Phthalates and human health

Occupational and Environmental Medicine

Volumn 62, Issue 11, 2005, Pages 806-818

  Hauser, R ^a   Calafat, A M ^b  

^a HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b NATIONAL CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOLOGICAL MARKER; COSMETIC; DIISONONYLPHTHALATE; DRUG; DYE; INSECTICIDE; PHTHALIC ACID BENZYL BUTYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID BIS(2 ETHYLHEXYL) ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DERIVATIVE; PHTHALIC ACID DIBUTYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DIETHYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID DIOCTYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID ESTER; PLASTICIZER; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

AIRWAY OBSTRUCTION; ANOVULATION; BIOLOGICAL MONITORING; CRYPTORCHISM; DEVELOPMENTAL DISORDER; ENDOMETRIOSIS; FECES; FETOTOXICITY; FETUS WEIGHT; GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY; GROWTH RETARDATION; HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY; HUMAN; HYPOSPADIAS; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER TOXICITY; METABOLISM; MOLECULAR WEIGHT; NEPHROTOXICITY; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REPRODUCTIVE TOXICITY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; TANDEM MASS SPECTROMETRY; TERATOGENESIS; TESTIS CANCER; TESTIS DISEASE; URINARY EXCRETION;

ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; FEMALE; GONADAL DISORDERS; HUMANS; MALE; OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES; PHTHALIC ACIDS; REPRODUCTIVE MEDICINE; RESPIRATION DISORDERS;

EID: 27644472191     PISSN: 13510711     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/oem.2004.017590     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. ATSDR. Toxicological profile for di-n-octyl phthalate (DNOP). Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1997.
2. ATSDR. Toxicological profile for di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2002.
3. David RM, McKee RH, Butala JH, et al. Esters of aromatic mono-, di-, and tricarboxylic acids, aromatic diacids, and di-, tri-, or polyalcohols. In: Bingham E, Cohrssen B, Powell CH, eds. Patty's toxicology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2001:635-932.
4. ATSDR. Toxicological profile for diethyl phthalate (DEP). Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1995.
5. ATSDR. Toxicological profile for di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP). Atlanta, GA: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 2001.
6. Adibi JJ, Perera FP, Jedrychowski W, et al. Prenatal exposures to phthalates among women in New York City and Krakow, Poland. Environ Health Perspect 2003;111:1719-22.
7. Rudel R, Camann D, Spengler JD, et al. Household exposure to phthalates, pesticides, alkylphenols, pbdes, and other endocrine active compounds Toxicol Sci 2003;72:184.
8. FDA. Safety assessment of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) released from PVC medical devices. Rockville, MD: Center for Devices and Radiological Health, US Food and Drug Administration, 2001.
9. Albro PW, Moore B. Identification of the metabolites of simple phthalate diesters in rat urine. J Chromatogr 1974;94:209-18.
10. Albro PW, Thomas R, Fishbein L. Metabolism of diethylhexyl phthalate by rats. Isolation and characterization of the urinary metabolites. J Chromatogr 1973;76:321-30.
11. Albro PW, Thomas RO. Enzymatic hydrolysis of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate by lipases. Biochim Biophys Acta 1973;306:380-90.
12. Albro PW, Lavenhar SR. Metabolism of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. Drug Metabol Rev 1989;21:13-34.
13. McKee RH, El Hawari M, Stoltz M, et al. Absorption, disposition and metabolism of di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) in F-344 rats. J Appl Toxicol 2002;22:293-302.
14. Silva MJ, Kato K, Gray EL, et al. Urinary metabolites of di-n-octyl phthalate in rats. Toxicology 2005;210:123-33.
15. Calafat AM, Silva MJ, Reidy JA, et al. Mono-(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, a metabolite of di-n-octyl phthalate. J Toxicol Environ Health Part A. In press.
16. Kato K, Silva MJ, Reidy JA, et al. Mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate and mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate as biomarkers for human exposure assessment to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:327-30.
17. Silva MJ, Barr DB, Reidy JA, et al. Glucuronidation patterns of common urinary and serum monoester phthalate metabolites. Arch Toxicol 2003;77:561-7.
18. Koch HM, Bolt HM, Angerer J. Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) metabolites in human urine and serum after a single oral dose of deuterium-labelled DEHP. Arch Toxicol 2004;78:123-30.
19. Barr DB, Silva MJ, Kato K, et al. Assessing human exposure to phthalates using monoesters and their oxidized metabolites as biomarkers. Environ Health Perspect 2003;111:1148-51.
