High-protein diets: Potential effects on the kidney in renal health and disease

American Journal of Kidney Diseases

Volumn 44, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 950-962

  Friedman, Allon N ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Atkins; Diet; glomerular filtration rate (GFR); high protein (HP); low carbohydrate; proteinuria; weight loss

Indexed keywords

ACID BASE BALANCE; BLOOD PRESSURE MEASUREMENT; CARBOHYDRATE INTAKE; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; FLUID INTAKE; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; GOUT; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERURICEMIA; KETOACIDOSIS; KIDNEY BLOOD FLOW; KIDNEY FUNCTION; MICROALBUMINURIA; NEPHROLITHIASIS; NUTRITIONAL SUPPORT; PROTEIN DIET; PROTEINURIA; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; URINARY EXCRETION; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

ANIMALS; DIET, PROTEIN-RESTRICTED; HUMANS; KIDNEY; KIDNEY DISEASES;

EID: 9344219896     PISSN: 02726386     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1053/j.ajkd.2004.08.020     Document Type: Review

References (144)

1. W.M. Bortz, A. Wroldson, P. Morris, B. Issekutz Jr Fat, carbohydrate, salt, and weight loss Am J Clin Nutr 20 1967 1104 1112
2. K.M. Flegal, M.D. Carroll, C.L. Ogden, C.L. Johnson Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2000 JAMA 288 2002 1723 1727
3. M.K. Serdula, A.H. Mokdad, D.F. Williamson, D.A. Galuska, J.M. Mendlein, G.W. Heath Prevalence of attempting weight loss and strategies for controlling weight JAMA 282 1999 1353 1358
4. A critique of low-carbohydrate ketogenic weight reduction regimens. A review of Dr. Atkins' diet revolution JAMA 224 1973 1415 1419
5. R. Atkins Dr Atkins' New Diet Revolution 1999 Avon New York, NY
6. B. Sears The Zone 1995 Harper Collins New York, NY
7. M. Eades, M. Eades Protein Power 1996 Bantam New York, NY
8. A. Agatston The South Beach Diet 2003 Rodale Emmaus, PA 368
9. H. Steward, M. Bethea, S Andrews Sugar Busters! 1998 Ballantine New York, NY
10. I. Stillman, S. Baker The Doctors' Quick Weight Loss Diet 1967 Dell New York, NY
11. J. Coresh, B.C. Astor, T. Greene, G. Eknoyan, A.S. Levey Prevalence of chronic kidney disease and decreased kidney function in the adult US population Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Am J Kidney Dis 41 2003 1 12
12. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids 2002 Institute of Medicine Washington, DC S16
13. E. Smit, F.J. Nieto, C.J. Crespo, P. Mitchell Estimates of animal and plant protein intake in US adults Results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1991 J Am Diet Assoc 99 1999 813 820
14. J.D. Wright, J. Kennedy-Stephanson, C.Y. Wang, M.A. McDowell, C.I. Johnson Trends in intake of energy and macronutrients--United States, 1971-2000 MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 53 2004 80 82
15. S.T. St Jeor, B.V. Howard, T.E. Prewitt, V. Bovee, T. Bazzarre, R.H. Eckel Dietary protein and weight reduction A statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee of the Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism of the American Heart Association Circulation 104 2001 1869 1874
16. J. Eisenstein, S.B. Roberts, G. Dallal, E. Saltzman High-protein weight-loss diets: Are they safe and do they work? A review of the experimental and epidemiologic data Nutr Rev 60 2002 189 200
17. N.D. Luscombe, P.M. Clifton, M. Noakes, E. Farnsworth, G. Wittert Effect of a high-protein, energy-restricted diet on weight loss and energy expenditure after weight stabilization in hyperinsulinemic subjects Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27 2003 582 590
