Septic shock

Lancet

Volumn 365, Issue 9453, 2005, Pages 63-78

  Annane, Prof Djillali ^a,d   Bellissant, Prof Eric ^b   Cavaillon, Jean Marc ^c  

^a RAYMOND POINCARÉ HOSPITAL   (France)

^b PONTCHAILLOU UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (France)

^c INSTITUT PASTEUR   (France)

^d Lab Biol Physiopathol Cranio F   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID; DOPAMINE; HYPERTENSIVE FACTOR; INOTROPIC AGENT; NORADRENALIN;

CLINICAL TRIAL; CONFERENCE PAPER; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; EPITHELIUM CELL; HUMAN; IMMUNOCOMPETENT CELL; MOLECULAR DYNAMICS; NEUROSECRETORY CELL; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEPTIC SHOCK;

EID: 11444249412     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)17667-8     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (153)

1. American College of Chest Physicians/Society of Critical Care Medicine. Consensus Conference: definitions for sepsis and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit Care Med. 20:1992;864-874
2. Levy MM, Fink MP, Marshall JC, et al. 2001 SCCM/ESICM/ACCP/ ATS/SIS International Sepsis Definitions Conference. Crit Care Med. 3:2003;1250-1256
3. Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, Moss M. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med. 348:2003;1546-1554
4. Rangel-Frausto MS, Pittet D, Hwang T, Woolson RF, Wenzel RP. The dynamics of disease progression in sepsis: Markov modeling describing the natural history and the likely impact of effective antisepsis agents. Clin Infec Dis. 27:1998;185-190
5. Annane D, Aegerter P, Jars-Guincestre MC, Guidet B. Current epidemiology of septic shock: the CUB-Rea Network. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1687:2003;165-172
6. Alberti C, Brun-Buisson C, Burchardi H, et al. Epidemiology of sepsis and infection in ICU patients from an international multicentre cohort study. Intensive Care Med. 28:2002;108-121
7. Sorensen TI, Nielsen GG, Andersen PK, Teasdale TW. Genetic and environmental influences on premature death in adult adoptees. N Engl J Med. 318:1988;727-732
8. Hubacek JA, Stüber F, Frohlich D, et al. Gene variants of the bactericidal/permeability increasing protein and lipopolysaccharide binding protein in sepsis patients: gender-specific genetic predisposition to sepsis. Crit Care Med. 29:2001;557-561
9. Lin MT, Albertson TE. Genomic polymophisms in sepsis. Crit Care Med. 32:2004;569-579
10. Matzinger P. Tolerance, danger, and the extended family. Annu Rev Immunol. 12:1994;991-1045
11. Yamamoto M, Takeda K, Akira S. TIR domain-containing adaptors define the specificity of TLR signaling. Mol Immunol. 40:2004;861-868
12. Girardin SE, Philpott DJ. The role of peptidoglycan recognition in innate immunity. Eur J Immunol. 34:2004;1777-1782
13. Dziarski R. Peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs). Mol Immunol. 40:2004;877-886
14. Geissmann F, Jung S, Littman DR. Blood monocytes consist of two principal subsets with distinct migratory properties. Immunity. 19:2003;71-82
15. Holub M, Kluckova Z, Helcl M, Prihodov J, Rokyta R, Beran O. Lymphocyte subset numbers depend on the bacterial origin of sepsis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 9:2003;202-211
16. Monneret G, Debard AL, Venet F, et al. Marked elevation of human circulating CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in sepsis-induced immunoparalysis. Crit Care Med. 31:2003;2068-2071
17. Fingerle G, Pforte A, Passlick B, Blumenstein M, Strobel M, Ziegler-Heitbrock HWL. The novel subset of CD14+/CD16+ blood monocytes is expanded in sepsis patients. Blood. 82:1993;3170-3176
