Using Knockout Mice to Study Experimental Meningitis

Archivum Immunologiae et Therapiae Experimentalis

Volumn 51, Issue 5, 2003, Pages 315-326

  Paul, Robert ^a   Koedel, Uwe ^a   Pfister, Hans Walter ^a  

^a LUDWIG MAXIMILIANS UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Animal model; Bacterial meningitis; CNS; Inflammation; Knockout mice

Indexed keywords

COLONY STIMULATING FACTOR 1; CYTOKINE; ENDOTHELIAL LEUKOCYTE ADHESION MOLECULE 1; GELATINASE B; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE 1; INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA CONVERTING ENZYME; INTERLEUKIN 6; NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE ADENOSINE DIPHOSPHATE RIBOSYLTRANSFERASE; OXIDIZING AGENT; PADGEM PROTEIN; PROTEINASE; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 2; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTOR;

ANIMAL EXPERIMENT; ANIMAL MODEL; BRAIN INJURY; GENE EXPRESSION; GENETIC ENGINEERING; INFLAMMATION; KNOCKOUT MOUSE; MENINGITIS; MOUSE; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; GENETIC ENGINEERING; INTERCELLULAR ADHESION MOLECULE-1; INTERLEUKIN-1; INTERLEUKIN-6; MATRIX METALLOPROTEINASE 9; MEMBRANE GLYCOPROTEINS; MENINGITIS, BACTERIAL; MICE; MICE, KNOCKOUT; NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE; POLY(ADP-RIBOSE) POLYMERASES; RECEPTORS, CELL SURFACE; TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR-ALPHA;

EID: 0242571910     PISSN: 0004069X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. BARTON G. M. and MEDZHITOV R. (2002): Toll-like receptors and their ligands. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol., 270, 81-92.
2. BECKMAN J. S. and KOPPENOL W. H. (1996): Nitric oxide, superoxide, and peroxynitrite: the good, the bad, and ugly. Am. J. Physiol., 271, C1424-C1437.
3. BORTOLUSSI R., FERRIERI P. and WANNAMAKER L. W. (1978): Dynamics of Escherichia coli infection and meningitis in infant rats. Infect. Immun., 22, 480-485.
4. BOTTCHER T., SPREER A., AZEH I., NAU R. and GERBER J. (2003): Matrix metalloproteinase-9 deficiency impairs host defense mechanisms against Streptococcus pneumoniae in a mouse model of bacterial meningitis. Neurosci. Lett., 338, 201-204.
5. BRAUN J. S., NOVAK R., HERZOG K. H., BODNER S. M., CLEVELAND J. L. and TUOMANEN E. I. (1999): Neuroprotection by a caspase inhibitor in acute bacterial meningitis. Nat. Med., 5, 298-302.
6. BUER J. and BALLING R. (2003): Mice, microbes and models of infection. Nat. Rev. Genet., 4, 195-205.
7. CHARREAU B., TESSON L., SOULILLOU J. P., POURCEL C. and ANEGON I. (1996): Transgenesis in rats: technical aspects and models. Transgenic Res., 5, 223-234.
8. CLOUTHIER D. E., HOSODA K., RICHARDSON J. A., WILLIAMS S. C., YANAGISAWA H., KUWAKI T., KUMADA M., HAMMER R. E. and YANAGISAWA M. (1998): Cranial and cardiac neural crest defects in endothelin-A receptor-deficient mice. Development, 125, 813-824.
9. DACEY R. G. and SANDE M. A. (1974): Effect of probenecid on cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of penicillin and cephalosporin derivatives. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 6, 437-441.
10. DANIELIAN P. S., MUCCINO D., ROWITCH D. H., MICHAEL S. K. and MCMAHON A. P. (1998): Modification of gene activity in mouse embryos in utero by a tamoxifen-inducible form of Cre recombinase. Curr. Biol., 8, 1323-1326.
