Canine borreliosis

Veterinary Clinics of North America - Small Animal Practice

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 827-862

  Littman, Meryl P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; AMOXICILLIN; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AZITHROMYCIN; BACTERIAL VACCINE; BACTERIN; CEFALEXIN; CEFTRIAXONE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DOXYCYCLINE; ERYTHROMYCIN; GALAXY LYME; LYMVAX; PROLYME; QUINOLONE; RECOMBITEK;

BABESIA; BARTONELLA; BORRELIA INFECTION; COMORBIDITY; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DISEASE CARRIER; DISEASE MARKER; DOG; DRUG RESPONSE; EHRLICHIA; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; INFECTION CONTROL; IXODES; LEPTOSPIRA; LYME DISEASE; MYCOPLASMA; NONHUMAN; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PROTEINURIA; REVIEW; RICKETTSIA; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; SCREENING TEST; SEROLOGY; SEROPREVALENCE; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TICK; VACCINATION;

ACARI; BABESIA; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); BARTONELLA; BORRELIA; CANIS FAMILIARIS; EHRLICHIA; IXODES; LEPTOSPIRA; MYCOPLASMA; RICKETTSIA;

EID: 0041695287     PISSN: 01955616     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0195-5616(03)00037-8     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Greene CE, Appel MJG, Straubinger RK. Lyme borreliosis, In: Greene CE, editor. Infectious diseases of the dog and cat. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co., 1998; 282-93.
2. Telford SR III. Community of veterinary and zoonotic pathogens in deer ticks. International Forum on Ticks and Tick-Borne Diseases. Compendium for Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian Supplement 1997;19(10):24-7.
3. Lang J. A history of Lyme disease: catching the bug: how scientists found the cause of Lyme disease and why we're not out of the woods yet. Conn Med 1989;53(6):357-64.
4. Steere AC. Lyme disease. N Engl J Med 2001;345(2):115-25.
5. Sigal LH. Misconceptions about Lyme disease: confusions hiding behind ill-chosen terminology. Ann Intern Med 2002;136(5):413-9.
6. Nadelman RB, Wormser GP. Lyme borreliosis. Lancet 1998;352(9127):557-65.
7. Straubinger RK. Lyme borreliosis in dogs. In: Carmichael LE, editor. Recent advances in canine infectious diseases. Ithaca (NY): International Veterinary Information Service; 2000.
8. Nielssen A, Carr A, Heseltine J. Update on canine Lyme disease. Veterinary Medicine 2002;97(8):604-9.
9. Afzelius A. Verhandlungen der Dermatologischen Gesellschaft zu Stockholm. Siztung vom 28. Oktober 1909. Archives Dermatol Syph 1910;101:403-6.
10. Burgdorfer W, Barbour A, Hayes S, Benach JL, Grunwaldt E, Davis JP. Lyme disease - a tick-borne spirochetosis? Science 1982;216:1317-9.
11. Sood SK. Effective retrieval of Lyme disease information on the web. Clin Infect Dis 2002;35:451-64.
12. Magnarelli LA, Anderson JF, Schreier AB. Persistence of antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in dogs in New York and Connecticut. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1990; 196:1064-8.
13. Hinrichsen VL, Whitworth UG, Breitschwerdt EB, Hegarty BC, Mather TN. Assessing the association between distribution of deer ticks and seropositivity rates to various tick-transmitted disease organisms in dogs. JAVMA 2001;218(7):1092-7.
14. Guerra MA, Walker ED, Kitron U. Canine surveillance system for Lyme borreliosis in Wisconsin and northern Illinois: geographic distribution and risk factor analysis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001;65(5):546-52.
15. Magnarelli LA, Ijdo JW, Van Andel AE, Wu C, Padula SJ, Fikrig. Serologic confirmation of Ehrlichia equi and Borrelia burgdorferi infections in horses from the northeastern United States. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000;217(7):1045-50.
16. Stafford KC III, Massung RF, Magnarelli LA, Ijdo JW, Anderson JF. Infection with agents of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, Lyme disease, and babesiosis in wild white-footed mice (Peromyscus leucopus) in Connecticut. J Clin Microbiol 1999; 37(9):2887-92.
17. Morozova OV, Dobrotvorsky AK, Livanova NN, Tkachev SE, Bakhvalova VN, Beklemishev AB, et al. PCR detection of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, tick-borne encephalitis virus, and the human granulocytic ehrlichiosis agent in Ixodes persulcatus ticks from western Siberia, Russia. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40(10):3802-4.