18. D.M. Bravata, L. Sanders, J. Huang, H.M. Krumholz, I. Olkin, C.D. Gardner Efficacy and safety of low-carbohydrate diets A systematic review JAMA 289 2003 1837 1850
19. A.R. Skov, S. Toubro, B. Ronn, L. Holm, A. Astrup Randomized trial on protein vs carbohydrate in ad libitum fat reduced diet for the treatment of obesity Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23 1999 528 536
20. B.J. Brehm, R.J. Seeley, S.R. Daniels, D.A. D'Alessio A randomized trial comparing a very low carbohydrate diet and a calorie-restricted low fat diet on body weight and cardiovascular risk factors in healthy women J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 2003 1617 1623
21. F.F. Samaha, N. Iqbal, P Seshadri A low-carbohydrate as compared with a low-fat diet in severe obesity N Engl J Med 348 2003 2074 2081
22. L. Stern, N. Iqbal, P Seshadri The effects of low-carbohydrate versus conventional weight loss diets in severely obese adults One-year follow-up of a randomized trial Ann Intern Med 140 2004 778 785
23. G.D. Foster, H.R. Wyatt, J.O Hill A randomized trial of a low-carbohydrate diet for obesity N Engl J Med 348 2003 2082 2090
24. B.L. Kasiske, M.P. Cleary, M.P. O'Donnell, W.F. Keane Effects of carbohydrate restriction on renal injury in the obese Zucker rat Am J Clin Nutr 44 1986 56 65
25. F.K. Alavi, E.T. Zawada, J.L. Simmons Renal hemodynamic and histological consequences of diets high in unsaturated fat, protein or sucrose in obese Zucker rats Clin Nephrol 43 1995 122 130
26. R. Pitts The effects of infusing glycin and of varying the dietary protein intake on renal hemodynamics in the dog Am J Physiol 142 1944 355 365
27. B.M. Brenner, T.W. Meyer, T.H. Hostetter Dietary protein intake and the progressive nature of kidney disease The role of hemodynamically mediated glomerular injury in the pathogenesis of progressive glomerular sclerosis in aging, renal ablation, and intrinsic renal disease N Engl J Med 307 1982 652 659
28. P. Kontessis, S. Jones, R Dodds Renal, metabolic and hormonal responses to ingestion of animal and vegetable proteins Kidney Int 38 1990 136 144
29. P. Castellino, R.A. DeFronzo Effect of plasma amino acid and hormone concentrations on renal plasma flow and glomerular filtration rate Blood Purif 6 1988 240 249
30. A.J. Premen Nature of the renal hemodynamic action of amino acids in dogs Am J Physiol 256 1989 F516 F523
31. H. Graf, H.K. Stummvoll, A. Luger, R. Prager Effect of amino acid infusion on glomerular filtration rate N Engl J Med 308 1983 159 160
32. A.Y. Chan, M.L. Cheng, L.C. Keil, B.D. Myers Functional response of healthy and diseased glomeruli to a large, protein-rich meal J Clin Invest 81 1988 245 254
33. W.J. O'Connor, R.A. Summerill The effect of a meal of meat on glomerular filtration rate in dogs at normal urine flows J Physiol 256 1976 81 91
34. K. Solling, C.K. Christensen, J. Solling, J.S. Christiansen, C.E. Mogensen Effect on renal haemodynamics, glomerular filtration rate and albumin excretion of high oral protein load Scand J Clin Lab Invest 46 1986 351 357
35. J.P. Bosch, A. Saccaggi, A. Lauer, C. Ronco, M. Belledonne, S. Glabman Renal functional reserve in humans. Effect of protein intake on glomerular filtration rate Am J Med 75 1983 943 950
36. E. Brandle, H.G. Sieberth, R.E. Hautmann Effect of chronic dietary protein intake on the renal function in healthy subjects Eur J Clin Nutr 50 1996 734 740