11. DELCLAUX C., DELACOURT C., D'ORTHO M. P., BOYER V., LAFUMA C. and HARF A. (1996): Role of gelatinase B and elastase in human polymorphonuclear neutrophil migration across basement membrane. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol., 14, 288-295.
12. DESTACHE C. J., PAKIZ C. B., DASH A. K. and LARSEN C. (1998): Nitric oxide concentrations and cerebrospinal fluid parameters in an experimental animal model of Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis. Pharmacotherapy, 18, 612-619.
13. D'HAESE A., WUYTS A., DILLEN C., DUBOIS B., BILLIAU A., HEREMANS H., VAN DAMME J., ARNOLD B. and OPDENAKKER G. (2000): In vivo neutrophil recruitment by granulocyte chemotactic protein-2 is assisted by gelatinase B/MMP-9 in the mouse. J. Interferon Cytokine Res., 20, 667-674.
14. DINARELLO C. A. (2000): Proinflammatory cytokines. Chest, 118, 503-508.
15. DZIARSKI R., TAPPING R. I. and TOBIAS P. S. (1998): Binding of bacterial peptidoglycan to CD14. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 8680-8690.
16. ECHCHANNAOUI H., FREI K., SCHNELL C., LEIB S. L., ZIMMERLI W. and LANDMANN R. (2002): Toll-like receptor 2-deficient mice are highly susceptible to Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis because of reduced bacterial clearing and enhanced inflammation. J. Infect. Dis., 186, 798-806.
17. EYNON E. E. and FLAVELL R. A. (1999): Walking through the forest of transgenic models of human disease. Immunol. Rev., 169, 5-10.
18. FAUST N., VARAS F., KELLY L. M., HECK S. and GRAF T. (2000): Insertion of enhanced green fluorescent protein into the lysozyme gene creates mice with green fluorescent granulocytes and macrophages. Blood, 96, 719-726.
19. FURTH P. A., ST ONGE L., BOGER H., GRUSS P., GOSSEN M., KISTNER A., BUJARD H. and HENNIGHAUSEN L. (1994): Temporal control of gene expression in transgenic mice by a tetracycline-responsive promoter. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91, 9302-9306.
20. GADIENT R. A. and OTTEN U. H. (1997): Interleukin-6 (IL-6) - a molecule with both beneficial and destructive potentials. Prog. Neurobiol., 52, 379-390.
21. GADIENT R. A. and PATTERSON P. H. (1999): Leukemia inhibitory factor, interleukin 6, and other cytokines using the GP130 transducing receptor: roles in inflammation and injury. Stem Cells, 17, 127-137.
22. GALLO P., PAGNI S., GIOMETTO B., PICCINNO M. G., BOZZA F., ARGENTIERO V. and TAVOLATO B. (1990): Macrophage-colony stimulating factor (M-CSF) in the cerebrospinal fluid. J. Neuroimmunol., 29, 105-112.
23. Geographic variation in penicillin resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae - selected sites, United States, 1997 (1999). MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep., 48, 656-661.
24. GERBER J., RAIVICH G., WELLMER A., NOESKE C., KUNST T., WERNER A., BRUCK W. and NAU R. (2001): A mouse model of Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis mimicking several features of human disease. Acta Neuropathol., 101, 499-508.
25. GERETY S. S. and ANDERSON D. J. (2002): Cardiovascular ephrin B2 function is essential for embryonic angiogenesis. Development, 129, 1397-1410.
26. Guo R. F. and WARD P. A. (2002): Mediators and regulation of neutrophil accumulation in inflammatory responses in lung: insights from the IgG immune complex model. Free Radic. Biol. Med., 33, 303-310.
27. HOSODA K., HAMMER R. E., RICHARDSON J. A., BAYNASH A. G., CHEUNG J. C., GIAID A. and YANAGISAWA M. (1994): Targeted and natural (piebald-lethal) mutations of endothelin-B receptor gene produce megacolon associated with spotted coat color in mice. Cell, 79, 1267-1276.