18. Chang YF, Novosel V, Chang CF, Kim JB, Shin SJ, Lein DH. Detection of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis agent and Borrelia burgdorferi in ticks by polymerase chain reaction. J Vet Diagn Invest 1998;10(1):56-9.
19. Schouls LM, Van De Pol I, Rijpkema SG, Schot CS. Detection and identification of Ehrlichia, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, and Bartonella species in Dutch Ixodes ricinus ticks. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37(7):2215-22.
20. Magnarelli LA, Ijdo JW, Stafford KC III, Fikrig E. Infections of granulocytic ehrlichia and Borrelia burgdorferi in white-tailed deer in Connecticut. J Wildl Dis 1999;35(2):266-74.
21. Foley JE, Foley P, Madigan JE. Spatial distribution of seropositivity to the causative agent of granulocytic ehrlichiosis in dogs in California. Am J Vet Res 2001;62(10):1599-605.
22. Levy S. Developing an integrated approach for diagnosing, managing tick-borne diseases. DVM In Focus Magazine 2002;June:14-8.
23. Bakken JS, Goellner P, Van Etten M, Boyle DZ, Swonger OL, Mattson S, et al. Seroprevalence of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis among permanent residents of northwestern Wisconsin. Clin Infect Dis 1998;27(6):1491-6.
24. Aguero-Rosenfeld ME, Donnarumma L, Zentmaier L, Jacob J, Frey M, Noto R, et al. Seroprevalence of antibodies that react with Anaplasma phagocytophila, the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis, in different populations in Westchester County, New York. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40(7):2612-5.
25. Ravyn MD, Goodman JL, Kodner CB, Westad DK, Coleman LA, Engstrom SM, et al. Immunodiagnosis of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis by using culture-derived human isolates. J Clin Microbiol 1998;36(6):1480-8.
26. Bullock PM, Ames TR, Robinson RA, Greig B, Mellencamp MA, Dumler JS. Ehrlichia equi infection in horses from Minnesota and Wisconsin: detection of seroconversion and acute disease. J Vet Intern Med 2000;14(3):250-1.
27. Walls JJ, Asanovich KM, Bakken JS, Dumler JS. Serologic evidence of a natural infection of white-tailed deer with the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis in Wisconsin and Maryland. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1998;5(6):762-5.
28. Castro MB, Nicholson WL, Kramer VL, Childs JE. Persistent infection in Neotaoma fuscipes (Muridae:Sigmodontinae) with Ehrlichia phagocytophila sensu lato. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2001;65(4):261-7.
29. Eskow E, Rao RVS, Mordechai E. Concurrent infection of the central nervous system by Borrelia burgdorferi and Bartonella henselae: evidence for a novel tick-borne disease complex. Arch Neur 2001;58(9):1357-63.
30. Rand PW, Lacombe EH, Smith RP Jr, Gensheimer K, Dennis DT. Low seroprevalence of human Lyme disease near a focus of high entomologic risk. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996;55(2):160-4.
31. Lane RS, Quistad GB. Borreliacidal factor in the blood of the western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis). J Parasitol 1998;84(1):29-34.
32. Richter D, Spielman A, Komar N, Matuschka FR. Competence of American robins as reservoir hosts for Lyme disease spirochetes. Emerg Infect Dis 2000;6(2):133-8.
33. Gylfe A, Bergstrom S, Lundstrom J, Olsen B. Reactivation of Borrelia infection in birds. Nature 2000;403(6771):724-5.
34. des Vignes F, Piesman J, Heffernan R, Schulze TL, Stafford KC III, Fish D. Effect of tick removal on transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi and Ehrlichia phagocytophila by Ixodes scapularis nymphs. J Infect Dis 2001;183:773-8.
35. Badon SJ, Fister RD, Cable RG. Survival of Borrelia burgdorferi in blood products. Transfusion 1989;29(7):581-3.
36. Bushmich SL. Lyme disease: comparative aspects. In: Proc 18th ACVIM Forum. 2000. p. 203-5.
37. Post JE, Shaw EE, Wright SD. Suspected borreliosis in cattle. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1988;539:488.
38. Straubinger RK, Straubinger AF, Summers BA, Jacobson RH, Erb HN. Clinical manifestations, pathogenesis, and effect of antibiotic treatment on Lyme borreliosis in dogs. Wien Klin Wochenschr 1998;110(24):874-81.
