizzi R.G., Dragos R., Ropper A.E., Menez A., and Crystal R.G. Protective immunity against alpha-cobratoxin following a single administration of a genetic vaccine encoding a non-toxic cobratoxin variant. Hum. Gene Ther. 16 (2005) 292-298
99. Petretski J.H., Kanashiro M., Silva C.P., Alves E.W., and Kipnis T.L. Two related thrombin-like enzymes present in Bothrops atrox venom. Braz. J. Med. Biol. Res. 33 (2000) 1293-1300
100. Piddlesden S., Lassmann H., Laffafian I., Morgan B.P., and Linington C. Antibody-mediated demyelination in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis is independent of complement membrane attack complex formation. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 83 (1991) 245-250
101. Rehm H., Bidard J.N., Schweitz H., and Lazdunski M. The receptor site for the bee venom mast cell degranulating peptide. Affinity labeling and evidence for a common molecular target for mast cell degranulating peptide and dendrotoxin I, a snake toxin active on K+ channels. Biochemistry 27 (1988) 1827-1832
102. Romi-Lebrun R., Lebrun B., Martin-Eauclaire M.F., Ishiguro M., Escoubas P., Wu F.Q., Hisada M., Pongs O., NakajimaPurification, and characterization T. synthesis of three novel toxins from the Chinese scorpion Buthus martensi, which act on K+ channels. Biochemistry 36 (1997) 13473-13482
103. Schmidt J.O. Biochemistry of insect venom. Ann. Rev. Ent. 27 (1982) 339-368
104. Schmidt R.R., and Betz H. Cross-linking of beta-bungarotoxin to chick brain membranes. Identification of subunits of a putative voltage-gated K+ channel. Biochemistry 28 (1989) 8346-8350
105. Schwarz S., Leweling H., and Meinck H.M. Alternative and complementary therapies in multiple sclerosis. Fortschr. Neurol. Psychiatr. 73 (2005) 451-462
106. Sherman D.G. Ancrod. Curr. Med. Res. Opin 18 Suppl. 2 (2002) s48-s52
107. Shinto L., Yadav V., Morris C., Lapidus J.A., Senders A., and Bourdette D. The perceived benefit and satisfaction from conventional and complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in people with multiple sclerosis. Complement Ther. Med. 13 (2005) 264-272
108. Shinto L., Yadav V., Morris C., Lapidus J.A., Senders A., and Bourdette D. Demographic and health-related factors associated with complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) use in multiple sclerosis. Multiple Sclerosis 12 (2006) 94-100
109. Stangel M., Gold R., Gass A., Haas J., Jung S., Elias W., and Zettl U.K. Current issues in immunomodulatory treatment of multiple sclerosis-a practical approach. J. Neurol. 253 Suppl. 1 (2006) I32-I36
110. Tsuji R.F., Geba G.P., Wang Y., Kawamoto K., Matis L.A., and Askenase P.W. Required early complement activation in contact sensitivity with generation of local C5-dependent chemotactic activity, and late T cell interferon gamma: a possible initiating role of B cells. J. Exp. Med. 186 (1997) 1015-1026
111. Virley D.J. Developing therapeutics for the treatment of multiple sclerosis. NeuroRx 2 (2005) 638-649
112. Wang W.X., and Ji Y.H. Scorpion venom induces glioma cell apoptosis in vivo and inhibits glioma tumor growth in vitro. J. Neurooncol. 73 (2005) 1-7
113. Watanabe L., Vieira D.F., Bortoleto R.K., and Arni R.K. Crystallization of bothrombin, a fibrinogen-converting serine protease isolated from the venom of Bothrops jararaca. Acta Crystallogr. D Biol. Crystallogr 58 (2002) 1036-1038
114. Wesselius T., Heersema D.J., Mostert J.P., Heerings M., Admiraal-Behloul F., Talebian A., van Buchem M.A., and De Keyser J. A randomized crossover study of bee sting therapy for multiple sclerosis. Neurology 65 (2005) 1764-1768
115. Wu W., Kuang P., Jiang S., Zhang X., Yang J., Sui N., Albert C., and Kuang P. Effects of batroxobin on spatial learning and memory disorder of rats with temporal ischemia and the expression of HSP32 and HSP70. J. Tradit. Chin. Med. 20 (2000) 297-301
116. Wulff H., Calabresi P.A., Allie R., Yun S., Pennington M., Beeton C., and Chandy K.G. The voltage-gated Kv1.3 K(+) channel in effector memory T cells as new target for MS. J. Clin. Invest. 111 (2003) 1703-1713
117. Yadav V., and Bourdette D. Complementary and alternative medicine: is there a role in multiple sclerosis?. Curr. Neurol. Neurosci. Rep. 6 (2006) 259-267
118. Yan L., Herrington J., Goldberg E., Dulski P.M., Bugianesi R.M., Slaughter R.S., Banerjee P., Brochu R.M., Priest B.T., Kaczorowski G.J., Rudy B., and Garcia M.L. Stichodactyla helianthus peptide, a pharmacological tool for studying Kv3.2 channels. Mol. Pharmacol. 67 (2005) 1513-1521
119. You W.K., Choi W.S., Koh Y.S., Shin H.C., Jang Y., and Chung K.H. Functional characterization of recombinant batroxobin, a snake venom thrombin-like enzyme, expressed from Pichia pastoris. FEBS Lett. 571 (2004) 67-73
120. Yu K., Fu W., Liu H., Luo X., Chen K.X., Ding J., Shen J., and Jiang H. Computational simulations of interactions of scorpion toxins with the voltage-gated potassium ion channel. Biophys. J. 86 (2004) 3542-3555
121. Zhang Y., and Tu A.T. The effect of snake venoms and their components on adrenomedullary cells: catecholamine efflux and cell damage. Neurotoxicology 23 (2002) 273-279