28. HUANG P. L. (2000): Lessons learned from nitric oxide synthase knockout animals. Semin. Perinatol., 24, 87-90.
29. HYDE T. B., GAY K., STEPHENS D. S., VUGIA D. J., PASS M., JOHNSON S., BARRETT N. L., SCHAFFNER W., CIESLAK P. R., MAUPIN P. S., ZELL E. R., JORGENSEN J. H., FACKLAM R. R. and WHITNEY C. G. (2001): Macrolide resistance among invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates. JAMA, 286, 1857-1862.
30. IMAI Y. and KOHSAKA S. (2002): Intracellular signaling in M-CSF-induced microglia activation: role of Ibal. GLIA, 40, 164-174.
31. JANEWAY C. A. JR. (1989): Approaching the asymptote? Evolution and revolution in immunology. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol., 54, 1-13.
32. JAWOROWICZ, D. J. JR., KORYTKO P. J., SINGH L. S. and BOJE K. M. (1998): Nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 formation parallels blood-brain barrier disruption in an experimental rat model of bacterial meningitis. Brain Res. Bull., 46, 541-546.
33. KASTENBAUER S., KOEDEL U., BECKER B. F. and PFISTER H. W. (2002): Oxidative stress in bacterial meningitis in humans. Neurology, 58, 186-191.
34. KASTENBAUER S., KOEDEL U. and PFISTER H. W. (1999): Role of peroxynitrite as a mediator of pathophysiological alterations in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J. Infect. Dis., 180, 1164-1170.
35. KASTENBAUER S. and PFISTER H. W. (2003): Pneumococcal meningitis in adults: spectrum of complications and prognostic factors in a series of 87 cases. Brain, 126, 1015-1025.
36. KIESEIER B. C., PAUL R., KOEDEL U., SEIFERT T., CLEMENTS J. M., GEARING A. J., PFISTER H. W. and HARTUNG H. P. (1999): Differential expression of matrix metalloproteinases in bacterial meningitis. Brain, 122, 1579-1587.
37. KIM K. S. and ANTHONY B. F. (1983): Efficacy of trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole in experimental Escherichia coli bacteremia and meningitis. Chemotherapy, 29, 428-435.
38. KISANUKI Y. Y., HAMMER R. E., MIYAZAKI J., WILLIAMS S. C., RICHARDSON J. A. and YANAGISAWA M. (2001): Tie2-Cre transgenic mice: a new model for endothelial cell-lineage analysis in vivo. Dev. Biol., 230, 230-242.
39. KOEDEL U., ANGELE B., RUPPRECHT T., WAGNER H., ROGGENKAMP A., PFISTER H. W. and KIRSCHNING C. J. (2003): Toll-like receptor 2 participates in mediation of immune response in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J. Immunol., 170, 438-444.
40. KOEDEL U., BERNATOWICZ A., PAUL R., FREI K., FONTANA A. and PFISTER H. W. (1995): Experimental pneumococcal meningitis: cerebrovascular alterations, brain edema, and meningeal inflammation are linked to the production of nitric oxide. Ann. Neurol., 37, 313-323.
41. KOEDEL U., GORRIZ C., LORENZL S. and PFISTER H. W. (1997): Increased endothelin levels in cerebrospinal fluid samples from adults with bacterial meningitis. Clin. Infect. Dis., 25, 329-330.
42. KOEDEL U., LORENZL S., GORRIZ C., ARENDT R. M. and PFISTER H. W. (1998): Endothelin B receptor-mediated increase of cerebral blood flow in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 18, 67-74.
43. KOEDEL U., PAUL R., WINKLER F., KASTENBAUER S., HUANG P. L. and PFISTER H. W. (2001): Lack of endothelial nitric oxide synthase aggravates murine pneumococcal meningitis. J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol., 60, 1041-1050.
44. KOEDEL U. and PFISTER H. W. (1997): Protective effect of the antioxidant N-acetyl-L-cysteine in pneumococcal meningitis in the rat. Neurosci. Lett., 225, 33-36.