39. Appel MJG, Allen S, Jacobson RH, Lauderdale TL, Chang YF, Shin SJ, et al. Experimental Lyme disease in dogs produces arthritis and persistent infection. J Infect Dis 1993;167:651-64.
40. Nordstrom A, Barbour AG, Bergstrom S. Borrelia pathogenesis research in the post-genomic and postvaccine era. Curr Opin Microbiol 2000;3:86-92.
41. Faguy DM. Bacterial genomics: the controlled chaos of shifty pathogens. Curr Biol 2000;10:R498-501.
42. Barthold SW. Lyme borreliosis. In: Nataro JP, Blaser MJ, Cunningham-Rundles S, editors. Persistent bacterial infections. Washington: ASM Press; 2000. p. 281-304.
43. Ohnishi J, Piesman J, deSilva AM. Antigenic and genetic heterogeneity of Borrelia burgdorferi populations transmitted by ticks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001;98(2):670-5.
44. Liang FT, Nelson FK, Fikrig E. Molecular adaptation of Borrelia burgdorferi in the murine host. J Exp Med 2002;196(2):275-80.
45. Liang FT, Jacobs MB, Bowers LC, Phillipp MT. An immune evasion mechanism for spirochetal persistence in Lyme borreliosis. J Exp Med 2002;195(4):415-22.
46. Stevenson B, El-Hage N, Hines MA, Miller JC, Bab BK. Differential binding of host complement inhibitor factor H by Borrelia burgdorferi Erp surface proteins: a possible mechanisms underlying the expansive host range of Lyme disease spirochetes. Infect Immunol 2002;70(2):491-7.
47. Zhang JR, Norris S. Kinetics and in vivo induction of genetic variation of vlsE in Borrelia burgdorferi. Infect Immunol 1998;66(8):3689-97.
48. Zhang JR, Hardham JM, Barbour AG, Norris SJ. Antigenic variation in Lyme disease Borreliae by promiscuous recombination of VMP-like sequence cassettes. Cell 1997;89:275-85.
49. Zhang JR, Norris S. Genetic variation of the Borrelia burgdorferi gene vlsE involves cassette-specific, segmental gene conversion. Infect Immunol 1998;66(8):3698-704.
50. Anguita J, Thomas V, Samanta S, Persinski R, Hernanz C, Barthold SW, et al. Borrelia burgdorferi-induced inflammation facilitates spirochete adaptation and variable major protein-like sequence locus recombination. J Immunol 2001;167:3383-90.
51. Sung SY, McDowell JV, Marconi RT. Evidence for the contribution of point mutations to vlsE variation and for apparent constraints on the net accumulation of sequence changes in vlsE during infection with Lyme disease spirochetes. J Bacteriol 2001; 183(20):5855-61.
52. Posey JE, Gherardini FC. Lack of a role for iron in the Lyme disease pathogen. Science 2000;288:1651-3.
53. Girschick HJ, Huppertz HI, Russmann H, Krenn V, Karch H. Intracellular persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi in human synovial cells. Rheumatol Int 1996;16(3):125-32.
54. Kersten A, Poitschek C, Rauch S, Aberer E. Effects of penicillin, ceftriaxone, and doxycycline on morphology of Borrelia burgdorferi. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995;39(5):1127-33.
55. Gruntar I, Malovrh T, Murgia R, Cinco M. Conversion of Borrelia garinii cystic forms to motile spirochetes in vivo. APMIS 2001;109(5):383-8.
56. Brorson O, Brorson SH. A rapid method for generating cystic forms of Borrelia burgdorferi and their reversal to mobile spirochetes. APMIS 1998;106(12):1131-41.
57. Brorson O, Brorson SH. In vitro conversion of Borrelia burgdorferi to cystic forms in spinal fluid, and transformation to mobile spirochetes by incubation in BSK-H medium. Infection 1998;26(3):144-50.
58. Brorson O, Brorson SH. Transformation of cystic forms of Borrelia burgdorferi to normal, mobile spirochetes. Infection 1997;25(4):240-6.
59. Murgia R, Piazzetta C, Cinco M. Cystic forms of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: induction, development, and the role of RpoS. Wien Klin Wochenschr 2002;114:574-9.