18. Weijer S, Lauw FN, Branger J, van der Blink B, van der Poll T. Diminished interferon-γ production and responsiveness after endotoxin administration to healhy humans. J Infec Dis. 186:2002;1748-1753
19. Fumeaux T, Pugin J. Role of interleukin-10 in the intracellular sequestration of human leukocyte antigen-DR in monocytes during septic shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 166:2002;1475-1482
20. Le Tulzo Y, Pangault C, Amiot L, et al. Monocyte human leukocyte antigen-DR transcriptional downregulation by cortisol during septic shock. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 169:2004;1144-1151
21. Tschaikowsky K, Hedwig-Geissing M, Schiele A, Bremer F, Schywalsky M, Schuttler J. Coincidence of pro- and anti-inflammatory responses in the early phase of severe sepsis: Longitudinal study of mononuclear histocompatibility leukocyte antigen-DR expression, procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, and changes in T-cell subsets in septic and postoperative patients. Crit Care Med. 30:2002;1015-1023
22. Belaaouaj A, McBelaaouaj, McCarthy R, et al. Mice lacking neutrophil elastase reveal impaired host defense against gram negative bacterial sepsis. Nat Med. 4:1998;615-618
23. Tanaka H, Sugimoto H, Yoshioka T, Sugimoto T. Role of granulocyte elastase in tissue injury in patients with septic shock complicated by multiple-organ failure. Ann Surg. 213:1991;81-85
24. Murata A, Toda H, Uda K, et al. Protective effect of recombinant neutrophil elastase inhibitor (R-020) on sepsis-induced organ injury in rat. Inflammation. 18:1994;337-347
25. Mallen-St Clair J, Pham CT, Villalta SA, Caughey GH, Wolters PJ. Mast cell dipeptidyl peptidase I mediates survival from sepsis. J Clin Invest. 113:2004;628-634
26. Nakamura A, Mori Y, Hagiwara K, et al. Increased susceptibility to LPS-induced endotoxin shock in secretory leukoprotease inhibitor (SLPI)-deficient mice. J Exp Med. 197:2003;669-674
27. Hotchkiss RS, Tinsley KW, Swanson PE, et al. Sepsis-induced apoptosis causes progressive profound depletion of B and CD4+ T lymphocytes in humans. J Immunol. 166:2001;6952-6963
28. Ayala A, Herdon CD, Lehman DL, De Maso CM, Ayala CA, Chaudry IH. The induction of accelerated thymic programmed cell death during polymicrobial sepsis: control by corticosteroids but not tumor necrosis factor. Shock. 3:1995;259-267
29. Ayala A, Xin Xu Y, Ayala CA, et al. Increased mucosal B-lymphocyte apoptosis during polymicrobial sepsis is a Fas ligand but not an endotoxin-mediated process. Blood. 91:1998;1362-1372
30. Bogdan I, Leib SL, Bergeron M, Chow L, Tauber MG. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha contributes to apoptosis in hippocampal neurons during experimental group B streptococcal meningitis. J Infect Dis. 176:1997;693-697
31. Wood J, Rodrick M, O'Mahony J, et al. Inadequate interleukin 2 production. A fundamental immunological deficiency in patients with major burns. Ann. Surg. 200:1984;311-320
32. Muret J, Marie C, Fitting C, Payen D, Cavaillon J-M. Ex vivo T-lymphocyte derived cytokine production in SIRS patients is influenced by experimental procedures. Shock. 13:2000;169-174
33. McCall CE, Grosso-Wilmoth LM, LaRue K, Guzman RN, Cousart SL. Tolerance to endotoxin-induced expression of the interleukin-1β gene in blood neutrophils of humans with the sepsis syndrome. J Clin Invest. 91:1993;853-861
34. Marie C, Muret J, Fitting C, Losser M-R, Payen D, Cavaillon J-M. Reduced ex vivo interleukin-8 production by neutrophils in septic and non-septic systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Blood. 91:1998;3439-3446
35. Muñoz C, Misset B, Fitting C, Bleriot JP, Carlet J, Cavaillon J-M. Dissociation between plasma and monocyte-associated cytokines during sepsis. Eur J Immunol. 21:1991;2177-2184