20. Koch HM, Rossbach B, Drexler H, et al. Internal exposure of the general population to DEHP and other phthalates-determination of secondary and primary phthalate monoester metabolites in urine. Environ Res 2003;93:177-85.
21. Koch HM, Drexler H, Angerer J. Internal exposure of nursery-school children and their parents and teachers to di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP). Int J Hyg Environ Health 2004;207:15-22.
22. Kato K, Silva MJ, Needham LL, et al. Determination of 16 phthalate metabolites in urine using automated sample preparation and on-line preconcentration/high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Chem 2005;77:2985-91.
23. Preuss R, Koch HM, Angerer J. Biological monitoring of the five major metabolites of di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in human urine using column-switching liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B 2005;816:269-80.
24. Blount BC, Silva MJ, Caudill SP, et al. Levels of seven urinary phthalate metabolites in a human reference population. Environ Health Perspect 2000;108:979-82.
25. CDC. Second national report on human exposure to environmental chemicals. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health, Division of Laboratory Sciences, 2003.
26. Silva MJ, Barr DB, Reidy JA, et al. Urinary levels of seven phthalate metabolites in the US population from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 1999-2000. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:331-8.
27. Dirven HAAM, VandenBroek PHH, Jongeneelen FJ. Determination of 4 metabolites of the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in human urine samples. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 1993;64:555-60.
28. Ching NPH, Jham GN, Subbarayan C, et al. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric detection of circulating plasticizers in surgical patients. J Chromatogr 1981;222:171-7.
29. Faouzi MA, Dine T, Gressier B, et al. Exposure of hemodialysis patients to di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate. Int J Pharm 1999;180:113-21.
30. Mettang T, Thomas S, Kiefer T, et al. Uraemic pruritus and exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in haemodialysis patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1996;11:2439-43.
31. Pollack GM, Buchanan JF, Slaughter RL, et al. Circulating concentrations of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and its de-esterified phthalic-acid products following plasticizer exposure in patients receiving hemodialysis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1985;79:257-67.
32. Blount BC, Milgram KE, Silva MJ, et al. Quantitative detection of eight phthalate metabolites in human urine using HPLC-APCI-MS/MS. Anal Chem 2000;72:4127-34.
33. Holm A, Solbu K, Molander P, et al. Sensitive biomonitoring of phthalate metabolites in human urine using packed capillary column switching liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization ion-trap mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2004;378:1762-8.
34. Kato K, Shoda S, Takahashi M, et al. Determination of three phthalate metabolites in human urine using on-line solid-phase extraction-liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B 2003;788:407-11.
35. Kato K, Yamauchi T, Higashiyama K, et al. High throughput analysis of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate metabolites in urine for exposure assessment. J Liq Chromatogr Relat Technol 2003;26:2167-76.
36. Koch HM, Gonzalez-Reche LM, Angerer J. On-line clean-up by multidimensional liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry for high throughput quantification of primary and secondary phthalate metabolites in human urine. J Chromatogr B 2003;784:169-82.
37. Takatori S, Kitagawa Y, Kitagawa M, et al. Determination of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and mono(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in human serum using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B 2004;804:397-401.
38. Alzaga R, Pena A, Bayona JM. Determination of phthalic monoesters in aqueous and urine samples by solid-phase microextraction-diazomethane on-fibre derivatization-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Journal of Separation Science 2003;26:87-96.
39. Calafat AM, Slakman AR, Silva MJ, et al. Automated solid phase extraction and quantitative analysis of human milk for 13 phthalate metabolites. J Chromatogr B 2004;805:49-56.
40. Kato K, Silva MJ, Brock JW, et al. Quantitative detection of nine phthalate metabolites in human serum using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. J Anal Toxicol 2003;27:284-9.
41. Silva MJ, Malek NA, Hodge CC, et al. Improved quantitative detection of 11 urinary phthalate metabolites in humans using liquid chromatography- atmospheric pressure chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B 2003;789:393-404.
42. Silva MJ, Slakman AR, Reidy JA, et al. Analysis of human urine for fifteen phthalate metabolites using automated solid-phase extraction. J Chromatogr B 2004;805:161-7.
43. Hoppin JA, Brock JW, Davis BJ, et al. Reproducibility of urinary phthalate metabolites in first morning urine samples. Environ Health Perspect 2002;110:515-18.
44. Hauser R, Meeker JD, Park S, et al. Temporal variability of urinary phthalate metabolite levels in men of reproductive age. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:1734-40.
45. Becker K, Seiwert M, Angerer J, et al. DEHP metabolites in urine of children and DEHP in house dust. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2004;207:409-17.