60. Brorson O, Brorson SH. An in vitro study of the susceptibility of mobile and cystic forms of Borrelia burgdorferi to hydroxychloroquine. Int Microbiol 2002;1:25-31.
61. Brorson O, Brorson SH. An in vitro study of the susceptibility of mobile and cystic forms of Borrelia burgdorferi to metronidazole. APMIS 1999;107(6):566-76.
62. Mursic VP, Wanner G, Reinhardt S, Wilske B, Busch U, Marget W. Formation and cultivation of Borrelia burgdorferi spheroplast L-form variants. Infection 1996;24(3): 218-26.
63. Lissman BA, Bosler EM, Camay H, Ormiston BG, Benach JL. Spirochete-associated arthritis (Lyme disease) in a dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1984;185(2):219-20.
64. Kornblatt AN, Urband PH, Steere AC. Arthritis caused by Borrelia burgdorferi in dogs. JAVMA 1985;186(9):960-4.
65. Feder BM, Joseph RJ, Moroff SD, Schneider EM, Bosler EM. Borrelia burgdorferi antibodies in canine cerebrospinal fluid. J Vet Intern Med 1991;5(2):137.
66. Mandel NS, Senker EG, Bosler EM, Schneider EM. Intrathecal production of Borrelia burgdorferi specific antibodies in a dog with central nervous system Lyme borreliosis. Compendium for Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian 1993;15(4):581-6.
67. Masters EJ, Ellis B Jr. Unilateral facial paralysis associated with Borreliacidal activity against Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto C-1-11. Journal of Spirochetal & Tick-Borne Diseases 1995;2(2):42-4.
68. Azuma Y, Isogai E, Isogai H, Kawamura K. Canine Lyme disease: clinical and serological evaluations in 21 dogs in Japan. Vet Med 1994;134(15):369-72.
69. Levy SA, Duray PH. Complete heart block in a dog seropositive for Borrelia burgdorferi. J Vet Intern Med 1988;2(3):138-44.
70. Rondeau M, Walton R, Bissett S, Drobatz K, Washabau R. Suppurative, nonseptic polyarthropathy in the dog. J Vet Intern Med 2002;16(3):330.
71. Jacobson RH, Chang YF, Shin SJ. Lyme disease: laboratory diagnosis of infected and vaccinated symptomatic dogs. Seminars in Veterinary Medicine and Surgery (Small Animal) 1996;11(3):172-82.
72. Levy SA, Magnarelli LA. Relationship between development of antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi in dogs and the subsequent development of limb/joint borreliosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1992;200(3):344-7.
73. Frank JC. Taking a hard look at Borrelia burgdorferi. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1989; 194(11):1521.
74. Magnarelli LA, Anderson JF, Schrier AB, Ficke CM. Clinical and serologic studies of canine borreliosis. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1987;191(9):1089-94.
75. Grauer GF, Burgess EC, Cooley AJ, Hagee JH. Renal lesions associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection in the dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1988;193(2):237-9.
76. Dambach DM, Smith CA, Lewis RM, Van Winkle TJ. Morphologic, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural characterization of a distinctive renal lesion in dogs putatively associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection: 49 cases (1987-1992). Vet Pathol 1997;34:85-96.
77. Sanders NA, Dambach DM, Littman MP. Clinical characterization of a rapidly progressive and fatal glomerulonephritis associated with Borrelia burgdorferi infection in the dog ("Lyme nephritis"). J Vet Intern Med 1997;11(2):127.
78. Sanders NA. Canine "Lyme nephritis". Proc 18th ACVIM Forum 2000:627-8.
79. Greene RT, Levine JF, Breitschwerdt EB, Walker RL, Berkhoff HA, Cullen J, et al. Clinical and serologic evaluations of induced Borrelia burgdorferi infection in dogs. Am J Vet Res 1988;49(6):752-7.
80. Cerri D, Farina R, Andreani E, Nuvoloni R, Pedrini A. Experimental infection of dogs with Borrelia burgdorferi. Res Vet Sci 1994;57:256-8.
81. Straubinger RK, Straubinger AF, Härter L, Jacobson RH, Chang YF, Summers BA, et al. Borrelia burgdorferi migrates into joint capsules and causes an up-regulation of interleukin-8 in synovial membranes of dogs experimentally infected with ticks. Infect Immun 1997;65:1273-85.
82. Straubinger RK, Summers BA, Chang YF, Appel MJG. Persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi in experimentally infected dogs after antibiotic treatment. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35(1):111-6.
