RNA silencing

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology

Volumn 544, Issue , 2003, Pages 145-158

  Grabarek, Joanna B ^a  

^a CYCLACEL LTD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONFERENCE PAPER; GENE FUNCTION; GENE SILENCING; GENETIC TRANSCRIPTION; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RNA INTERFERENCE; RNA SILENCING;

EID: 1542373511     PISSN: 00652598     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-9072-3_19     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (115)

1. Amedeo, P., Habu, Y., Afsar, K., Scheid, O.M. and Paszkowski, J., 2000, Disruption of the plant gene MOM releases transcriptional silencing of methylated genes. Nature 405: 203-206.
2. Anandalakshmi, R., Marathe, R., Ge, X., Herr, J.M. Jr., Mau, C., Mallory, A., Pruss, G., Bowman, L. and Vance, V.B., 2000, A calmodulin-related protein that suppresses posttranscriptional gene silencing in plants. Science 290: 142-144.
3. Angell, S.M. and Baulcombe, D.C., 1997, Consistent gene silencing in transgenic plants expressing a replicating potato virus X RNA. EMBO J. 16: 3675-3684.
4. Bahramian, M.B. and Zarbi, H., 1999, Transcriptional and posttranscriptional silencing of rodent alpha 1 (I) collagen by a homologous transcriptionally self-silenced transgene. Mol. Cell Biol. 19: 274-283.
5. Bernstein, E., Caudy, A.A., Hammond, S.M. and Hannon, G.J., 2001, Role for a bidentate ribonuclease in the initiation step of RNA interference. Nature 409: 363-366.
6. Bohmert, K., Camus, I., Bellini, C., Bouchez, D., Caboche, M. and Benning, C., 1998, AGO1 defines a novel locus of Arabidopsis controlling leaf development. EMBO. J 17: 170-178.
7. Boutla, A., Delidakis, C., Livadaras, I., Tsagris, M. and Tabler, M., 2001, Short 5′-phosphorylated double-stranded RNAs induce RNA interference in Drosophila. Curr. Biol. 11: 1776-1780.
8. Caplen, N.J., Fleenor, J., Fire, A. and Morgan, R.A., 2000, dsRNA-mediated gene silencing in cultured Drosophila cells: a tissue culture model for the analysis of RNA interference. Gene 252: 95-105.
9. de Carvalho, F., Gheysen, G., Kushnir, S., Van Montagu, M., Inze, D. and Castresana, C., 1992, Suppression of beta-1,3-glucanase transgene expression in homozygous plants. EMBO J. 11: 2595-2602.
10. Caudy, A.A., Myers, M., Hannon, G.J. and Hammond, S.M., 2002, Fragile X-related protein and VIG associate with the RNA interference machinery. Genes Dev 16: 2491-2496.
11. Cerutti, L, Mian, N. and Bateman, A., 2000, Domains in gene silencing and cell differentiation proteins: the novel PAZ domain and redefinition of the Piwi domain. Trends Biochem. Sci. 25: 481-482.
12. Chalfie, M., Horvitz, H.R. and Sulston, J.E., 1981, Mutations that lead to reiterations in the cell lineage of C. elegans. Cell 24: 59-69.
13. Cogoni, C., Irelan, J.T., Shumacher, M., Shmidhauser, T.J., Selker, E.U. and Macino, G., 1996, Transgene silencing of the al-1 gene in vegetative cells of Neurospora is mediated by a cytoplasmic effector and does not depend on DNA-DNA interactions or DNA methylation. EMBO J. 15: 3153-3163.
14. Cogoni, C. and Macino, G., 1999, Gene silencing in Neurospora crassa requires a protein homologous to RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Nature 399: 166-169.
15. Dalmay, T., Hamilton, A., Rudd, S., Angell., S and Baulcombe, D.C., 2000, An RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene in Arabidopsis is required for posttranscriptional gene silencing mediated by a transgene but not by a virus. Cell 101: 543-553.
16. Dernburg, A.F., Zalevsky, J., Colaiacovo, M.P and Villeneuve, A.M., 2000; Transgene-mediated cosuppression in the C. elegans germ line. Genes Dev. 14: 1578-1583.
17. Doench, J.G., Petersen, C.P. and Sharp, P.A., 2003, siRNAs can function as miRNAs. Genes Dev 17: 438-442.
18. Dostie, J., Mourelatos, Z., Yang, M., Sharma, A. and Dreyfuss, G., 2003; Numerous microRNPs in neuronal cells containing novel microRNAs. RNA 9: 180-186.