36. Granowitz EV, Porat R, Mier JW, et al. Intravenous endotoxin suppresses the cytokine response of peripheral blood mononuclear cells of healthy humans. J Immunol. 151:1993;1637-1645
37. Schultz MJ, Olszyna DP, de Jonge E, Verbon A, van Deventer SJH, van der Poll T. Reduced ex vivo chemokine production by polymorphonuclear cells after in vivo exposure of normal humans to endotoxin. J Infect Dis. 182:2000;1264-1267
38. Brandtzaeg P, Osnes L, Øvstebø R, Joø GB, Westwik AB, Kierulf P. Net inflammatory capacity of human septic shock plasma evaluated by a monocyte-based target cell assay: identification of interleukin-10 as a major functional deactivator of human monocytes. J Exp Med. 184:1996;51-60
39. Adib-Conquy M, Adrie C, Moine P, et al. NF-κB expression in mononuclear cells of septic patients resembles that observed in LPS-tolerance. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 162:2000;1877-1883
40. Adib-Conquy M, Moine P, Asehnoune K, et al. Toll-like receptor-mediated tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-10 production differ during systemic inflammation. Am J Resp Crit Care Med. 168:2003;158-164
41. Song GY, Chung CS, Chaudry IH, Ayala A. MAPK p38 antagonism as a novel method of inhibiting lymphoid immune suppression in polymicrobial sepsis. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 281:2001;C662-C669
42. Cavaillon JM, Fitting C, Adib-Conquy M. Mechanisms of immunodysregulation in sepsis. Contrib Nephrol. 144:2004;76-93
43. Escoll P, del Fresno C, Garcia L, et al. Rapid up-regulation of IRAK-M expression following a second endotoxin challenge in human monocytes and in monocytes isolated from septic patients. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 311:2003;465-472
44. Grassmé H, Kirschnek S, Riethmueller J, et al. DC95/CD95 ligand interactions on epithelial cells in host defense Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Science. 290:2000;527-530
45. Han X, Fink MP, Yang R, Delude RL. Increased iNOS activity is essential for intestinal epithelial tight junction dysfunction in endotoxemic mice. Shock. 21:2004;261-270
46. Sappington P, Yang R, Yang H, Tracey KJ, Delude RL, Fink MP. HMGB1 B box increases the permeability of Caco-2 enterocytic monolayers and impairs intestinal barrier function in mice. Gastroenterology. 123:2002;790-802
47. Bruewer M, Luegering A, Kucharzik T, et al. Proinflammatory cytokines disrupt epithelial barrier function by apoptosis-independent mechanisms. J Immun. 171:2003;6164-6172
48. Xu H, Gonzalo J, St Pierre Y, et al. Leucocytosis and resistance to septic shock in intercellular adhesion molecule 1-deficient mice. J Exp Med. 180:1994;95-109
49. Burch RM, Noronha-Blob L, Bator JM, Lowe VC, Sullivan JP. Mice treated with a leumedin or antibody to Mac-1 to inhibit leukocyte sequestration survive endotoxin challenge. J Immun. 150:1993;3397-3403
50. Eichacker PQ, Hoffman WD, Farese A, et al. Leukocyte CD18 monoclonal antibody worsens endotoxemia and cardiovascular injury in canines with septic shock. J Appl Physiol. 74:1993;1885-1892
51. Ibbotson GG, Doig C, Kaur J, et al. Functional α4-integrin: a newly identified pathway of neutrophil recruitment in critically ill septic patients. Nat Med. 7:2001;465-470
52. Franco R, de Jonge E, Dekkers PE, et al. The in vivo kinetics of tissue factor messenger RNA expression during human endotoxemia: relationship with activation of coagulation. Blood. 96:2000;554-559
53. Vickers J, Russwurm S, Dohrn B, et al. Monocyte Tissue factor (CD142) and Mac-1 (CD11b) are increased in septic patients. Thromb Haemost. 79:1998;1219-1302
