Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors in the cardiovascular system

British Journal of Pharmacology

Volumn 129, Issue 5, 2000, Pages 823-834

  Bishop Bailey, David ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT HEALTH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Angiogenesis; Atherosclerosis; Endothelial cells; Macrophage; PPAR; Vascular smooth muscle

Indexed keywords

ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; CLOFIBRATE; HORMONE RECEPTOR; ICOSANOID; LIPOXYGENASE; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR ACTIVATED RECEPTOR; PIOGLITAZONE; PIRINIXIC ACID; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; PROSTAGLANDIN; PROSTAGLANDIN SYNTHASE; RETINOID X RECEPTOR; ROSIGLITAZONE; STEROID RECEPTOR; TROGLITAZONE;

ADIPOCYTE; ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; CELL DIFFERENTIATION; ENDOTHELIUM CELL; ENERGY BALANCE; HUMAN; HUMAN CELL; INFLAMMATORY CELL; LIVER CELL; MACROPHAGE; MONOCYTE; OXIDATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TISSUE DISTRIBUTION; VASCULAR ENDOTHELIUM; VASCULAR SMOOTH MUSCLE;

EID: 0034057069     PISSN: 00071188     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/sj.bjp.0703149     Document Type: Review

References (102)

1. Auboeuf, D., Rieusset, J., Fajas, L., Vallier, P., Frering, V., Riou, J.P., Staels, B., Auwerx, J., Laville, M. & Vidal, H. (1997). Tissue distribution and quantification of the expression of mRNAs of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and liver X receptor-alpha in humans: no alteration in adipose tissue of obese and NIDDM patients. Diabetes, 46, 1319-1327.
2. Baker, C.S., Hall, R.J., Evans, T.J., Pomerance, A., MacLouf, J., Creminon, C., Yacoub, M.H. & Polak, J.M. (1999). Cyclooxygenase-2 is widely expressed in atherosclerotic lesions affecting native and transplanted human coronary arteries and colocalizes with inducible nitric oxide synthase and nitrotyrosine particularly in macrophages. Arteriscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 19, 646-655.
3. Benz, D.J., Mol, M., Ezaki, M., Mori-ito, N., Zelan, I., Miyanohara, A., Friedman, T., Parthasarathy, S., Steinberg, D. & Witztum, J.L. (1995). Enhanced levels of lipoperoxides in low density lipoprotein incubated with murine fibroblasts expressing high levels of human 15-lipoxygenase. J. Biol. Chem., 270, 5191-5197.
4. Berliner, J.A. & Heinecke, J.W. (1996). The role of oxidized lipoproteins in atherogenesis. Free Radical Biol. Med., 20, 707-727.
5. 2. J. Biol. Chem., 274, 17042-17048.
6. Bishop-Bailey, D., Hla, T. & Metchell, J.A. (1999). Cyclooxygenase-2 in vascular smooth muscle. Int. J. Mol. Med., 3, 41-48.
7. Bishop-Bailey, D., Larkin, S.W., Pepper, J.R. & Mitchell, J.A. (1998). Differential induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 human venous and arterial vascular smooth muscle cells: role of endogenous prostanoids. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 18, 1655-1661.
8. Bishop-Bailey, D., Pepper, J.R., Haddad, E-L., Newton, R., Larkin, S.W. & Mitchell, J.A. (1997). Induction of cyclo-oxygenase-2 in human saphenous vein and internal mammary artery. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 17, 1644-1648.
9. Bjorklund, S., Almouzni, G., Davidson, I., Nightingale, K.P. & Weiss, K. (1999). Global transcription regulators of eukaryotes. Cell, 96, 759-767.
10. Boehm, M., Zhang, L., Zhi, L., McClurg, M., Berger, E., Wagoner, M., Mais, D., Suto, C., Davies, J., Heyman, R. & Nadzan, A.M. (1995). Design and synthesis of potent retinoid X receptor selective ligands that induce apoptosis in leukemia cells. J. Med. Chem., 38, 3146-3155.
11. Braissant, O., Foufelle, F., Scotto, C., Dauca, M. & Wahli, W. (1996). Differential expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs): Tissue ditribution of PPARα, -β, and -γ in the adult rat. Endocrinology, 137, 354-366.
12. Brandt, J.M., Djouadi, F. & Kelly, D.P. (1998). Fatty acids activate transcription of the muscle arnitine palmitoyltransferase I gene in cardiac myocytes via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 23786-23792.