83. Straubinger RK, Straubinger AF, Summers BA, Jacobson RH. Status of Borrelia burgdorferi infection after antibiotic treatment and the effects of corticosteroids: an experimental study. J Infect Dis 2000;181:1069-81.
84. Straubinger RK. PCR-based quantification of Borrelia burgdorferi organisms in canine tissues over a 500-day postinfection period. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38(6):2191-9.
85. Liang FT, Jacobson RH, Straubinger RK, Grooters A, Philipp MT. Characterization of a Borrelia burgdorferi VlsE invariable region useful in canine Lyme disease serodiagnosis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38(1):4160-6.
86. Harter L, Straubinger RK, Summers BA, Erb HN, Appel MJG. Up-regulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA in dogs experimentally infected with Borrelia burgdorferi. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1999;67:271-84.
87. Callister SM, Jobe DA, Schell RF, Lovrich SD, Onheiber KL, Korshus JB. Detection of Borreliacidal antibodies in dogs after challenge with Borrelia burgdorferi-infected Ixodes scapularis ticks. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38(10):3670-4.
88. Chang YF, Novosel V, Chang CF, Summers BA, Ma DP, Chiang YW, et al. Experimental induction of chronic borreliosis in adult dogs exposed to Borrelia burgdorferi-infected ticks and treated with dexamethasone. Am J Vet Res 2001;62(7):1104-12.
89. Straubinger RK, Rao TD, Davidson E, Summers BA, Jacobson RH, Frey AB. Protection against tick-transmitted Lyme disease in dogs vaccinated with a multiantigenic vaccine. Vaccine 2002;20:181-93.
90. Chang YF, Straubinger RK, Jacobson RH, Kim JB, Kim TJ, Kim D, et al. Dissemination of Borrelia burgdorferi after experimental infection in dogs. Journal of Spirochetal & Tick-Borne Diseases 1996;3(1):80-6.
91. Malawista SE, Barthold SW, Persing DH. Fate of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in tissues of infected mice after antibiotic treatment. J Infect Dis 1994;170(5):1312-6.
92. Persing DH, Rutledge BJ, Rys PN, Podzorski DS, Mitchell PD, Reed KD, et al. Target imbalance: disparity of Borrelia burgdorferi genetic material in synovial fluid from Lyme arthritis patients. J Infect Dis 1994;169(3):668-72.
93. Bockenstedt LK, Mao J, Hodzic E, Barthold SW, Fish D. Detection of attenuated, noninfectious spirochetes in Borrelia burgdorferi-infected mice after antibiotic treatment. J Infect Dis 2002;186:1430-7.
94. Franz JK, Fritze O, Rittig M, Keysser G, Priem S, Zacher J, et al. Insights from a novel three-dimensional in vitro model of Lyme arthritis: standardized analysis of cellular and molecular interactions between Borrelia burgdorferi and synovial explants and fibroblasts. Arthritis Rheum 2001;44(1):151-62.
95. Philipp MT, Bowers LC, Fawcett PT, Jacobs MB, Liang FT, Marques AR, et al. Antibody response to IR6, a conserved immunodominant region of the VlsE lipoprotein, wanes rapidly after antibiotic treatment of Borrelia burgdorferi infection in experimental animals and in humans. J Infect Dis 2001;184(7):870-8.
96. Thomas V, Anguita J, Barthold SW, Fikrig E. Coinfection with Borrelia burgdorferi and the agent of human granulocytic ehrlichiosis alters murine immune responses, pathogen burden, and severity of Lyme arthritis. Infect Immun 2001;69(5):3359-71.
97. Moro MH, Zegarra-Moro OL, Bjornsson J, Hofmeister EK, Bruinsma E, Germer JJ, et al. Increased arthritis severity in mice coinfected with Borrelia burgdorferi and Babesia microti. J Infect Dis 2002;186(3):428-31.
98. Nyindo M, Huxsoll DL, Ristic M, Kakoma I, Brown JL, Carson CA, et al. Cell-mediated and humoral immune responses of German shepherd dogs and beagles to experimental infection with Ehrlichia canis. Am J Vet Res 1980;41(2):250-4.
99. Straubinger RK, Straubinger AF, Summers BA, Erb HN, Härter L, Appel MJG. Borrelia burgdorferi induces the production and release of proinflammatory cytokines in canine synovial explant cultures. Infect Immun 1998;66:247-58.