54. Abraham E, Reinhart K, Opal S, et al. OPTIMIST Trial Study Group. Efficacy and safety of tifacogin (recombinant tissue factor pathway inhibitor) in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 290:2003;238-247
55. Echtenacher B, Weigl K, Lehn N, Männel DN. Tumor necrosis factor-dependent adhesions as a major protective mechanism early in septic peritonitis in mice. Infect Immun. 69:2001;3550-3555
56. Levi M, Dorffler-Melly J, Reitsma P, et al. Aggravation of endotoxin-induced disseminated intravascular coagulation and cytokine activation in heterozygous protein-C-deficient mice. Blood. 101:2003;4823-4827
57. Yan SB, Helterbrand JD, Hartman DL, Wright TJ, Bernard GR. Low levels of protein C are associated with poor outcome in severe sepsis. Chest. 120:2001;915-922
58. Cavaillon JM, Adib-Conquy M, Fitting C, Adrie C, Payen D. Cytokine cascade in sepsis. Scand J Infect Dis. 35:2003;535-544
59. Cavaillon JM, Muñoz C, Fitting C, Misset B, Carlet J. Circulating cytokines: the tip of the iceberg? Circ Shock. 38:1992;145-152
60. Brackett DJ, Hamburger SA, Lerner MR, et al. An assessment of plasma histamine concentrations during documented endotoxic shock. Agents Actions. 31:1990;263-274
61. Spink WW, Chartrand S, Davis R. Canine endotoxin shock: protection against a lethal dose of endotoxin following an infusion of histamine. Nature. 200:1963;475
62. Nakamura T, Ueno Y, Goda Y, Nakamura A, Shinjo K, Nagahisa A. Efficacy of a selective histamine H-2 receptor agonist, dimaprit, in experimental models of endotoxin shock and hepatitis in mice. Eur J Pharmacol. 322:1997;83-89
63. Ward PA. The dark side of C5a in sepsis. Nature Rev Immunol. 4:2004;123-142
64. Fischer MB, Prodeus AP, Nicholson-Weller A, et al. Increased susceptibility of endotoxin shock in complement C3 and C4-deficient mice is corrected by C1 inhibitor replacement. J Immunol. 159:1997;976-982
65. Hanasaki K, Yokota Y, Ishizaki J, Itoh T, Arita H. Resistance to endotoxic shock in phospholipase A2 receptor-deficient mice. J Biol Chem. 272:1997;32792-32797
66. Bochkov VN, Kadl A, Huber J, Gruber F, Binder BR, Leitinger N. Protective role of phospholipid oxidation products in endotoxin-induced tissue damage. Nature. 419:2002;77-81
67. Laubach V, Shesely E, Smithies O, Sherman P. Mice lacking inducible nitric oxide synthase are not resistant to lipopolysaccharide-induced death. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 92:1995;10688-10692
68. Annane D, Sanquer S, Sebille V, et al. Compartmentalised inducible nitric-oxide synthase activity in septic shock. Lancet. 355:2000;1143-1148
69. Sharshar T, Gray F, Lorin de la Grandmaison G, et al. Apoptosis of neurons in cardiovascular autonomic centres triggered by inducible nitric oxide synthase after death from septic shock. Lancet. 362:2003;1799-1805
70. Pathan N, Hemingway CA, Alizadeh AA, et al. Role of interleukin 6 in myocardial dysfunction of meningococcal septic shock. Lancet. 363:2004;203-209
71. Spengler RN, Allen RM, Remick DG, Strieter RM, Kunkel SL. Stimulation of α-adrenergic receptor augments the production of macrophage-derived tumor necrosis factor. J Immunol. 145:1990;1430-1434
72. Severn A, Rapson NT, Hunter CA, Liew FY. Regulation of tumor necrosis factor production by adrenaline and by β-adrenergic agonists. J Immunol. 148:1992;3441-3445
73. van der Poll T, Coyle SM, Barbosa K, Braxton CC, Lowry SF. Epinephrine inhibits tumor necrosis factor-alpha and potentiates interleukin-10 production during human endotoxemia. J Clin Invest. 97:1996;713-719
74. van der Poll T, Lowry SF. Lipopolysaccharide-induced interleukin 8 production by human whole blood is enhanced by epinephrine and inhibited by hydrocortisone. Infect Immun. 65:1997;2378-2381