19. Dudley, N.R., Labbe, J.C. and Goldstein, B., 2002, Using RNA interference to identify genes required for RNA interference. PNAS U S A 99: 4191-4196.
20. Elbashir, S.M., Lendeckel, W. and Tushl, T., 2001a, RNA interference is mediated by 21-and 22-nucleotide RNAs. Genes Dev. 15: 188-200.
21. Elbashir, S.M., Martinez, J., Patkaniowska, A., Lendeckel, W. and Tuschl, T., 2001b, Functional anatomy of siRNAs for mediating efficient RNAi in Drosophila melanogaster embryo lysate. EMBO J. 20: 6877-6888.
22. Elmayan, T. and Vaucheret, H, 1996, Single copies of a strongly expressed 35S-driven transgene undergo posttranscriptional silencing. Plant J. 9: 787-797.
23. Fagard, M., Boutet, S., Morel, J.B., Bellini, C. and Vaucheret, H., 2000, AGO1, QDE-2, and RDE-1 are related proteins required for post-transcriptional gene silencing in plants, quelling in fungi, and RNA interference in animals. PNAS U S A 97: 11650-11654.
24. Fire, A., Xu, S., Montgomery, M.K., Kostas, S.A., Driver, S.E. and Mello, C.C., 1998, Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature 391: 806-811.
25. Furner, I.J., Sheikh, M.A and Collett, C.E., 1998, Gene silencing and homology-dependent gene silencing in Arabidopsis: genetic modifiers and DNA methylation. Genetics 149: 651-662.
26. Guo, S. and Kemphues, K.J., 1995, par-1, a gene required for establishing polarity in C. elegans embryos, encodes a putative Ser/Thr kinase that is asymmetrically distributed. Cell 81: 611-620.
27. Ha, I., Wightman, B and Ruvkun, G., 1996, A bulged lin-4/lin-14 RNA duplex is sufficient for Caenorhabditis elegans lin-14 temporal gradient formation. Genes Dev. 10: 3041-3050.
28. Hall, I.M., Shankaranarayana, G.D., Noma, K., Ayoub, N., Cohen, A. and Grewal, S.I., 2002, Establishment and maintenance of a heterochromatin domain. Science 297: 2232-2237.
29. Hall, I.M., Noma, K. and Grewal, S.I., 2003, RNA interference machinery regulates chromosome dynamics during mitosis and meiosis in fission yeast PNAS U S A 100: 193-198.
30. Hamilton, A.J. and Baulcombe, D.C., 1999, A species of small antisense RNA in posttranscriptional gene silencing in plants. Science 286: 950-952.
31. Hamilton, A., Voinnet, O., Chapell, L. and Baulcombe, D., 2002, Two classes of short interfering RNA in RNA silencing. EMBO J 21: 4671-4679.
32. Hammond, S.M., Bernstein, E., Beach, D. and Hannon, G.J., 2000. An RNA-directed nuclease mediates posttranscriptional gene silencing in Drosophila cells. Nature 404: 293-296.
33. Hammond, S., Boettcher, S., Caudy, A., Kobayashi, R and Hannon, G.J., 2001, Argonaute2, a link between genetic and biochemical analyses of RNAi. Science 293: 1146-1150.
34. Hutvagner, G., McLachlan, J., Pasquinelli, A.E., Balint, E., Tuschl, T. and Zamore, P.D., 2001, A cellular function for the RNA-interference enzyme Dicer in the maturation of the let-7 small temporal RNA. Science 293: 834-838.
35. Hutvagner, G. and Zamore, P.D., 2002, A microRNA in a multiple-turnover RNAi enzyme complex. Science 297. 2056-2060.
36. Iordanov, M.S., Wong, J., Bell, J.C. and Magun, B.E., 2001, Activation of NF-kappaB by double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) in the absence of protein kinase R and RNase L demonstrates the existence of two separate dsRNA-triggered antiviral programs. Mol. Cell Biol. 21: 61-72.
37. Ishizuka, A., Siomi, M.C. and Siomi, H., 2002, A Drosophila fragile X protein interacts with components of RNAi and ribosomal proteins. Genes Dev 16: 2497-2508.
38. Jackson, J.P., Lindroth, A.M., Cao, X. and Jacobsen, S.E., 2002, Control of CpNpG DNA methylation by the KRYPTONITE histone H3 methyltransferase. Nature 416: 556-560.