100. Wormser GP, Bittker S, Cooper D, Nowakowski J, Nadelman RB, Pavia C. Yield of large-volume blood cultures in patients with early Lyme disease. J Infect Dis 2001;184(8):1070-2.
101. Burgess EC. Natural exposure of Wisconsin dogs to the Lyme disease spirochete (B burgdorferi). Lab Anim Sci 1986;36:288-90.
102. Troy GC, Becker MJ, Greene RT. Proficiency testing of selected antigen and antibody tests for use in dogs and cats. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1996;209(5):914-7.
103. Shin SJ, Chang YF, Jacobson RH, Shaw E, Lauderdale TL, Appel MJ, et al. Cross-reactivity between B burgdorferi and other spirochetes affects specificity of serotests for detection of antibodies to the Lyme disease agent in dogs. Vet Microbiol 1993;36:161-74.
104. Sheets JT, Rossi CA, Kearney BJ, Moore GE. Evaluation of a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Borrelia burgdorferi exposure in dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000;216(9):1418-22.
105. Bryant J, Yi A, Savukinas D, Hodder S, Gilfillan R. Evaluation of rapid enzyme immunoassay for canine Lyme disease antibody detection. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1988; 539:447-8.
106. Greene RT, Walker RL, Burgess EC, Levine JF. Heterogeneity in immunoblot patterns obtained by using four strains of Borrelia burgdorferi and sera from naturally exposed dogs. J Clin Microbiol 1988;26(11):2287-91.
107. Dressler F, Whalen JA, Reinhardt BN, Steere AC. Western blotting in the serodiagnosis of Lyme disease. J Infect Dis 1993;167(2):392-400.
108. Barthold SW, Levy SA, Fikrig E, Bockenstedt LK, Smith AL. Serologic responses of dogs naturally exposed to or vaccinated against Borrelia burgdorferi infection. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1995;207(11):1435-40.
109. Ma J, Bulger PA, Dante S, Davis DVR, Perilli-Palmer B, Coughlin RT. Characterization of canine humoral immune responses to outer surface protein subunit vaccines and to natural infection by Lyme disease spirochetes. J Infect Dis 1995;171(4):909-15.
110. Fawcett PT, Rose CD, Gibney KM, Doughty RA. Comparison of immunodot and Western blot assays for diagnosing Lyme borreliosis. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1998;5(4):503-6.
111. Akin E, McHugh GL, Flavell RA, Fikrig E, Steere AC. The immunoglobulin (IgG) antibody response to OspA and OspB correlates with severe and prolonged Lyme arthritis and the IgG response to P35 correlates with mild brief arthritis. Infect Immun 1999;67(1):173-81.
112. Guerra MA, Walker ED, Kitron U. Quantitative approach for the serodiagnosis of canine Lyme disease by the immunoblot procedure. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38(7):2628-32.
113. Magnarelli LA, Levy SA, Ijdo JW, Wu C, Padula SJ, Fikrig E. Reactivity of dog sera to whole-cell or recombinant antigens of Borrelia burgdorferi by ELISA and immunoblot analysis. J Med Microbiol 2001;50(10):889-95.
114. Kamradt T, Lengl-Janssen B, Strauss AF, Bansal G, Steere AC. Dominant recognition of a Borrelia burgdorferi outer surface protein A peptide by T helper cells in patients with treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis. Infect Immun 1996;64(4):1284-9.
115. Brunner M. New method for detection of Borrelia burgdorferi antigen complexed to antibody in seronegative Lyme disease. J Immunol Methods 2001;249:185-90.
116. Lawrenz MB, Hardham JM, Owens RT, Nowakowski J, Steere AC, Wormser GP, et al. Human antibody responses to VlsE antigenic variation protein of Borrelia burgdorferi. J Clin Microbiol 1999;37(12):3997-4004.
117. Levy S, O'Connor TP, Hanscom JL, Shields P. Utility of an in-office C6 ELISA test kit for determination of infection status of dogs naturally exposed to Borrelia burgdorferi. Vet Ther 2002;3(3):308-15.
118. Belanger M, Sorenson HL, France MK, Bowie MV, Barbet AF, Breitschwerdt EB, et al. Comparison of serological detection methods for diagnosis of Ehrlichia canis infections in dogs. J Clin Microbiol 2002;40(9):3506-8.