75. Zinyama RB, Bancroft GJ, Sigola LB. Adrenaline suppression of the macrophage nitric oxide response to lipopolysaccharide is associated with differential regulation of tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-10. Immunology. 104:2001;439-446
76. Farmer P, Pugin J. adrenergic agonists exert their "anti- inflammatory" effects in monocytic cells through the IκB/NF-κB patway. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol. 279:2000;L675-L682
77. Delgado M, Pozo D, Martinez C, et al. Vasoactive intestinal peptide and pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide inhibit endotoxin-induced TNFα production by macrophages: in vitro and in vivo studies. J Immunol. 162:1999;2358-2367
78. Martinez C, Abad C, Delgado M, et al. Anti-inflammatory role in septic shock of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 99:2002;1053-1058
79. Borovikova LV, Ivanova S, Zhang M, et al. Vagus nerve stimulation attenuates the systemic inflammatory response to endotoxin. Nature. 405:2000;458-462
80. Wang H, Yu M, Ochani M, et al. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha7 subunit is an essential regulator of inflammation. Nature. 421:2003;384-388
81. Delgado Hernandez R, Demitri MT, Carlin A, et al. Inhibition of systemic inflammation by central action of the neuropeptide alpha-melanocyte- stimulating hormone. Neuroimmunomodulation. 6:1999;187-192
82. Chrousos GP. The Stress Response and Immune Function: Clinical Implications. The 1999 Novera H Spector Lecture. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 917:2000;38-67
83. Prigent H, Maxime V, Annane D. Mechanisms of impaired adrenal function in sepsis and molecular actions of glucocorticoids. Crit Care. 8:2004;243-252
84. Annane D, Sebille V, Troche G, Raphael JC, Gajdos P, Bellissant E. A 3-level prognostic classification in septic shock based on cortisol levels and cortisol response to corticotropin. JAMA. 283:2000;1038-1045
85. Landry DW, Levin HR, Gallant EM, et al. Vasopressin deficiency contributes to the vasodilation of septic shock. Circulation. 95:1997;1122-1125
86. Sharshar T, Blanchard A, Paillard M, Raphael JC, Gajdos P, Annane D. Circulating vasopressin levels in septic shock. Crit Care Med. 31:2003;1752-1758
87. Jaber BL, Rao M, Guo D, et al. Cytokine gene promoter polymorphisms and mortality in acute renal failure. Cytokine. 25:2004;212-219
88. Schrier RW, Wang W. Acute renal failure and sepsis. N Engl J Med. 351:2004;159-169
89. Singer M, De Santis V, Vitale D, Jeffcoate W. Multiorgan failure is an adaptive, endocrine-mediated, metabolic response to overwhelming systemic inflammation. Lancet. 364:2004;545-548
90. Annane D, Trabold F, Sharshar T, et al. Inappropriate sympathetic activation at onset of septic shock: a spectral analysis approach. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 160:1999;458-465
91. Godin PJ, Buchman TG. Uncoupling of biological oscillators: a complementary hypothesis concerning the pathogenesis of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Crit Care Med. 24:1996;1107-1116
92. Levi M, Ten Cate H. Disseminated intravascular coagulation. N Engl J Med. 341:1999;586-592
93. Saravolatz LD, Manzor O, VanderVelde N, Pawlak J, Belian B. Broad-range bacterial polymerase chain reaction for early detection of bacterial meningitis. Clin Infect Dis. 36:2003;40-45
94. Hurley JC. Concordance of endotoxemia with gram negative bacteremia. A meta-analysis using receiver operating characteristic curves. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 124:2000;1157-1164
95. Gattas DJ, Cook DJ. Procalcitonin as a diagnostic test for sepsis: health technology assessment in the ICU. J Crit Care. 18:2003;52-58