37. T. Pullman, A. Alving, R. Dern, M. Landowne The influence of dietary protein intake on specific renal functions in normal man J Lab Clin Med 44 1954 320 332
38. E. Brandle, A. Hesse Influence of oral protein intake on the calcium excretion and the glomerular filtration rate Urol Res 21 1993 153A (abstr)
39. J. Bergstrom, M. Ahlberg, A. Alvestrand Influence of protein intake on renal hemodynamics and plasma hormone concentrations in normal subjects Acta Med Scand 217 1985 189 196
40. G. Viberti, E. Bognetti, M.J. Wiseman, R. Dodds, J.L. Gross, H. Keen Effect of protein-restricted diet on renal response to a meat meal in humans Am J Physiol 253 1987 F388 F393
41. A.R. Skov, S. Toubro, J. Bulow, K. Krabbe, H.H. Parving, A. Astrup Changes in renal function during weight loss induced by high vs low-protein low-fat diets in overweight subjects Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23 1999 1170 1177
42. E. MacKay, L. MacKay, T. Addis Factors which determine renal weight. V. The protein intake Am J Physiol 86 1928 459 470
43. K.A. Hammond, D.N. Janes The effects of increased protein intake on kidney size and function J Exp Biol 201 1998 2081 2090
44. J.F. Wetzels, A.J. Hoitsma, J.H. Berden, R.A. Koene Renal hemodynamic effects of a short-term high protein and low protein diet in patients with renal disease Clin Nephrol 30 1988 42 47
45. I. Ichikawa, M.L. Purkerson, S. Klahr, J.L. Troy, M. Martinez-Maldonado, B.M. Brenner Mechanism of reduced glomerular filtration rate in chronic malnutrition J Clin Invest 65 1980 982 988
46. G. Arroyave, D. Wilson, M. Behar, N. Scrimshaw Serum and urinary creatinine in children with severe protein malnutrition Am J Clin Nutr 9 1961 176 179
47. B. Rodriguez-Iturbe, J. Herrera, R. Garcia Relationship between glomerular filtration rate and renal blood flow at different levels of protein-induced hyperfiltration in man Clin Sci (Colch) 74 1988 11 15
48. M. Giordano, P. Castellino, E.L. McConnell, R.A. DeFronzo Effect of amino acid infusion on renal hemodynamics in humans A dose-response study Am J Physiol 267 1994 F703 F708
49. M.J. Wiseman, R. Hunt, A. Goodwin, J.L. Gross, H. Keen, G.C. Viberti Dietary composition and renal function in healthy subjects Nephron 46 1987 37 42
50. H.J. Bilo, G.H. Schaap, E. Blaak, R.O. Gans, P.L. Oe, A.J. Donker Effects of chronic and acute protein administration on renal function in patients with chronic renal insufficiency Nephron 53 1989 181 187
51. A. Goldberg, K. Guggenheim The digestive release of amino acids and their concentrations in the portal plasma of rats after protein feeding Biochem J 83 1962 129 135
52. A. Claris-Appiani, B.M. Assael, A.S. Tirelli, G. Marra, G. Cavanna Lack of glomerular hemodynamic stimulation after infusion of branched-chain amino acids Kidney Int 33 1988 91 94
53. K.E. Lee, R.A. Summerill Glomerular filtration rate following administration of individual amino acids in conscious dogs Q J Exp Physiol 67 1982 459 465
54. F.D. Seney Jr, E.G. Persson, F.S. Wright Modification of tubuloglomerular feedback signal by dietary protein Am J Physiol 252 1987 F83 F90
55. L.L. Woods Mechanisms of renal hemodynamic regulation in response to protein feeding Kidney Int 44 1993 659 675
56. M. Lacroix, C. Gaudichon, A Martin A long-term high-protein diet markedly reduces adipose tissue without major side-effects in Wistar male rats Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 287 2004 934 942
57. E.L. Knight, M.J. Stampfer, S.E. Hankinson, D. Spiegelman, G.C. Curhan The impact of protein intake on renal function decline in women with normal renal function or mild renal insufficiency Ann Intern Med 138 2003 460 467