39. Jensen, S., Gassama, M.P. and Heidmann, T., 1999, Cosuppression of I transposon activity in Drosophila by I-containing sense and antisense transgenes. Genetics 153: 1767-1774.
40. Jones, L., Ratcliff, F. and Baulcombe, D.C., 2001; RNA-directed transcriptional gene silencing in plants can be inherited independently of the RNA trigger and requires Met1 for maintenance. Curr. Biol. 11: 747-757.
41. Jorgensen, R., 1990, Altered gene expression in plants due to trans interactions between homologous genes. Trends Biotechnol. 8: 340-344
42. Jorgensen, R.A., Cluster, P.D., English, J., Que, Q. and Napoli, C.A., 1996, Chalcone synthase cosuppression phenotypes in petunia flowers: comparison of sense vs. antisense constructs and single-copy vs. complex T-DNA sequences. Plant Mol. Biol. 31: 957-973.
43. Kasschau, K.D. and Carrington, J.C., 1998, A counterdefensive strategy of plant viruses: suppression of posttranscriptional gene silencing. Cell 95: 461-70.
44. Kaufman, R.J., 1999, Double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase mediates virus-induced apoptosis: a new role for an old actor. PNAS U S A 96: 11693-11695.
45. Kennerdel, J.R. and Carthew, R.W., 1998; Use of dsRNA-mediated genetic interference to demonstrate that frizzled and frizzled 2 act in the wingless pathway. Cell 95: 1017-1026.
46. Kennerdell, J.R. and Carthew, R.W., 2000, Heritable gene silencing in Drosophila using double-stranded RNA. Nat. Biotechnol. 18: 896-898.
47. Ketting, R.F., Haverkamp, T.H., van Luenen, H.G. and Plasterk, R.H., 1999, Mut-7 of C. elegans, required for transposon silencing and RNA interference, is a homolog of Werner syndrome helicase and RNaseD. Cell 99: 133-141.
48. Ketting, R.F., Fisher, S.E., Bernstein, E., Sijen, T., Hannon, G.J. and Plasterk, R.H., 2001, Dicer functions in RNA interference and in synthesis of small RNA involved in developmental timing in C. elegans. Genes Dev. 15: 2654-2659.
49. Kim, D-H., Lee, K-B., Riggs, A.D. and Rossi, J.J., 2003, A La complex is essential for unwinding of siRNAs in RNAi pathway. Poster 206, Keystone Symposia Abstract book, Drug Target Validation: Gene Suppression, Jan 17-22: 52.
50. Kooter, J.M., Matzke, M.A. and Meyer, P., 1999, Listening to the silent genes: transgene silencing, gene regulation and pathogen control. Trends Plant Sci. 4: 340-347.
51. Lachner, M. and Jenuwein, T., 2002, The many faces of histone lysine methylation. Curr. Opin. Cell. Biol. 14: 286-298.
52. Lagos-Quintana, M., Rauhut, R., Lendeckel, W. and Tuschl, T., 2001, Identification of novel genes coding for small expressed RNAs. Science 294: 853-858.
53. Lagos-Quintana, M., Rauhut, R., Yalcin, A., Meyer, J., Lendeckel, W. and Tuschl, T., 2002, Identification of tissue specific microRNAs from mouse. Curr. Biol. 12: 735-739.
54. Lai, E.C., 2002, Micro RNAs are complementary to 3′ UTR sequence motifs that mediate negative post-transcriptional regulation. Nat. Genet. 30: 363-364.
55. Lai, E.C. and Posakony, J.W., 1997, The Bearded box, a novel 3′ UTR sequence motif, mediates negative post-transcriptional regulation of Bearded and Enhancer of split Complex gene expression. Development 124: 4847-4856.
56. Lai, E.C. and Posakony, J.W., 1998, Regulation of Drosophila neurogenesis by RNA:RNA duplexes? Cell 93: 1103-1104.
57. Lai, E.C., Burks, C. and Posakony, J.W., 1998. The K box, a conserved 3′ UTR sequence motif, negatively regulates accumulation of enhancer of split complex transcripts. Development 125: 4077-4088.
58. Lai, E.C., Bodner, R., Kavaler, J., Freschi, G. and Posakony, J.W., 2000, Antagonism of notch signaling activity by members of a novel protein family encoded by the bearded and enhancer of split gene complexes. Development 127: 291-306.