96. Christ-Crain M, Jaccard-Stolz D, Bingisser R, et al. Effect of procalcitonin-guided treatment on antibiotic use and outcome in lower respiratory tract infections: cluster-randomised, single-blinded intervention trial. Lancet. 363:2004;600-607
97. Colonna M, Facchetti F. TREM-1 (triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells): a new player in acute inflammatory responses. J Infect Dis. 187:2003;S397-S401
98. Gibot S, Cravoisy A, Levy B, Bene MC, Faure G, Bollaert PE. Soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells and the diagnosis of pneumonia. N Engl J Med. 350:2004;451-458
99. Gibot S, Kolopp-Sarda MN, Bene MC, et al. Plasma level of a triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1: its diagnostic accuracy in patients with suspected sepsis. Ann Intern Med. 141:2004;9-15
100. Moreno R, Matos R, Fevereiro T. Organ failure. Vincent JL, Carlet J, Opal S. The Sepsis Text. 2002;29-47 Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, MA
101. Bernard GR, Artigas A, Brigham KL, et al. The American-European Consensus Conference on ARDS. Definitions, mechanisms, relevant outcomes, and clinical trial coordination. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 149:1994;818-824
102. Taylor FBJ, Toh CH, Hoots WK, Wada H, Levi M. Scientific Subcommittee on Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation (DIC) of the International Society on Thrombosis and Haemostasis (ISTH). Towards definition, clinical and laboratory criteria, and a scoring system for disseminated intravascular coagulation. Thromb Haemost. 86:2001;1327-1330
103. Bolton CF, Young GB, Zochodne DW. The neurological complications of sepsis. Ann Neurol. 33:1993;94-100
104. Vieillard-Baron A, Prin S, Chergui K, Dubourg O, Jardin F. Hemodynamic instability in sepsis: bedside assessment by Doppler echocardiography. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 168:2003;1270-1276
105. Cooper MS, Stewart PM. Corticosteroid insufficiency in acutely ill patients. N Engl J Med. 348:2003;727-734
106. Hamrahian AH, Oseni TS, Arafah BM. Measurements of serum free cortisol in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 350:2004;1629-1638
107. Coolens JL, Van Baelen H, Heyns W. Clinical use of unbound plasma cortisol as calculated from total cortisol and corticosteroid-binding globulin. J Steroid Biochem. 26:1987;197-202
108. Rivers E, Nguyen B, Havstad S, et al. Early Goal-Directed Therapy Collaborative Group. Early goal-directed therapy in the treatment of severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med. 345:2001;1368-1377
109. Spronk PE, Ince C, Gardien MJ, Mathura KR, Oudemans-van Straaten HM, Zandstra DF. Nitroglycerin in septic shock after intravascular volume resuscitation. Lancet. 360:2002;1395-1396
110. De Backer D, Creteur J, Preiser JC, Dubois MJ, Vincent JL. Microvascular blood flow is altered in patients with sepsis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 166:2002;98-104
111. Bernard B, Grange JD, Khac EN, Amiot X, Opolon P, Poynard T. Antibiotic prophylaxis for the prevention of bacterial infections in cirrhotic patients with gastrointestinal bleeding: a meta-analysis. Hepatology. 29:1999;1655-1661
112. Sharma VK, Howden CW. Prophylactic antibiotic administration reduces sepsis and mortality in acute necrotizing pancreatitis: a meta-analysis. Pancreas. 22:2001;28-31
113. van den Berghe G, Wouters P, Weekers F, et al. Intensive insulin therapy in the critically ill patients. N Engl J Med. 345:2001;1359-1367
114. de Jonge E, Schultz MJ, Spanjaard L, et al. Effects of selective decontamination of digestive tract on mortality and acquisition of resistant bacteria in intensive care: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 362:2003;1011-1016