46. Brock JW, Caudill SP, Silva MJ, et al. Phthalate monoesters levels in the urine of young children. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 2002;68:309-14.
47. Koch HM, Preuss R, Drexler H, et al. Exposure of nursery school children and their parents and teachers to di-n-butylphthalate and butylbenzylphthalate. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 2005;78:223-9.
48. Hauser R, Duty S, Godfrey-Bailey L, et al. Medications as a source of human exposure to phthalates. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:751-3.
49. Calafat AM, Needham LL, Silva MJ, et al. Exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate among premature neonates in a neonatal intensive care unit. Pediatrics 2004;113:e429-34.
50. Koch HM, Muller J, Drexler H, et al. Dibutylphthalate (DBP) in medications: are pregnant women and infants at risk? Umweltmed Forsch Prax 2005;10:144-6.
51. Shea KM, The Committee on Environmental Health. Pediatric exposure and potential toxicity of phthalate plasticizers. Pediatrics 2003;111:1467-74.
52. Green R, Hauser R, Calafat AM, et al. Use of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate containing medical products and urinary levels of mono(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in neonatal intensive care unit infants. Environ Health Perspect. In press (doi: 10.1289/ehp.7932; available via http://dx.doi.org/).
53. Foster PMD, Thomas LV, Cook MW, et al. Study of the testicular effects and changes in zinc excretion produced by some normal-alkyl phthalates in the rat. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1980;54:392-8.
54. Gray LE, Ostby J, Furr J, et al. Perinatal exposure to the phthalates DEHP, BBP, and DINP, but not DEP, DMP, or DOTP, alters sexual differentiation of the male rat. Toxicol Sci 2000;58:350-65.
55. Foster PMD, Lake BG, Thomas LV, et al. Studies on the testicular effects and zinc excretion produced by various isomers of monobutyl-ortho-phthalate in the rat. Chemico-Biological Interactions 1981;34:233-8.
56. Foster PMD, Lake BG, Cook MW, et al. Structure-activity requirements for the induction of testicular atrophy by butyl phthalates in immature rats-effect on testicular zinc content. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 1982;136:445-52.
57. Gray TJB, Beamand JA. Effect of some phthalate esters and other testicular toxins on primary cultures of testicular cells. Food Chem Toxicol 1984;22:123-31.
58. Sjoberg P, Lindqvist NG, Ploen L. Age-dependent response of the rat testes to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Environ Health Perspect 1986;65:237-42.
59. Ward JM, Peters JM, Perella CM, et al. Receptor and nonreceptor-mediated organ-specific toxicity of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha-null mice. Toxicol Pathol 1998;26:240-6.
60. Doull J, Cattley R, Elcombe C, et al. A cancer risk assessment of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate: application of the new US EPA risk assessment guidelines. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 1999;29:327-57.
61. Melnick RL. Is peroxisome proliferation an obligatory precursor step in the carcinogenicity of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP)? Environ Health Perspect 2001;109:437-42.
62. IARC. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Some industrial chemicals. Lyon: IARC, 2000.
63. Klaunig JE, Babich MA, Baetcke KP, et al. PPAR alpha agonist-induced rodent tumors: modes of action and human relevance. Crit Rev Toxicol 2003;33:655-780.
64. Mylchreest E, Cattley RC, Foster PMD. Male reproductive tract malformations in rats following gestational and lactational exposure to di(n-butyl) phthalate: an antiandrogenic mechanism? Toxicol Sci 1998;43:47-60.
65. Mylchreest E, Sar M, Cattley RC, et al. Disruption of androgen-regulated male reproductive development by di(n-butyl) phthalate during late gestation in rats is different from flutamide. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1999;156:81-95.
66. Mylchreest E, Wallace DG, Cattley RC, et al. Dose-dependent alterations in androgen-regulated male reproductive development in rats exposed to di(n-butyl) phthalate during late gestation. Toxicol Sci 2000;55:143-51.
67. Ema M, Miyawaki E. Effects on development of the reproductive system in male offspring of rats given butyl benzyl phthalate during late pregnancy. Reprod Toxicol 2002;16:71-6.
68. Ema M, Miyawaki E, Hirose A, et al. Decreased anogenital distance and increased incidence of undescended testes in fetuses of rats given monobenzyl phthalate, a major metabolite of butyl benzyl phthalate. Reprod Toxicol 2003;17:407-12.
69. Foster PMD, Mylchreest E, Gaido KW, et al. Effects of phthalate esters on the developing reproductive tract of male rats. Human Reprod Update 2001;7:231-5.