58. A. Chagnac, T. Weinstein, A. Korzets, E. Ramadan, J. Hirsch, U. Gafter Glomerular hemodynamics in severe obesity Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 278 2000 F817 F822
59. A. Chagnac, T. Weinstein, M. Herman, J. Hirsh, U. Gafter, Y. Ori The effects of weight loss on renal function in patients with severe obesity J Am Soc Nephrol 14 2003 1480 1486
60. J. Ribstein, G. du Cailar, A. Mimran Combined renal effects of overweight and hypertension Hypertension 26 1995 610 615
61. J. Brochner-Mortensen, H. Rickers, I. Balslev Renal function and body composition before and after intestinal bypass operation in obese patients Scand J Clin Lab Invest 40 1980 695 702
62. J.R. Henegar, S.A. Bigler, L.K. Henegar, S.C. Tyagi, J.E. Hall Functional and structural changes in the kidney in the early stages of obesity J Am Soc Nephrol 12 2001 1211 1217
63. G.H. Schaap, H.J. Bilo, T.H. Alferink, P.L. Oe, A.J. Donker The effect of a high protein intake on renal function of patients with chronic renal insufficiency Nephron 47 1987 1 6
64. S. Klahr, A.S. Levey, G.J Beck Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group The effects of dietary protein restriction and blood-pressure control on the progression of chronic renal disease N Engl J Med 330 1994 877 884
65. W.E. Mitch, M. Walser, T.I. Steinman, S. Hill, S. Zeger, K. Tungsanga The effect of a keto acid-amino acid supplement to a restricted diet on the progression of chronic renal failure N Engl J Med 311 1984 623 629
66. B.U. Ihle, G.J. Becker, J.A. Whitworth, R.A. Charlwood, P.S. Kincaid-Smith The effect of protein restriction on the progression of renal insufficiency N Engl J Med 321 1989 1773 1777
67. F. Locatelli, D. Alberti, G. Graziani, G. Buccianti, B. Redaelli, A. Giangrande Northern Italian Cooperative Study Group Prospective, randomised, multicentre trial of effect of protein restriction on progression of chronic renal insufficiency Lancet 337 1991 1299 1304
68. M.T. Pedrini, A.S. Levey, J. Lau, T.C. Chalmers, P.H. Wang The effect of dietary protein restriction on the progression of diabetic and nondiabetic renal diseases A meta-analysis Ann Intern Med 124 1996 627 632
69. B.L. Kasiske, J.D. Lakatua, J.Z. Ma, T.A. Louis A meta-analysis of the effects of dietary protein restriction on the rate of decline in renal function Am J Kidney Dis 31 1998 954 961
70. National Kidney Foundation K/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Chronic Kidney Disease Evaluation, Classification, and Stratification Am J Kidney Dis 39 suppl 1 2002 S1 S266
71. H.C. Gerstein, J.F. Mann, Q Yi Albuminuria and risk of cardiovascular events, death, and heart failure in diabetic and nondiabetic individuals JAMA 286 2001 421 426
72. H.L. Hillege, V. Fidler, G.F Diercks Urinary albumin excretion predicts cardiovascular and noncardiovascular mortality in general population Circulation 106 2002 1777 1782
73. M.F. Yuyun, K.T. Khaw, R Luben A prospective study of microalbuminuria and incident coronary heart disease and its prognostic significance in a British population The EPIC-Norfolk Study Am J Epidemiol 159 2004 284 293
74. E.K. Hoogeveen, P.J. Kostense, A Jager Serum homocysteine level and protein intake are related to risk of microalbuminuria The Hoorn Study Kidney Int 54 1998 203 209
75. E.M. Wrone, M.R. Carnethon, L. Palaniappan, S.P. Fortmann Association of dietary protein intake and microalbuminuria in healthy adults Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Am J Kidney Dis 41 2003 580 587