115. Tablan OC, Anderson LJ, Besser R, Bridges C, Hajjeh R. Guidelines for preventing healthcare associated pneumonia, 2003. MMWR. 53:2004;1-36
116. Foxwell AR, Cripps AW, Dear KBG. Haemophilus influenzae oral whole cell vaccination for preventing acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 3:2004;CD001958
117. Dear K, Holden J, Andrews R, Tatham D. Vaccines for preventing pneumococcal infection in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 4:2004;CD000422
118. Cafiero F, Gipponi M, Bonalumi U, Piccardo A, Sguotti C, Corbetta G. Prophylaxis of infection with intravenous immunoglobulins plus antibiotic for patients at risk for sepsis undergoing surgery for colorectal cancer: results of a randomized, multicenter clinical trial. Surgery. 112:1992;24-31
119. Douzinas EE, Pitaridis MT, Louris G, et al. Prevention of infection in multiple trauma patients by high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins. Crit Care Med. 28:2000;254-255
120. Heyland DK, Novak F, Drover JW, Jain M, Su X, Suchner U. Should immunonutrition become routine in critically ill patients? A systematic review of the evidence. JAMA. 286:2001;944-953
121. Garnacho-Montero J, Garcia-Garmendia JL, Barrero-Almodovar A, Jimenez-Jimenez FJ, Perez-Paredes C, Ortiz-Leyba C. Impact of adequate empirical antibiotic therapy on the outcome of patients admitted to the intensive care unit with sepsis. Crit Care Med. 31:2003;2742-2751
122. MacArthur RD, Miller M, Albertson T, et al. Adequacy of early empiric antibiotic treatment and survival in severe sepsis: experience from the MONARCS trial. Clin Infect Dis. 38:2004;284-288
123. Hollenberg SM, Ahrens TS, Annane D, et al. Practice parameters for hemodynamic support of sepsis in adults patients. 2004 update. Crit Care Med. 32:2004;1928-1948
124. Finfer S, Bellomo R, Boyce N, et al. A comparison of albumin and saline for fluid resuscitation in the intensive care unit. N Engl J Med. 350:2004;2247-2256
125. Müllner M, Urbanek B, Havel C, Losert H, Waechter F, Gamper G. Vasopressors for shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 3:2004;CD003709
126. Petrucci N, Lacovelli W. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes versus traditional tidal volumes in adults for acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2:2004;CD003844
127. Schiffl H, Lang SM, Fischer R. Daily Hemodialysis and the Outcome of Acute Renal Failure. N Engl J Med. 346:2002;305-310
128. Ronco C, Bellomo R, Homel P, et al. Effects of different doses in continuous veno-venous haemofiltration on outcomes of acute renal failure: a prospective randomised trial. Lancet. 356:2000;26-30
129. Annane D, Bellissant E, Bollaert P, Briegel J, Keh D, Kupfer Y. Corticosteroids for severe sepsis and septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 329:2004;480
130. Bernard GR, Wheeler AP, Russell JA, et al. The Ibuprofen in Sepsis Study Group. The Effects of Ibuprofen on the Physiology and Survival of Patients with Sepsis. N Engl J Med. 336:1997;912-918
131. Ziegler EJ, Fisher CJ, Sprung CL, et al. Treatment of gram-negative bacteremia and septic shock with HA-1A human monoclonal antibody against endotoxin. N Engl J Med. 324:1991;429-436
132. Greenberg RN, Wilson KM, Kunz AY, Wedel NI, Gorelick KJ. Randomized, double-blind phase II study of anti-endotoxin antibody (E5) as adjuvant therapy in humans with serious gram-negative infections. Prog Clin Biol Res. 367:1991;179-186
133. Warren HS, Amato SF, Fitting C, et al. Assessment of ability of murine and human anti-lipid A monoclonal antibodies to bind and neutralize lipopolysaccharide. J Exp Med. 177:1993;89-97