70. Parks LG, Ostby JS, Lambright CR, et al. The plasticizer diethylhexyl phthalate induces malformations by decreasing fetal testosterone synthesis during sexual differentiation in the male rat. Toxicol Sci 2000;58:339-49.
71. Van Tongeren M, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Gardiner K, et al. A job-exposure matrix for potential endocrine-disrupting chemicals developed for a study into the association between maternal occupational exposure and hypospadias. Ann Occup Hyg 2002;46:465-77.
72. Vrijheid M, Armstrong B, Dolk H, et al. Risk of hypospadias in relation to maternal occupational exposure to potential endocrine disrupting chemicals. Occup Environ Med 2003;60:543-50.
73. Pierik FH, Burdorf A, Deddens JA, et al. Maternal and paternal risk factors for cryptorchidism and hypospadias: a case-control study in newborn boys. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:1570-6.
74. Swan SH, Main KM, Liu F, et al. Decrease in anogenital distance among male infants with prenatal phthalate exposure. Environ Health Perspect. In press (doi: 10, 1289/ehp.8100; available via http://dx.doi.org/).
75. Barlow NJ, Foster PMD. Pathogenesis of male reproductive tract lesions from gestation through adulthood following in utero exposure to di(n-butyl) phthalate. Toxicol Pathol 2003;31:397-410.
76. Tyl RW, Myers CB, Marr MC, et al. Reproductive toxicity evaluation of dietary butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP) in rats. Reprod Toxicol 2004;18:241-64.
77. Colon I, Caro D, Bourdony CJ, et al. Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development. Environ Health Perspect 2000;108:895-900.
78. McKee RH. Phthalate exposure and early thelarche. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:A541-3.
79. Zacharewski TR, Meek MD, Clemons JH, et al. Examination of the in vitro and in vivo estrogenic activities of eight commercial phthalate esters. Toxicol Sci 1998;46:282-93.
80. Rais-Bahrami K, Nunez S, Revenis ME, et al. Follow-up study of adolescents exposed to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) as neonates on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:1339-40.
81. Shneider B, Schena J, Truog R, et al. Exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in infants receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. N Engl J Med 1989;320:1563.
82. Agarwal DK, Maronpot RR, Lamb JC, et al. Adverse-effects of butyl benzyl phthalate on the reproductive and hematopoietic systems of male-rats. Toxicology 1985;35:189-206.
83. Parmar D, Srivastava SP, Seth PK. Effect of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) on spermatogenesis in adult-rats. Toxicology 1986;42:47-55.
84. Srivastava SP, Srivastava S, Saxena DK, et al. Testicular effects of di-normal-butyl phthalate (DBP)-biochemical and histopathological alterations. Arch Toxicol 1990;64:148-52.
85. Dostal LA, Chapin RE, Stefanski SA, et al. Testicular toxicity and reduced Sertoli-cell numbers in neonatal rats by di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and the recovery of fertility as adults. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1988;95:104-21.
86. Higuchi TT, Palmer JS, Gray LE, et al. Effects of dibutyl phthalate in male rabbits following in utero, adolescent, or postpubertal exposure. Toxicol Sci 2003;72:301-13.
87. Heindel JJ, Gulati DK, Mounce RC, et al. Reproductive toxicity of 3 phthalic-acid esters in a continuous breeding protocol. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 1989;12:508-18.
88. Li H, Kim KH. Effects of mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate on fetal and neonatal rat testis organ cultures. Biology of Reproduction 2003;69:1964-72.
89. Li LH, Jester WF, Laslett AL, et al. A single dose of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in neonatal rats alters gonocytes, reduces Sertoli cell proliferation, and decreases cyclin D2 expression. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2000;166:222-9.
90. Li LH, Jester WF, Orth JM. Effects of relatively low levels of mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate on cocultured Sertoli cells and gonocytes from neonatal rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1998;153:258-65.
91. Kurata Y, Kidachi F, Yokoyama M, et al. Subchronic toxicity of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in common marmosets: lack of hepatic peroxisome proliferation, testicular atrophy, or pancreatic acinar cell hyperplasia. Toxicol Sci 1998;42:49-56.
92. Duty SM, Singh NP, Silva MJ, et al. The relationship between environmental exposures to phthalates and DNA damage in human sperm using the neutral comet assay. Environ Health Perspect 2003;111:1164-9.
93. Duty SM, Silva MJ, Barr DB, et al. Phthalate exposure and human semen parameters. Epidemiology 2003;14:269-77.
94. Duty SM, Calafat AM, Silva MJ, et al. The relationship between environmental exposure to phthalates and computer-aided sperm analysis motion parameters. J Androl 2004;25:293-302.