76. P.A. Metcalf, J.R. Baker, R.K. Scragg, E. Dryson, A.J. Scott, C.J. Wild Dietary nutrient intakes and slight albuminuria in people at least 40 years old Clin Chem 39 1993 2191 2198
77. E.C. Westman, W.S. Yancy, J.S. Edman, K.F. Tomlin, C.E. Perkins Effect of 6-month adherence to a very low carbohydrate diet program Am J Med 113 2002 30 36
78. M.D. Riley, T. Dwyer Microalbuminuria is positively associated with usual dietary saturated fat intake and negatively associated with usual dietary protein intake in people with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus Am J Clin Nutr 67 1998 50 57
79. W.J. Kalk, C. Osler, J. Constable, M. Kruger, V. Panz Influence of dietary protein on glomerular filtration and urinary albumin excretion in insulin-dependent diabetes Am J Clin Nutr 56 1992 169 173
80. M. Toeller, A. Buyken, G. Heitkamp Protein intake and urinary albumin excretion rates in the EURODIAB IDDM Complications Study Diabetologia 40 1997 1219 1226
81. A. Amore, R. Coppo, D. Roccatello Single kidney function Effect of acute protein and water loading on microalbuminuria Am J Med 84 1985 711 716
82. R. Coppo, A. Amore, D. Roccatello Microalbuminuria in single kidney patients Relationship with protein intake Clin Nephrol 29 1988 219 228
83. G.A. Kaysen, J. Gambertoglio, I. Jimenez, H. Jones, F.N. Hutchison Effect of dietary protein intake on albumin homeostasis in nephrotic patients Kidney Int 29 1986 572 577
84. A. Mimran, J. Ribstein, G. DuCailar, J.M. Halimi Albuminuria in normals and essential hypertension J Diabetes Complications 8 1994 150 156
85. P. Valensi, M. Assayag, M. Busby, J. Paries, B. Lormeau, J.R. Attali Microalbuminuria in obese patients with or without hypertension Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 20 1996 574 579
86. S.B. Solerte, M. Rondanelli, R. Giacchero Serum glucagon concentration and hyperinsulinaemia influence renal haemodynamics and urinary protein loss in normotensive patients with central obesity Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 23 1999 997 1003
87. R. Scaglione, A. Ganguzza, S. Corrao Central obesity and hypertension Pathophysiologic role of renal haemodynamics and function Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 19 1995 403 409
88. L.M. Russo, G.L. Bakris, W.D. Comper Renal handling of albumin A critical review of basic concepts and perspective Am J Kidney Dis 39 2002 899 919
89. J. DeHaven, R. Sherwin, R. Hendler, P. Felig Nitrogen and sodium balance and sympathetic-nervous-system activity in obese subjects treated with a low-calorie protein or mixed diet N Engl J Med 302 1980 477 482
90. G. Azar, W. Bloom Similarities of carbohydrate deficiency and fasting. II. Ketones, nonesterified fatty acids, and nitrogen excretion Arch Intern Med 112 1963 338 343
91. F. Benoit, R. Martin, R. Watten Changes in body composition during weight reduction in obesity Ann Intern Med 63 1965 604 612
92. M. Yang, T.V. Itallie Composition of weight lost during short-term weight reduction J Clin Invest 58 1976 722 730
93. T. Pilkington, H. Gainsborough, C. Rosenoer, M. Carey Diet and weight-reduction in the obese Lancet 16 1960 856 858
94. W.S. Yancy Jr, M.K. Olsen, J.R. Guyton, R.P. Bakst, E.C. Westman A low-carbohydrate, ketogenic diet versus a low-fat diet to treat obesity and hyperlipidemia A randomized, controlled trial Ann Intern Med 140 2004 769 777
95. W. Bloom, G. Azar Similarities of carbohydrate deficiency and fasting. I. Weight loss, electrolyte excretion, and fatigue Arch Intern Med 112 1963 333 337
96. M. Sigler The mechanism of the natriuresis in fasting J Clin Invest 55 1975 377 387