45. KOEDEL U. and PFISTER H. W. (1999): Models of experimental bacterial meningitis. Role and limitations. Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am., 13, 549-577.
46. KOEDEL U. and PFISTER H. W. (1999): Oxidative stress in bacterial meningitis. Brain Pathol., 9, 57-67.
47. KOEDEL U., SCHELD W. M. and PFISTER H. W. (2002): Pathogenesis and pathophysiology of pneumococcal meningitis. Lancet Infect. Dis., 2, 721-736.
48. KOEDEL U., WINKLER F., ANGELE B., FONTANA A., FLAVELL R. A. and PFISTER H. W. (2002): Role of caspase-1 in experimental pneumococcal meningitis: evidence from pharmacologic caspase inhibition and caspase-l-deficient mice. Ann. Neurol., 51, 319-329.
49. KOEDEL U., WINKLER F., ANGELE B., FONTANA A. and PFISTER H. W. (2002): Meningitis-associated central nervous system complications are mediated by the activation of poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 22, 39-49.
50. KOLLER B. H. and SMITHIES O. (1989): Inactivating the β2-microglobulin locus in mouse embryonic stem cells by homologous recombination. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 86, 8932-8935.
51. KRIEGLSTEIN C. F. and GRANGER D. N. (2001): Adhesion molecules and their role in vascular disease. Am. J. Hypertens., 14, 44S-54S.
52. KUEHN M. R., BRADLEY A., ROBERTSON E. J. and EVANS M. J. (1987): A potential animal model for Lesch-Nyhan syndrome through introduction of HPRT mutations into mice. Nature, 326, 295-298.
53. KUHN R., SCHWENK F., AGUET M. and RAJEWSKY K. (1995): Inducible gene targeting in mice. Science, 269, 1427-1429.
54. KURIHARA Y., KURIHARA H., SUZUKI H., KODAMA T., MAEMURA K., NAGAI R., ODA H., KUWAKI T., CAO W. H., KAMADA N. and (1994): Elevated blood pressure and craniofacial abnormalities in mice deficient in endothelin-1. Nature, 368, 703-710.
55. LANDMANN R., MULLER B. and ZIMMERLI W. (2000): CD14, new aspects of ligand and signal diversity. Microbes. Infect., 2, 295-304.
56. LEIB S. L., CLEMENTS J. M., LINDBERG R. L., HEIMGARTNER C., LOEFFLER J. M., PFISTER L. A., TAUBER M. G. and LEPPERT D. (2001): Inhibition of matrix metalloproteinases and tumour necrosis factor α converting enzyme as adjuvant therapy in pneumococcal meningitis. Brain, 124, 1734-1742.
57. LEIST T. P., FREI K., KAM-HANSEN S., ZINKERNAGEL R. M. and FONTANA A. (1988): Tumor necrosis factor α in cerebrospinal fluid during bacterial, but not viral, meningitis. Evaluation in murine model infections and in patients. J. Exp. Med., 167, 1743-1748.
58. LEPPERT D., HAUSER S. L., KISHIYAMA J. L., AN S., ZENG L. and GOETZL E. J. (1995): Stimulation of matrix metalloproteinase-dependent migration of T cells by eicosanoids. FASEB J., 9, 1473-1481.
59. LINDER C. C. (2001): The influence of genetic background on spontaneous and genetically engineered mouse models of complex diseases. Lab. Anim. (NY), 30, 34-39.
60. McCORMICK A. W., WHITNEY C. G., FARLEY M. M., LYNFIELD R., HARRISON L. H., BENNETT N. M., SCHAFFNER W., REINGOLD A., HADLER J., CIESLAK P., SAMORE M. H. and LIPSITCH M. (2003): Geographic diversity and temporal trends of antimicrobial resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. Nat. Med., 9, 424-430.
61. MEDZHITOV R. (2001): Toll-like receptors and innate immunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol., 1, 135-145.
62. MOXON E. R., SMITH A. L., AVERILL D. R. and SMITH D. H. (1974): Haemophilus influenzae meningitis in infant rats after intranasal inoculation. J. Infect. Dis., 129, 154-162.