59. Lau, N.C., Lim, E.P., Weinstein, E.G. and Bartel, D.P., 2001, An abundant class of tiny RNAs with probable regulatory roles in Caenorhabditis elegans. Science 294: 858-862.
60. Lee, R.C., Feinbaum, R.L. and Ambros, V., 1993, The C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14. Cell 75: 843-854.
61. Lee, R.C. and Ambros, V., 2001, An extensive class of small RNAs in Caenorhabditis elegans. Science 294: 862-864.
62. Lee, Y., Jeon, K., Lee, J-T., Kim, S. and Kim, V.N., 2002, MicroRNA maturation: stepwise processing and subcellular localization. EMBO J. 21: 4663-4670.
63. Li, Y.X., Farrell, M.J., Liu, R., Mohanty, N. and Kirby, M.L., 2000, Double-stranded RNA injection produces null phenotypes in zebrafish. Dev. Biol. 217: 394-405.
64. Lipardi, C., Wei., Q. and Paterson, B.M., 2001. RNAi as random degradative PCR: siRNA primers convert mRNA into dsRNAs that are degraded to generate new siRNAs. Cell 107: 297-307.
65. Llave, C., Kasschau, K.D. and Carrington, J.C., 2000, Virus-encoded suppressor of posttranscriptional gene silencing targets a maintenance step in the silencing pathway. PNAS USA 97: 13401-13406.
66. Llave, C., Xie, Z., Kasschau, K.D. and Carrington, J.C., 2002, Cleavage of scarecrow-like mRNA targets directed by a class of Arabidopsis miRNA. Science 297: 2053-2056.
67. Luff, B., Pawlowski, L. and Bender, J., 1999, An inverted repeat triggers cytosine methylation of identical sequences in Arabidopsis. Mo.l.Cell 3: 505-511.
68. Mak, W., Baxter, J., Silva, J., Newall, A.E., Otte, A.P. and Brockdorff, N., 2002, Mitotically stable association of polycomb group proteins eed and enxl with the inactive x chromosome in trophoblast stem cells. Curr. Biol. 12: 1016-1020.
69. Martinez, J., Patkaniowska, A., Elbashir, S., Harborth, J., Urlaub, H., Luhrmann, R. and Tuschl, T., 2002, Single-stranded antisense siRNAs guide target RNA cleavage in RNAi. Cell 110: 563-574
70. Matzke, M.A., Matzke, A.J., Pruss, G.J. and Vance, V.B., 2001, RNA-based silencing strategies in plants. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 11: 221-227.
71. Mette, M.F., Ausfatz, W., van der Winden, J., Matzke, M.A. and Matzke, A.J., 2000, Transcriptional silencing and promoter methylation triggered by double-stranded RNA. EMBO J. 19: 5194-5201.
72. Mochizuki, K., Finem, N.A., Fujisawam, T. and Gorovskym, M.A., 2002, Analysis of a piwi-related gene implicates small RNAs in genome rearrangement in tetrahymena. Cell 110: 689-699.
73. Mourrain, P., Beclin, C., Elmayan, T., Feuerbach, F., Godon, C., Morel, J.B., Jouette, D., Lacombe, A.M., Nikic, S. Picault, N., Remoue, K., Sanial, M., Vo, T.A. and Vaucheret, H., 2000, Arabidopsis SGS2 and SGS3 genes are required for posttranscriptional gene silencing and natural virus resistance. Cell 101: 533-542.
74. Mourleatos, Z., Dostie, J., Paushkin, S., Sharma, A., Charroux, B., Abel, L., Rapsillber, J., Mann, M. and Dreyfuss, G., 2002, MiRNPs: a novel class of ribonucleoproteins containing numerous microRNAs. Genes Dev. 16: 720-728.
75. Napoli, C., Lemieux, C and Jorgensen, R., 1990, Introduction of a chimeric chalcone synthetase gene in Petunia results in reversible cosuppression of homologous genes in trans. Plant Cell 2: 279-289.
76. Nykanen, A., Haley, B. and Zamore, P.D., 2001, ATP requirements and small interfering RNA structure in the RNA interference pathway. Cell 107: 309-321.
77. Olsen, P.H. and Ambros, V., 1999, The lin-4 regulatory RNA controls developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans by blocking LIN-14 protein synthesis after the initiation of translation. Dev. Biol. 216: 671-680.