13. Breitbart, E., Sofer, Y., Shainberg, A. & Grossberg, S. (1996). Lipoxygenase activity in heart cells. FEBS Lett., 395, 148-152.
14. Brockman, J.A., Gupat, R.A. & Dubois, R.N. (1998). Activation of PPARγ leads to inhibition of anchorage-independent growth of human colorectal cancer cells. Gastroenterology, 115, 1049-1055.
15. Brun, R.P., Tontonoz, P., Forman, B.M., Ellis, R., Chen, J., Evans, R.M. & Spiegelman, B.M. (1996). Differential activation of adipogenesis by multiple PPAR isoforms. Genet, Dev., 10, 974-984.
16. Chambon, P. (1996). A decade of molecular biology of retinoic acid receptors. FASEB J., 10, 940-954.
17. Chinetti, G., Griglio, S., Antonucci, M., Torra, I.P., Delerive, P., Majd, Z., Fruchart, J-C., Chapman, J., Najib, J. & Staels, B. (1998). Activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α and γ induces apoptosis of human monocyte-derived macrophages. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 25573-25580.
18. Clark, R.B., Bishop-Bailey, D., Estrada-Hernandez, T., Hla, T., Puddington, L. & Padula, S.J. (1999). The nuclear receptor PPARγ and immunoregulation: PPARγ mediates inhibition of helper T cell responses. J. Immunol. In press.
19. Cyrus, T., Witztum, J.L., Rader, D.J., Tangirala, R., Fazio, S., Linton, M.F. & Funk, C. (1999). Disruption of the 12/15-lipoxygenase gene diminishes atherosclerosis in apo-E deficient mice. J. Clin. Invest., 103, 1597-1604.
20. Delerive, P., Martin-Nizard, F., Chinetti, G., Trottein, F., Fruchart, J.C., Najib, J., Duriez, P. & Staels, B. (1999). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor activators inhibit thrombin-induced endothelin-1 production in human vascular endothelial cells by inhibiting the activator protein-1 signalling pathway. Circ. Res., 85, 394-402.
21. Demetri, G.D., Fletcher, C.D.M., Mueller, E., Sarraf, P., Naujoks, R., Campbell, N., Spiegelman, B.M. & Singer S. (1999). Induction of solid tumour differentiation by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ ligand troglitizone in patients with liposarcoma. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 96, 3951-3956.
22. Devchand, P.R., Keller, H., Peters, J.M., Vazquez, M., Gonzalez, F.J. & Wahli, W. (1996). The PPARα-leukotriene B4 pathway to inflammation control. Nature, 384, 39-43.
23. Djouadi, F., Weinheimer C.J., Saffitz, J.E., Pitchford, C., Bastin, J., Gonzalez, F.J. & Kelly, D.P. (1998). A gender-related defect in lipid metabolism and glucose homeostasis in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α-deficient mice. J. Clin. Invest., 102, 1083-1091.
24. Drexler, H. & Hornig, B. (1999). Endothelial dysfunction in human disease. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol., 31, 51-60.
25. Dreyer, C., Krey, G., Keller H., Givel, F., Helftenbein, G. & Wahli, W. (1992). Control of the peroxisomal β-oxidation pathway by a novel family of nuclear hormone receptors. Cell, 68, 879-887.
26. Eguchi, Y., Eguichi, N., Oda, H., Seiki, K., Kijima, Y., Matsuura, Y., Urade, Y. & Hayaishi, O. (1997). Expression of lipocalin-type prostaglandin D synthase (β-trace) in human hearts and its accumulation in the coronary circulation of angina patients. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 94, 14689-14694.
27. Feinmark, S.J. & Cornicelli, J.A. (1997). Is there a role for 15-lipoxygenase in atherogenesis. Biochem. Pharmacol., 54, 953-959.
28. Folkman, J. (1995). Angiogenesis in cancer, vascular rheumatoid and other disease. Nature Med., 1, 27-31.
29. Forman, B.M., Chen, J. & Evans, R.M. (1997). Hypolipidemic drugs, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and eicosanoids are ligands for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and δ. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 94, 4312-4317.
30. 2 is a ligand for the adipocyte determination factor PPARγ. Cell, 83, 803-812.