134. Levin M, Quint PA, Goldstein B, et al. Recombinant bactericidal/ permeability-increasing protein (rBPI21) as adjunctive treatment for children with severe meningococcal sepsis: a randomised trial. Lancet. 356:2000;961-967
135. Warren HS, Matyal R, Allaire JE, et al. Protective efficacy of CAP18106-138-immunoglobulin G in sepsis. J Infect Dis. 188:2003;1382-1393
136. Lynn M, Rossignol DP, Wheeler JL, et al. Blocking of responses to endotoxin by E5564 in healthy volunteers with experimental endotoxemia. J Infect Dis. 187:2003;631-639
137. Wu A, Hinds CJ, Thiemermann C. High-density lipoproteins in sepsis and septic shock: metabolism, actions, and therapeutic applications. Shock. 21:2004;210-221
138. Reinhart K, Glück T, Ligtenberg J, et al. CD14 receptor occupancy in severe sepsis: results of a phase I clinical trial with a recombinant chimeric CD14 monoclonal antibody IC14. Crit Care Med. 32:2004;1100-1109
139. Marshall JC. Much stuff as dreams are made on: mediator-directed therapy in sepsis. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2:2003;391-405
140. Lopez A, Lorente JA, Steingrub J, et al. Multiple-center, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study of the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor 546C88: effect on survival in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med. 32:2004;21-30
141. Kazatchkine MD, Kaveri SV. Immunomodulation of autoimmune and inflammatory diseases with intravenous immune globulin. N Engl J Med. 345:2001;747-755
142. Alejandria MM, Lansang MA, Dans LF, Mantaring JB. Intravenous immunoglobulin for treating sepsis and septic shock. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 1:2002;CD001090
143. Döcke WD, Randow F, Syrbe U, et al. Monocyte deactivation in septic patients: restoration by IFNγ treatment. Nat Med. 3:1997;678-681
144. Nierhaus A, Montag B, Timmler N, et al. Reversal of immunoparalysis by recombinant human granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in patients with severe sepsis. Intensive Care Med. 29:2003;646-651
145. Annane D, Sebille V, Charpentier C, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA. 288:2002;862-871
146. Malay MB, Ashton RCJ, Landry DW, Townsend RN. Low-dose vasopressin in the treatment of vasodilatory septic shock. J Trauma. 47:1999;699-703
147. Tsuneyoshi I, Yamada H, Kakihana Y, Nakamura M, Nakano Y, Boyle Wa 3rd. Hemodynamic and metabolic effects of low-dose vasopressin infusions in vasodilatory septic shock. Crit Care Med 2001; 29: 487-93.
148. Patel BM, Chittock DR, Russell JA, Walley KR. Beneficial effects of short-term vasopressin infusion during severe septic shock. Anesthesiology. 96:2002;576-582
149. Dunser MW, Mayr AJ, Ulmer H, et al. Arginine vasopressin in advanced vasodilatory shock: a prospective, randomized, controlled study. Circulation. 107:2003;2313-2319
150. Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, et al. Recombinant Human Protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) study group. Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med. 344:2001;699-709
151. Warren BL, Eid A, Singer P, et al. KyberSept Trial Study Group. Caring for the critically ill patient. High-dose antithrombin III in severe sepsis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 286:2001;1869-1878
152. Quartin AA, Schein RMH, Kett DH, Peduzzi PN. Magnitude and duration of the effect of sepsis on survival. JAMA. 277:1997;1058-1063
153. De Jonghe B, Sharshar T, Lefaucheur JP, et al. Groupe de Reflexion et d'Etude des Neuromyopathies en Reanimation. Paresis acquired in the intensive care unit: a prospective multicenter study. JAMA. 288:2002;2859-2867