95. Duty SM, Calafat AM, Silva MJ, et al. Phthalate exposure and reproductive hormones in adult men. Human Reprod 2005;20:604-10.
96. Murature DA, Tang SY, Steinhardt G, et al. Phthalate-esters and semen quality parameters. Biomedical and Environmental Mass Spectrometry 1987;14:473-7.
97. Rozati R, Reddy PP, Reddanna P, et al. Role of environmental estrogens in the deterioration of male factor fertility. Fertility & Sterility 2002;78:1187-94.
98. Modigh CM, Bodin SLV, Lillienberg L, et al. Time to pregnancy among partners of men exposed to di(2- ethylhexyl)phthalate. Scand J Work Environ Health 2002;28:418-28.
99. Hardell L, Ohlson CG, Frederikson M. Occupational exposure to polyvinyl chloride as a risk factor for testicular cancer evaluated in a case-control study. Int J Cancer 1997;73:828-30.
100. Hansen J. Risk for testicular cancer after occupational exposure to plastics. Int J Cancer 1999;82:911-12.
101. Davis BJ, Maronpot RR, Heindel JJ. Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate suppresses estradiol and ovulation in cycling rats. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1994;128:216-23.
102. Davis BJ, Weaver R, Gaines LJ, et al. Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate suppresses estradiol production independent of fsh-camp stimulation in rat granulosa-cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1994;128:224-8.
103. Lovekamp TN, Davis BJ. Mono-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate suppresses aromatase transcript levels and estradiol production in cultured rat granulosa cells. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2001;172:217-24.
104. Ema M, Miyawaki E, Kawashima K. Reproductive effects of butyl benzyl phthalate in pregnant and pseudopregnant rats. Reprod Toxicol 1998;12:127-32.
105. Ema M, Miyawaki E, Kawashima K. Effects of dibutyl phthalate on reproductive function in pregnant and pseudopregnant rats. Reprod Toxicol 2000;14:13-19.
106. Cobellis L, Latini G, DeFelice C, et al. High plasma concentrations of di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate in women with endometriosis. Human Reprod 2003;18:1512-15.
107. Latini G, De Felice C, Presta G, et al. In utero exposure to di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate and duration of human pregnancy. Environ Health Perspect 2003;111:1783-5.
108. Tabacova S, Little R, Balabaeva L. Maternal exposure to phthalates and complications of pregnancy. Epidemiology 1999;10:S127.
109. Rudel RA, Camann DE, Spengler JD, et al. Phthalates, alkylphenols, pesticides, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and other endocrine-disrupting compounds in indoor air and dust. Environ Sci Technol 2003;37:4543-53.
110. Doelman CJA, Borm PJA, Bast A. Plasticizers and bronchial hyperreactivity Lancet 1990;335:725.
111. Oie L, Hersoug LG, Madsen JO. Residential exposure to plasticizers and its possible role in the pathogenesis of asthma. Environ Health Perspect 1997;105:972-8.
112. Jaakkola JJK, Oie L, Nafstad P, et al. Interior surface materials in the home and the development of bronchial obstruction in young children in Oslo, Norway. Am J Public Health 1999;89:188-92.
113. Jaakkola JJK, Verkasalo PK, Jaakkola N. Plastic wall materials in the home and respiratory health in young children. Am J Public Health 2000;90:797-9.
114. Ponsonby AL, Dwyer T, Kemp A, et al. Synthetic bedding and wheeze in childhood. Epidemiology 2003;14:37-44.
115. Oie L, Nafstad P, Botten G, et al. Ventilation in homes and bronchial obstruction in young children. Epidemiology 1999;10:294-9.
116. Hoppin JA, Ulmer R, London SJ. Phthalate exposure and pulmonary function. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:571-4.
117. Bornehag CG, Sundell J, Weschler CJ, et al. The association between asthma and allergic symptoms in children and phthalates in house dust: a nested case-control study. Environ Health Perspect 2004;112:1393-7.
118. Nielsen J, Akesson B, Skerfving S. Phthalate ester exposure-air levels and health of workers processing polyvinylchloride. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J 1985;46:643-7.
119. Milkov LE, Aldyreva MV, Popova TB, et al. Health status of workers exposed to phthalate plasticizers in the manufacture of artificial leather and films based on PVC resins. Environ Health Perspect 1973;3:175-8.
120. Skakkebaek NE, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Main KM. Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: an increasingly common developmental disorder with environmental aspects. Human Reprod 2001;16:972-8.