31. Funk, C.D. (1996). The molecular biology of mammalian lipoxygenases and the quest for eicosanoid functions using lipoxygenase deficient mice. Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 1304, 65-84.
32. Glass, C.K. (1994). Differential recognition of target genes by nuclear receptor monomers, dimers, and heterodimers. Endocrinol. Rev., 15, 391-407.
33. Gottlicher, M., Widmark, E., Li, Q. & Gustafsson, J.A. (1992). Fatty acids activate a chimera of the clofibric acid-activated receptor and the glucocorticoid receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 89, 4653-4657.
34. Greene, M.E., Blumberg, B., McBride, O.W., Yi, H.F., Kronquist K., Kwan, K., Hsieh, L., Greene, G. & Nimer, S.D. (1995). Isolation of the human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ cDNA: expression in hematopoietic cells and chromosomal mapping. Gene Exp., 4, 281-299.
35. Hla, T. & Nielson, K. (1992). Human cyclooxygenase-2 cDNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 89, 7384-7388.
36. Huang, J.T., Welch, J.S., Ricote, M., Binder, C.J., Willson, T.M., Kelly, C., Witztum, J.L., Funk, C.D., Conrad, D. & Glass, C.K. (1999). Interleukin-4-dependent production of PPAR-γ ligands in macrophages by 12/15-lipoxygenase. Nature, 400, 378-382.
37. Inoue, I., Shino, K., Noji, S., Awata, T. & Katayama, S. (1998). Expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) in primary cultures of human vascular endothelial cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 246, 370-374.
38. Issemann, I. & Green, S. (1990). Activation of a member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily by peroxisome proliferators. Nature, 347, 645-650.
39. Jiang, C., Ting, A.T. & Seed, B. (1998). PPARγ agonists inhibit production of monocyte inflammatory cytokines. Nature, 391, 82-86.
40. Jow, L. & Mukherjee, R. (1995). The human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) subtype NUC1 represses the activation of hPPARα and thyroid hormone receptors. J. Biol. Chem., 270, 3836-3840.
41. Kim, J.B., Wright, H.M., Wright, M. & Spiegelman, B. (1998). ADD1/SREBP1 activates PPARγ through the production of endogenous ligand. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 95, 4333-4337.
42. Kliewer, S.A., Forman, B.M., Blumberg, B., Ong, E.S., Borgmeyer, U., Mangelsdorf, D.J., Umesono, K. & Evans, R.M. (1994). Differential expression and activation of a family of murine peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Proc. Nutl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 91, 7355-7359.
43. Kliewer, S.A., Lenhard, J.M., Willson, T.M., Patel, I., Morris, D.C. & Lehmann, J.M. (1995). A prostaglandin J metabolite binds peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ and promotes adipocyte differentiation. Cell, 83, 813-819.
44. Kliewer, S.A., Sundseth, S.S., Jones, S.A., Brown, P.J., Wisely, G.B., Koble, C.S., Devchand, P., Wahli, W., Willson, T.M., Lenhard, J.M. & Lehman, J.M. (1997). Fatty acids and eicosanoids regulate gene expression through direct interactions with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and γ. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 94, 4318-4323.
45. Kliewer, S.A., Umesono, K., Noonan, D.J., Heyman, R.A. & Evans, R.M. (1992). Convergence of 9-cis retinoic acid and peroxisome proliferator signalling pathways through heterodimer formation of their receptors. Nature, 358, 771-774.
46. Kubota, T., Koshizuka, K., Williamson, E.A., Asou, H., Said, J.W., Holden, S., Miyoshi, I. & Koeffler, H.P. (1998). Ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (troglitizone) has potent antitumour effect against human prostate cancer both in vitro and in vivo. Cancer Res., 58, 3344-3352.
47. Law, R.E., Meehan, W., Xi, X-P., Graf, K., Wuthrich, D.A., Coats, W., Faxon, D. & Hsueh, W.A. (1996). Troglitizone inhibits vascular smooth muscle cell growth and intimal hyperplasia. J. Clin. Invest., 98, 1897-1905.
48. Lehmann, J.M., Lenhard, J.M., Oliver, B.B., Ringold, G.M. & Kliewer, S.A. (1997). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and γ are activated by indomethacin and other nonsteriodal antiinflammatory drugs. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 3406-3410.
49. Loskutoff, D.J. & Samad, F. (1997). The adipocyte and hemostatic balance in obesity: studies of PAI-1. Arteriscler. Thromb, Vasc. Biol., 18, 1-6.