78. Page, M.F., Carr, B., Anders, K.R., Grimson, A. and Anderson P., 1999, SMG-2 is a phosphorylated protein required for mRNA surveillance in Caenorhabditis elegans and related to Upf1p of yeast. Mol. Cell Biol. 19: 5943-5951.
79. Palaqui, J.C., Elmayan, T., Pollien, J.M. and Vaucheret, H., 1997, Sysytemic acquired silencing: transgene-specific post-transcriptional silencing is transmitted by grafting from silenced stocks to non-silenced scions. EMBO J 16: 4738-4745.
80. Pal-Bhadra, M., Bhadra, U. and Birchier, J.A., 1997, Cosuppression in Drosophila: gene silencing of Alcohol dehydrogenase by white-Adh transgenes is Polycomb dependent. Cell 90: 479-490.
81. Pal-Bhadra, M., Bhadra, U. and Birchler, J.A., 2002, RNAi related mechanisms affect both transcriptional and posttranscriptional transgene silencing in Drosophila. Mol. Cell 9: 315-327.
82. Parrish, S., Fleenor, J., Xu, S., Mello, C. and Fire, A., 2000, Functional anatomy of a dsRNA trigger: differential requirement for the two trigger strands in RNA interference. Mol. Cell 6: 1077-1087.
83. Parrish, S. and Fire, A., 2001, Distinct roles for RDE -1 and RDE-4 during RNA interference in Caenorhabditis elegans. RNA 7: 1397-1402.
84. Pasquinelli, A.E., Reinhart, B.J., Slack, F., Martindale, M.Q., Kuroda, M.I., Maller, B., hayward, D.C., Ball, E.E., Degnan, B. and Muller, P., 2000, Conservation of the sequence and temporal expression of let-7 heterochronic regulatory RNA. Nature 408: 86-89.
85. Que, Q., Wang, H.Y., English, J. and Jorgensen, R., 1997, The frequency and degree of cosuppression by sense chalcone synthetase transgenes are dependent on promoter strength and are reduced by premature nonsense coding sequence. Plant Cell 9: 1357-1368.
86. Reinhart, B.J., Slack, F.J., Basson, M., Pasquinelli, A.E., Bettinger, J.C., Rougvie, A.E., Horvitz, H.R. and Ruvkun, G., 2000, The 21-nucleotide let-7 RNA regulates developmental timing in Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature 403: 901-906.
87. Richards, E.J. and Elgin, SC., 2002, Epigenetic codes for heterochromatin formation and silencing: rounding up the usual suspects. Cell 108: 489-500.
88. Romano, N. and Macino, G., 1992, Quelling: transient inactivation of gene expression in Neurospora crassa by transformation with homologous sequences. Mol. Microbiol. 6: 3343-3353.
89. Ruiz, M.T., Voinnet, O. and Baulcombe, D.C., 1998, Initiation and maintenance of virus-induced gene silencing. Plant Cell 10: 937-946.
90. Sanhez Alvarado, A. and Newmark, P.A., 1999, Double-stranded RNA specifically disrupts gene expression during planarian regeneration. PNAS USA 96: 5049-5054.
91. Schiebel, W., Pelissier, T., Riedel, L., Thalmeir, S., Schiebel, R., Kempe, D., Lottspeich, F., Sanger, H.L. and Wassenegger, M., 1998, Isolation of an RNA-directed RNA polymerase-specific cDNA clone from tomato. Plant Cell 10: 2087-2101.
92. Seggerson, K., Tang, L. and Moss, E.G., 2002, Two genetic circuits repress the C. elegans heterochronic gene lin-28 after translation initiation. Dev. Biol. 243: 215-225.
93. Sijen, T., Fleenor, J., Simmer, F., Thijssen, K.L., Parrish, S., Timmons, L., Plasterk, R.H.A. and Fire, A., 2001, On the role of RNA amplification in dsRNA-triggered gene silencing. Cell 107: 465-476.
94. Slack, F.J., Basson, M., Liu, Z., Ambros, V., Horvitz, H.R. and Ruvkun, G., 2000, The lin-41 RBCC gene acts in the C. elegans heterochronic pathway between the let-7 regulatory RNA and the LIN-29 transcription factor. Mol. Cell 5: 659-669.
95. Smardon, A., Spoerke, J.M., Stacey, S.C., Klein, M.E., Mackin, N. and Maine, E.M., 2000, EGO-1 is related to RNA-directed RNA polymerase and functions in germ-line development and RNA interference in C. elegans. Curr. Biol. 10: 169-178.