63. MULLER W. A. and RANDOLPH G. J. (1999): Migration of leukocytes across endothelium and beyond: molecules involved in the transmigration and fate of monocytes. J. Leukoc. Biol., 66, 698-704.
64. MUN-BRYCE S. and ROSENBERG G. A. (1998): Gelatinase B modulates selective opening of the blood-brain barrier during inflammation. Am. J. Physiol., 274, R1203-R1211.
65. MURRELL G. A., JANG D. and WILLIAMS R. J. (1995): Nitric oxide activates metalloprotease enzymes in articular cartilage. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 206, 15-21.
66. MUSTAFA M. M., LEBEL M. H., RAMILO O., OLSEN K. D., REISCH J. S., BEUTLER B. and MCCRACKEN G. H. JR. (1989): Correlation of interleukin-1β and cachectin concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid and outcome from bacterial meningitis. J. Pediatr., 115, 208-213.
67. O'DONNELL V. B. and FREEMAN B. A. (2001): Interactions between nitric oxide and lipid oxidation pathways: implications for vascular disease. Circ. Res., 88, 12-21.
68. PATEL K. D., CUVELIER S. L. and WIEHLER S. (2002): Selectins: critical mediators of leukocyte recruitment. Semin. Immunol., 14, 73-81.
69. PAUL R., KOEDEL U., WINKLER F., KIESEIER B. C., FONTANA A., KOPF M., HARTUNG H. P. and PFISTER H. W. (2003): Lack of IL-6 augments inflammatory response but decreases vascular permeability in bacterial meningitis. Brain, 126, 1873-1882.
70. PAUL R., LORENZL S., KOEDEL U., SPORER B., VOGEL U., FROSCH M. and PFISTER H. W. (1998): Matrix metalloproteinases contribute to the blood-brain barrier disruption during bacterial meningitis. Ann. Neurol., 44, 592-600.
71. PFISTER H. W., FREI K., OTTNAD B., KOEDEL U., TOMASZ A. and FONTANA A. (1992): Transforming growth factor β2 inhibits cerebrovascular changes and brain edema formation in the tumor necrosis factor α-independent early phase of experimental pneumococcal meningitis. J. Exp. Med., 176, 265-268.
72. PFISTER H. W., KOEDEL U., LORENZL S. and TOMASZ A. (1992): Antioxidants attenuate microvascular changes in the early phase of experimental pneumococcal meningitis in rats. Stroke, 23, 1798-1804.
73. PICCIOTTO M. R. and WICKMAN K. (1998): Using knockout and transgenic mice to study neurophysiology and behavior. Physiol Rev., 78, 1131-1163.
74. POWER C. A. (2003): Knock out models to dissect chemokine receptor function in vivo. J. Immunol. Methods, 273, 73-82.
75. QUAGLIARELLO V. J., LONG W. J. and SCHELD W. M. (1986): Morphologic alterations of the blood-brain barrier with experimental meningitis in the rat. Temporal sequence and role of encapsulation. J. Clin. Invest., 77, 1084-1095.
76. QUAGLIARELLO V. J., WISPELWEY B., LONG W. J. JR. and SCHELD W. M. (1991): Recombinant human interleukin-1 induces meningitis and blood-brain barrier injury in the rat. Characterization and comparison with tumor necrosis factor. J. Clin. Invest., 87, 1360-1366.
77. RIES C. and PETRIDES P. E. (1995): Cytokine regulation of matrix metalloproteinase activity and its regulatory dysfunction in disease. Biol. Chem. Hoppe Seyler, 376, 345-355.
78. ROSENBERG G. A., DENCOFF J. E., CORREA N. JR., REINERS M. and FORD C. C. (1996): Effect of steroids on CSF matrix metalloproteinases in multiple sclerosis: relation to blood-brain barrier injury. Neurology, 46, 1626-1632.