50. Ma, H., Sprecher, H.W. & Kolattukudy, P.E. (1998). Estrogen-induced production of a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) ligand in a PPARγ-expressing tissue. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 30131-30138.
51. Mallat, Z., Nakamura, T., Ohan, J., Leseche, G., Tedgui, A., Maclouf, J. & Murphy, R.C. (1999). The relationship of hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acids and F2-isoprostanes to plaque instability in human carotid atherosclerosis. J. Clin. Invest., 103, 421-427.
52. Mangelsdorf, D.J., Borgmeyer, U., Heyman, R.A., Zhou, J.Y., Ong, E.S., Oro, A.E., Kakizuka, A. & Evans, R.M. (1992). Characterisation of three RXR genes that mediate the action of 9-cis retinoic acid. Genes Dev., 6, 329-344.
53. Mangelsdorf, D.J. & Evans, R.M. (1995). The RXR heterodimers and orphan receptors. Cell, 83, 841-850.
54. Mangelsdorf, D.J., Ong, E.S., Dyck, J.A. & Evans, R.M. (1990). Nuclear receptor that identifies a novel retinoic acid response pathway. Nature, 345, 224-229.
55. Marx, N., Bourcier T., Sukhova, G.K., Libby, P. & Plutzky, J. (1999a). PPARγ activation in human endothelial cells increases plasminogen activator inhibitor type-1 expression. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., 19, 546-551.
56. Marx, N., Schonbeck, U., Lazar, M.A., Libby, P. & Plutzky, J. (1998a). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma activators inhibit gene expression and migration in human vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ. Res., 83, 1097-1103.
57. Marx, N., Sukhova, G.K., Collins, T., Libby, P. & Plutzky, J. (1999b). PPARα activators inhibit cytokine-induced vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 expression in human endothelial cells. Circulation, 99, 3125-3131.
58. Marx, N., Sukhova, G., Murphy, C., Libby, P. & Plutzky, J. (1998b). Macrophages in human atheroma contain PPARγ. Am. J. Pathol., 153, 17-23.
59. Mitchell, J.A., Akarasereenont, P., Thiemermann, C., Flower, R.J. & Vane, J.R. (1993). Selectivity of nonsteriodal antiinflammatory drugs as inhibitors of constitutive and inducible cyclooxygenase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 90, 11693-11697.
60. Mueller, E., Sarraf, P., Tontonoz, P., Evans, R.M., Martin, K.J., Zhang, M., Fletcher, C., Singer, S. & Spiegelman, B.M. (1998). Terminal differentiation of human breast cancer through PPARγ. Mol. Cell., 1, 465-470.
61. Mukherjee, R., Jow, L., Croston, G.E. & Paterniti, J.R. (1997). Identification, characterisation, and tissue distribution of human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) isoforms PPARγ2 versus PPARγ1 and activation with retinoid X receptor agonists and antagonists. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 8071-8076.
62. Nagy, L., Tontonoz, P., Alvarez, J.G.A., Chen, H. & Evans, R.M. (1998). Oxidised LDL regulates macrophage gene expression through ligand activation of PPARγ. Cell, 93, 229-240.
63. Narko, K., Ristimaki, A., MacPhee, M., Smith, E., Haudens-Child, C.C. & Hla, T. (1997). Tumorigenic transformation of immortalized ECV endothelial cells by cyclooxygenase-1 over-expression. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 21455-21460.
64. Newby, A.C. & Zaltsman, A.B. (1999). Fibrous cap formation or destruction - the critical importance of vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, migration, and matrix formation. Cardiovasc. Res., 41, 345-360.
65. Nolte, R.T., Wisely, G.B., Westin, S., Cobb, J.E., Lambert, M.H., Kurokawa, R., Rosenfeld, M.G., Willson, T.M., Glass, C.K. & Milburn, M. (1998). Ligand binding and co-activator assembly of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ. Nature, 395, 137-143.
66. O'Banion, M.K., Winn, V.D. & Young, D.A. (1992). cDNA cloning and functional activity of a glucocorticoid-regulated inflammatory cyclooxygenase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 89, 4888-4892.