119. Krause PJ, Telford SR III, Speilman A, Sikand V, Ryan R, Christianson D, et al. Concurrent Lyme disease and babesiosis. Evidence for increased severity and duration of illness. JAMA 1996;275(21):1657-60.
120. Ijdo JW, Meek JI, Cartter ML, Magnarelli LA, Wu C, Tenuta SW, et al. The emergence of another tickborne infection in the 12-town area around Lyme, Connecticut: human granulocytic ehrlichiosis. J Infect Dis 2000;181:1388-93.
121. Greig B, Asanovich KM, Armstrong PJ, Dumler JS. Geographic, clinical, serologic, and molecular evidence of granulocytic ehrlichiosis, a likely zoonotic disease, in Minnesota and Wisconsin dogs. J Clin Microbiol 1996;34(1):44-8.
122. Hovius JWR, Hovius KE, Oei A, Houwers DJ, van Dam AP. Antibodies against specific proteins of and immobilizing activity against three strains of B burgdorferi sensu lato can be found in symptomatic but not in infected asymptomatic dogs. J Clin Microbiol 2000;38(7):2611-21.
123. Yu LP, Smith GN, Brandt KD, et al. Reduction of the severity of canine osteoarthritis by prophylactic treatment with oral doxycycline. Arthritis Rheum 1992;35(10): 1150-9.
124. Yu LP, Burr DB, Brandt KD, Oconnor BL, Rubinow A, Albrecht M. Effects of oral doxycycline administration on histomorphometry and dynamics of subchondral bone in a canine model of osteoarthritis. J Rheumatol 1996;23(1):137-42.
125. Fendler C, Laitko S, Sorensen H, Gripenberg-Lerche C, Groh A, Uksila J, et al. Frequency of triggering bacteria in patients with reactive arthritis and undifferentiated oligoarthritis and the relative importance of the tests used for diagnosis. Ann Rheum Dis 2001;60(4):337-43.
126. Klempner MS, Hu LT, Evans J, Schmid CH, Johnson GM, Trevino RP, et al. Two controlled trials of antibiotic treatment in patients with persistent symptoms and a history of Lyme disease. N Engl J Med 2001;345(2):85-92.
127. Elfassy OJ, Goodman FW, Levy SA, Carter LL. Efficacy of an amitraz-impregnated collar in preventing transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi by adult Ixodes scapularis to dogs. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001;219(2):185-9.
128. Nadelman RB, Nowakowski J, Fish D, Falco RC, Freeman K, McKenna D, et al. Prophylaxis with single-dose doxycycline for the prevention of Lyme disease after an Ixodes scapularis tick bite. N Engl J Med 2001;345(2):79-84.
129. Levy S. Use of a C6 ELISA test to evaluate the efficacy of a whole-cell bacterin for the prevention of naturally transmitted canine Borrelia burgdorferi infection. Vet Ther 2002;3(4):420-4.
130. Conlon JAR, Mather TN, Tanner P, Gallo G, Jacobson RH. Efficacy of a nonadjuvanted, outer surface protein A, recombinant vaccine in dogs after challenge with ticks naturally infected with Borrelia burgdorferi. Vet Ther 2000;1(2):96-107.
131. Klingborg DJ, Hustead DR, Curry-Galvin EA, Gumley NR, Henry SC, Bain FT, et al. AVMA Council on biologic and therapeutic agents' report on cat and dog vaccines. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002;221(10):1401-7.
132. Littman MP. Why I don't use Lyme disease vaccines. Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian 1997;19(11):1265-9.
133. Littman MP. Immune-mediated reactions against Lyme vaccines. In: Proc 18th Ann Vet Med Forum, ACVIM 2000:629-30.
134. Steere AC, Gross D, Meyer AL, Huber BT. Autoimmune mechanisms in antibiotic treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis. J Autoimm 2001;16:263-8.
135. Gross DM, Forsthuber T, Tary-Lehman M, Etling C, Ito K, Nagy ZA, et al. Identification of LFA-1 as a candidate auto-antigen in treatment-resistant Lyme arthritis. Science 1998;281:703-6.
136. Sigal LH, Williams S, Soltys B, Gupta R. H9724, a monoclonal antibody to Borrelia burgdorferi's flagellin, binds to heat shock protein 60 (HSP60) within live neuroblastoma cells: a potential role for HSP60 in peptide hormone signaling and in an autoimmune pathogenesis of the neuropathy of Lyme disease. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2001;21(5):477-95.