79. ROWIN M. E., XUE V. and IRAZUZTA J. (2000): Integrin expression on neutrophils in a rabbit model of group B Streptococcal meningitis. Inflammation, 24, 157-173.
80. SANFORD L. P., ORMSBY I., GITTENBERGER-DE GROOT A. C., SARIOLA H., FRIEDMAN R., BOIVIN G. P., CARDELL E. L. and DOETSCHMAN T. (1997): TGFβ2 knockout mice have multiple developmental defects that are non-overlapping with other TGFβ knockout phenotypes. Development, 124, 2659-2670.
81. SAUER B. (1998): Inducible gene targeting in mice using the Cre/lox system. Methods, 14, 381-392.
82. SCHELD W. M., KOEDEL U., NATHAN B. and PFISTER H. W. (2002): Pathophysiology of bacterial meningitis: mechanism(s) of neuronal injury, J. Infect. Dis., 186, S225-S233.
83. SHULL M. M., ORMSBY I., KIER A. B., PAWLOWSKI S., DIEBOLD R. J., YIN M., ALLEN R., SIDMAN C., PROETZEL G., CALVIN D., ANNUNZIATA N. and DOETSCHMAN T. (1992): Targeted disruption of the mouse transforming growth factor-β1 gene results in multifocal inflammatory disease. Nature, 359, 693-699.
84. SLACK M. P., AZZOPARDI H. J., HARGREAVES R. M. and RAMSAY M. E. (1998): Enhanced surveillance of invasive Haemophilus influenzae disease in England, 1990 to 1996: impact of conjugate vaccines. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J., 17, S204-S207.
85. SMITH A. L., SMITH D. H., AVERILL D. R. JR., MARINO J. and MOXON E. R. (1973): Production of Haemophilus influenzae b meningitis in infant rats by intraperitoneal inoculation. Infect. Immun., 8, 278-290.
86. SMITH S. J. (2000): The role of integrin-mediated cell adhesion in health and disease: integrin-based therapy in clinical medicine. Ann. Intern. Med., 132, 333-336.
87. ST ONGE L., FURTH P. A. and GRUSS P. (1996): Temporal control of the Cre recombinase in transgenic mice by a tetracycline responsive promoter. Nucleic Acids Res., 24, 3875-3877.
88. STUEHR D. J. (1999): Mammalian nitric oxide synthases. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1411, 217-230.
89. SZABO C. and DAWSON V. L. (1998): Role of poly(ADP-ribose) synthetase in inflammation and ischaemia-reperfusion. Trends Pharmacol. Sci., 19, 287-298.
90. SZELENYI J. (2001): Cytokines and the central nervous system. Brain Res. Bull., 54, 329-338.
91. TAN T. Q., SMITH C. W., HAWKINS E. P., MASON E. O. JR. and KAPLAN S. L. (1995): Hematogenous bacterial meningitis in an intercellular adhesion molecule-1-deficient infant mouse model. J. Infect. Dis., 171, 342-349.
92. TANG T., FRENETTE P. S., HYNES R. O., WAGNER D. D. and MAYADAS T. N. (1996): Cytokine-induced meningitis is dramatically attenuated in mice deficient in endothelial selectins. J. Clin. Invest., 97, 2485-2490.
93. THOMAS K. R. and CAPECCHI M. R. (1986): Introduction of homologous DNA sequences into mammalian cells induces mutations in the cognate gene. Nature, 324, 34-38.
94. TSAI Y. H., HIRTH R. S. and LEITNER F. (1980): A murine model for listerial meningitis and meningoencephalomyelitis: therapeutic evaluation of drugs in mice. Chemotherapy, 26, 196-206.
95. TSUKAHARA H., HARA Y., TSUCHIDA S., SHIGEMATSU Y., KONISHI Y., KIKUCHI K. and SUDO M. (1996): Nitrite concentration in cerebrospinal fluid of infants: evidence for enhanced nitric oxide production in Haemophilus influenzae meningitis. Acta Paediatr. Jpn., 38, 420-422.