67. Oberfield, J.L., Collins, J.L., Holmes, C.P., Goreham, D.M., Cooper, J.P., Cobb, J.E., Lenhard, J.M., Hull-Ryde, E.A., Mohr, C.P., Blanchard, S.G., Parks, D.J., Moore, L.B., Lehmann, J.M., Plunket, K., Miller, A.B., Milburn, M.V., Kliewer, S.A. & Willson, T.M. (1999). A peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ ligand inhibits adipocyte differentiation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 96, 6102-6106.
68. Reginato, M.J., Bailey, S.T., Krakow, S.L., Minami, C., Ishii, S., Tanaka, H. & Lazar, M.A. (1998a). A potent antidiabetic thiazoldinedione with unique peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ-activating properties. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 32679-32684.
69. Reginato, M.J., Krakow, S.L., Bailey, S.T. & Lazar, M.A. (1998b). Prostaglandins promote and block adipogenesis through opposing effects on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 1855-1858.
70. Ricote, M., Huang, J., Fajas, L., Li, A., Welch, J., Najib, J., Witztum, J.L., Auwerx, J., Palinski, W. & Glass, C.K. (1998b). Expression of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) in human atherosclerosis and regulation in macrophages by colony stimulating factors and oxidised low density lipoprotein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 95, 7614-7619.
71. Ricote, M., Li, A.C., Willson, T.M., Kelly, C.J. & Glass, C.K. (1998a). The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ is a negative regulator of macrophage activation. Nature, 391, 79-82.
72. Ristow, M., Muller-Wieland, D., Pfeiffer, A., Krone, W. & Kahn C.R. (1998). Obesity associated with a mutation in a genetic regulator of adipocyte differentiation. New. Eng. J. Med., 339, 953-959.
73. Ross, R. (1999). Atherosclerosis - an inflammatory disease. New Eng. J. Med., 340, 115-126.
74. Ruschitzka, F.T., Noll, G. & Luscher, T.F. (1997). The endothelium in coronary artery disease. Cardiology, 88, 3-19.
75. Sarraf, P., Mueller, E., Jones, D., King, F.J., Deangelo, D.J., Partridge, J.B., Holden, S.A., Chen, L.B., Singer, S., Fletcher, C. & Spiegelman, B.M. (1998). Differentiation and reversal of malignant changes in colon cancer through PPARγ. Nature Med., 4, 1046-1052.
76. Satoh, H., Tsukamoto, K., Hashimoto, Y., Hashimoto, N., Togo, M., Hara, M., Maekawa, H., Isoo, N., Kimura, S., Watanabe, T. (1999). Thiazoldinediones suppress endothelin-1 secretion from bovine endothelial cells: a new possible role for PPARγ on vascular endothelial function. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 254, 757-763.
77. Schmidt, A., Endo, N., Rutledge, S.J., Vogel, R., Shinar, D. & Rodan, G.A. (1992). Identification of a new member of the steroid hormone receptor superfamily that is activated by a peroxisome proliferator and fatty acids. Mol. Endocrinol., 6, 1634-1641.
78. Sher, T., Yi, H-F., McBride, O.W. & Gonzalez, F.J. (1993). cDNA cloning, chromosomal mapping, and functional characterisation of the human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor. Biochemistry, 32, 5598-5604.
79. Sigal, E., Laughton, C.W. & Mulkins, M.A. (1994). Oxidation, lipoxygenase, and atherogenesis. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 714, 211-224.
80. 2 synthase antigen in smooth muscle cells. J. Biol. Chem., 258, 4922-4926.
81. Smith, W.L., Marnett, L.J. & DeWitt, D.L. (1991). Prostaglandin and thromboxane biosynthesis. Phamac. Ther., 49, 153-179.
82. 2- currents and not endothelial nitric oxide production. Diabetes, 46, 659-664.
83. Spiegelman, B.M. (1998). PPARγ: Adipogenic regulator and thiazoldinedione receptor. Diabetes, 47, 507-514.
84. Spiegelman, B.M. & Flier, J.S. (1996). Adipogenesis and obesity: rounding out the big picture. Cell, 87, 377-389.
85. Staels, B., Dallongeville, J., Auwerx, J., Schoonjans, K., Leitersdorf, E. & Fruchart, J-C. (1998b). Mechanism of action of fibrates on lipid and lipoprotein metabolism. Circulation, 98, 2088-2093.