96. Stein, P., Svoboda, P., Anger, M. and Schultz, R.M., 2003, RNAi: Mammalian oocytes do it without RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. RNA 9: 187-192.
97. Suzuki, N., Shiratori, M., Goto, M. and Furuichi, Y., 1999, Werner syndrome helicase contains a 5′-->3′ exonuclease activity that digests DNA and RNA strands in DNA/DNA and RNA/DNA duplexes dependent on unwinding. Nucleic Acids Res. 27: 2361-2368.
98. Svoboda, P., Stein, P., Hayashi, H. and Schultz, R.M., 2000, Selective reduction of dormant maternal mRNAs in mouse oocytes by RNA interference. Development 127: 4147-4156.
99. Tavernarakis, N., Wang, S.L., Dorovkov, M., Ryazanov, A and Driscoll, M., 2000, Heritable and inducible genetic interference by double-stranded RNA encoded by transgenes. Nat. Genet. 4: 180-183.
100. Tabara, H., Sarkissian, M., Kelly, W.G., Fleenor, J., Grishok, A., Timmons, L., Fire, A. and Mello, C.C., 1999, The rde-1 gene, RNA interference, and transposon silencing in C. elegans. Cell 99: 123-132.
101. Tamaru, H. and Selker, E.U., 2001, A histone H3 methyltransferase controls DNA methylation in Neurospora crassa. Nature 414: 277-283.
102. Tijsterman, M., Ketting, R.F., Okihara, K.L., Sijen, T. and Plasterk, R.H., 2002, RNA helicase MUT-14-dependent gene silencing triggered in C. elegans by short antisense RNAs. Science 295: 694-697.
103. Tuschl, T., Zamore, P.D., Lehmann, R., Bartel, D.P. and Sharp, P.A., 1999, Targeted mRNA degradation by double-stranded RNA in vitro. Genes Dev. 13: 3191-3197.
104. Vaistij, F.E., Jones, L. and Baulcombe, D.C., 2002, Spreading of RNA targeting and DNA methylation in RNA silencing requires transcription of the target gene and a putative RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Plant Cell 14: 857-867.
105. Volpe, T.A., Kidner, C., Hall, I.M., Teng, G., Grewal, S.I. and Martienssen, R.A., 2002, Regulation of heterochromatic silencing and histone H3 lysine-9 methylation by RNAi. Science 297: 1833-1837.
106. Voinnet, O., Pinto, Y.M. and Baulcombe, D.C., 1999, Suppression of gene silencing: a general strategy used by diverse DNA and RNA viruses of plants. PNAS U S A 96: 14147-14152.
107. Voinnet, O., Lederer, C. and Baulcombe, D.C., 2000, A viral movement protein prevents spread of the gene silencing signal in Nicotiana benthamiana. Cell 103: 157-67.
108. Wargelius, A., Ellingsen, S. and Fjose, A., 1999, Double-stranded RNA induces specific developmental defects in zebrafish embryos. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 263: 156-161.
109. Wassenegger, M., Heimes, S., Riedel, L. and Sanger, H.L., 1994, RNA-directed de novo methylation of genomic sequences in plants. Cell 76: 567-576.
110. Wianny, F. and Zernicka-Goetz, M., 2000, Specific interference with gene function by double-stranded RNA in early mouse development. Nat. Cell Biol. 2. 70-75.
111. Wightman, B., Ha, I. and Ruvkun, G, 1993, Posttranscriptional regulation of the heterochronic gene lin-14 by lin-4 mediates temporal pattern formation in C. elegans. Cell 75: 855-862.
112. Wu-Scharf, D., Jeong, B., Zhang, C. and Cerutti, H., 2000, Transgene and transposon silencing in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii by a DEAH-box RNA helicase. Science 290: 1159-1162.
113. Yang, D., Lu, H. and Erickson, J.W., 2000, Evidence that processed small dsRNAs may mediate sequence specific mRNA degradation during RNAi in Drosophila embryos. Curr. Biol. 10: 1191-1200.
114. Zamore, P.D., Tuschl, T., Sharp, P.A. and Bartel, D.P., 2000, RNAi: double-stranded RNA directs the ATP-dependent cleavage of mRNA at 21 to 23 nucleotide intervals. Cell 101: 25-33.
115. Zeng, Y., Wagner, E.J. and Cullen, B.R., 2002, Both natural and designed miRNAs can inhibit the expression of cognate mRNA when expressed in human cells. Mol. Cell 9: 1327-1333. 158