96. TUOMANEN E., LIU H., HENGSTLER B., ZAK O. and TOMASZ A. (1985): The induction of meningeal inflammation by components of the pneumococcal cell wall. J. Infect. Dis., 151, 859-868.
97. TUOMANEN E. I., SAUKKONEN K., SANDE S., CIOFFE C. and WRIGHT S. D. (1989): Reduction of inflammation, tissue damage, and mortality in bacterial meningitis in rabbits treated with monoclonal antibodies against adhesion-promoting receptors of leukocytes. J. Exp. Med., 170, 959-969.
98. UTOMO A. R., NIKITIN A. Y. and LEE W. H. (1999): Temporal, spatial, and cell type-specific control of Cre-mediated DNA recombination in transgenic mice. Nat. Biotechnol., 17, 1091-1096.
99. VAN DER W. L., ADAMS D. J. and BRADLEY A. (2002): Tools for targeted manipulation of the mouse genome. Physiol. Genomics, 11, 133-164.
100. VAN FURTH A. M., SEIJMONSBERGEN E. M., GROENEVELD P. H., VAN FURTH R. and LANGERMANS J. A. (1996): Levels of nitric oxide correlate with high levels of tumor necrosis factor α in cerebrospinal fluid samples from children with bacterial meningitis. Clin. Infect. Dis., 22, 876-878.
101. VON MERING M., WELLMER A., MICHEL U., BUNKOWSKI S., TLUSTOCHOWSKA A., BRUCK W., KUHNT U. and NAU R. (2001): Transcriptional regulation of caspases in experimental pneumococcal meningitis. Brain Pathol., 11, 282-295.
102. WAAGE A., HALSTENSEN A., SHALABY R., BRANDTZAEG P., KIERULF P. and ESPEVIK T. (1989): Local production of tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 1, and interleukin 6 in meningococcal meningitis. Relation to the inflammatory response. J. Exp. Med., 170, 1859-1867.
103. WEBER J. R., ANGSTWURM K., BURGER W., EINHAUPL K. M. and DIRNAGL U. (1995): Anti-ICAM-1 (CD54) monoclonal antibody reduces inflammatory changes in experimental bacterial meningitis. J. Neuroimmunol., 63, 63-68.
104. WELLMER A., GERBER J., RAGHEB J., ZYSK G., KUNST T., SMIRNOV A., BRUCK W. and NAU R. (2001): Effect of deficiency of tumor necrosis factor α or both of its receptors on Streptococcus pneumoniae central nervous system infection and peritonitis. Infect. Immun., 69, 6881-6886.
105. WENGER J. D. (1998): Epidemiology of Haemophilus influenzae type b disease and impact of Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate vaccines in the United States and Canada. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J., 17, S132-S136.
106. WINKLER F., KOEDEL U., KASTENBAUER S. and PFISTER H. W. (2001): Differential expression of nitric oxide synthases in bacterial meningitis: role of the inducible isoform for blood-brain barrier breakdown. J. Infect. Dis., 183, 1749-1759.
107. WOESSNER J. F. JR. (2002): MMPs and TIMPs - an historical perspective. Mol. Biotechnol., 22, 33-49.
108. YOSHIMURA A., LIEN E., INGALLS R. R., TUOMANEN E., DZIARSKI R. and GOLENBOCK D. (1999): Cutting edge: recognition of Gram-positive bacterial cell wall components by the innate immune system occurs via Toll-like receptor 2. J. Immunol., 163, 1-5.
109. ZHUO L., THEIS M., ALVAREZ-MAYA I., BRENNER M., WILLECKE K. and MESSING A. (2001): hGFAP-cre transgenic mice for manipulation of glial and neuronal function in vivo. Genesis, 31, 85-94.
110. ZWIJNENBURG P. J., VAN DER P. T., FLORQUIN S., ROORD J. J. and VAN FURTH A. M. (2003): IL-1 receptor type 1 gene-deficient mice demonstrate an impaired host defense against pneumococcal meningitis. J. Immunol., 170, 4724-4730.