86. Staels, B., Koenig, W., Habib, A., Merval, R., Lebret, M., Torra, I.P., Delerive, P., Fabel, A., Chinetti, G., Fruchart, J-C., Najib, J., MacLouf, J. & Tedgui, A. (1998a). Activation of human aortic smooth muscle cells is inhibited by PPARα but not by PPARγ activators. Nature, 393, 790-793.
87. Steinberg, D. (1997). Low density lipoprotein oxidation and its pathobiological significance. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 20963-20966.
88. Tontonoz, P., Nagy, L., Alvarez, J.G.A., Thomazy, V.A. & Evans, R.M. (1998). PPARγ promotes monocyte/macrophage differentiation and uptake of oxidised LDL. Cell, 93, 241-252.
89. Torchia, J., Glass, C. & Rosenfeld, M.G. (1998). Co-activators and co-repressors in the integration of transcriptional responses. Curr. Opin. Cell Biol., 10, 373-383.
90. Tsujii, M., Kawano, S., Tsuji, S., Sawaoka, H., Hori, M. & Dubois, R.N. (1998). Cyclooxygenase regulates angiogenesis induced by colon cancer cells. Cell, 93, 705-716.
91. Tugwood, J.D., Issemann, I., Anderson, R.G., Bundell, K.R., McPheat, W.L. & Green S. (1992). The mouse peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor recognises a response element in the 5′ flanking sequence of the rat acyl CoA oxidase gene. EMBO J., 11, 433-439.
92. Uppenberg, J., Svensson, C., Jaki, M., Bertilsson, G., Jendeberg, L. & Berkenstam, A. (1998). Crystal structure of the ligand binding domain of the human nuclear receptor PPARγ. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 31108-31112.
93. Xin, X., Yang, S., Kowalski, J. & Gerritsen, M.E. (1999). Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ ligands are potent inhibitors of angiogenesis in vitro and in vivo. J. Biol. Chem., 274, 9116-9121.
94. Xu, H.E., Lambert, M.H., Montana, V.G., Parks, D.J., Blanchard, S.G., Brown, P.J., Sternbach, D.D., Lehmann, J., Wisely, G.B., Willson, T.M., Kliewer, S.A. & Milburn. (1999). Molecular recognition of fatty acids by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Mol. Cell, 3, 397-403.
95. Yla-Herttuala, S., Rosenfeld, M.E., Parthasarathy, S., Glass, C.K., Sigal, E., Witztum, J.L. & Steinberg, D. (1990). Co-localisation of 15-lipoxygenase mRNA and protein with epitopes of oxidised LDL in macrophage-rich areas of atherosclerotic lesions. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 87, 6959 -6963.
96. Yla-Herttuala, S., Rosenfeld, M.E., Parthasarathy, S., Sigal, E., Sarkioja, T., Witztum, J.L. & Steinberg, D. (1991). Gene expression in macrophage-rich human atherosclerotic lesions. 15-lipoxygenase and acetyl low density lipoprotein receptor messenger RNA colocalize with oxidation specific-lipid protein aducts. J. Clin. Invest., 87, 1146-1152.
97. Yu, G.S., Lu, Y.C. & Gulick, T. (1998). Co-regulation of tissue specific alternative human carnitine palmitoyltransferase Iβ gene promoters by fatty acid enzyme substrate. J. Biol. Chem., 273, 32901-32909.
98. Yu, K., Bayona, W., Kallen, C.B., Harding, H.P., Ravera, C.P., McMahon, G., Brown, M. & Lazar, M. (1995). Differential activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors by eicosanoids. J. Biol. Chem., 270, 23975-23983.
99. Zhang, F., Sowers, R.J., Ram, J.L., Standley, P.R. & Peuler, J.D. (1994). Effects of pioglitazone on calcium channels in vascular smooth muscle. Hypertension, 24, 170-175.
100. Zhu, Y., Alvares, K., Huang, Q., Rao, M.S. & Reddy, J.K. (1993). Cloning of a new member of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gene family from mouse liver. J. Biol. Chem., 268, 26817-26820.
101. Zhu, Y., Qi, C., Calandra, C, Rao, M.S. & Reddy, J.K. (1996). Cloning and identification of mouse steriod receptor co-activator-1 (mSRC-1), as a co-activator or peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ. Gene Exp., 6, 185-195.
102. Zhu, Y., Qi, C., Jain, S., Rao, M.S. & Reddy, J.K. (1997). Isolation and characterisation of PBP, a protein that interacts with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 25500-25506.