97. W. Bloom Inhibition of salt excretion by carbohydrate Arch Intern Med 109 1962 25 32
98. M. Apfelbaum, F. Baigts, I. Giachetti, P. Serog Effects of a high protein very-low-energy diet on ambulatory subjects with special reference to nitrogen balance Int J Obes 5 1981 117 130
99. S.T. Reddy, C.Y. Wang, K. Sakhaee, L. Brinkley, C.Y. Pak Effect of low-carbohydrate high-protein diets on acid-base balance, stone-forming propensity, and calcium metabolism Am J Kidney Dis 40 2002 265 274
100. D. Ball, R.J. Maughan Blood and urine acid-base status of premenopausal omnivorous and vegetarian women Br J Nutr 78 1997 683 693
101. P.L. Greenhaff, M. Gleeson, R.J. Maughan Diet-induced metabolic acidosis and the performance of high intensity exercise in man Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 57 1988 583 590
102. N. Levinsky, R. Berliner The role of urea in the urine concentrating mechanism J Clin Invest 38 1959 741 748
103. F.C. Luft, N.S. Fineberg, R.S. Sloan, J.N. Hunt The effect of dietary sodium and protein on urine volume and water intake J Lab Clin Med 101 1983 605 610
104. L.J. Appel, T.J. Moore, E. Obarzanek DASH Collaborative Research Group A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure N Engl J Med 336 1997 1117 1124
105. F.M. Sacks, L.P. Svetkey, W.M. Vollmer DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet N Engl J Med 344 2001 3 10
106. E. Reisin, R. Abel, M. Modan, D.S. Silverberg, H.E. Eliahou, B. Modan Effect of weight loss without salt restriction on the reduction of blood pressure in overweight hypertensive patients N Engl J Med 298 1978 1 6
107. US Renal Data System USRDS 2003 Annual Data Report 2004 The National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Bethesda, MD
108. J. Amanzadeh, W.L. Gitomer, J.E. Zerwekh Effect of high protein diet on stone-forming propensity and bone loss in rats Kidney Int 64 2003 2142 2149
109. L.H. Allen, E.A. Oddoye, S. Margen Protein-induced hypercalciuria A longer term study Am J Clin Nutr 32 1979 741 749
110. M.B. Zemel, S.A. Schuette, M. Hegsted, H.M. Linkswiler Role of the sulfur-containing amino acids in protein-induced hypercalciuria in men J Nutr 111 1981 545 552
111. D.J. Kok, J.A. Iestra, C.J. Doorenbos, S.E. Papapoulos The effects of dietary excesses in animal protein and in sodium on the composition and the crystallization kinetics of calcium oxalate monohydrate in urines of healthy men J Clin Endocrinol Metab 71 1990 861 867
112. N.A. Breslau, L. Brinkley, K.D. Hill, C.Y. Pak Relationship of animal protein-rich diet to kidney stone formation and calcium metabolism J Clin Endocrinol Metab 66 1988 140 146
113. M. Hegsted, H.M. Linkswiler Long-term effects of level of protein intake on calcium metabolism in young adult women J Nutr 111 1981 244 251
114. M. Hegsted, S.A. Schuette, M.B. Zemel, H.M. Linkswiler Urinary calcium and calcium balance in young men as affected by level of protein and phosphorus intake J Nutr 111 1981 553 562
115. J. Lemann Jr, R.W. Gray, W.J. Maierhofer, H.S. Cheung The importance of renal net acid excretion as a determinant of fasting urinary calcium excretion Kidney Int 29 1986 743 746
116. R.A. Sutton, N.L. Wong, J.H. Dirks Effects of metabolic acidosis and alkalosis on sodium and calcium transport in the dog kidney Kidney Int 15 1979 520 533
117. M.D. Stonard, D.M. Samuels, E.A. Lock The pathogenesis and effect on renal function of nephrocalcinosis induced by different diets in female rats Food Chem Toxicol 22 1984 139 146
118. R.A. Hiatt, B. Ettinger, B. Caan, C.P. Quesenberry Jr, D. Duncan, J.T. Citron Randomized controlled trial of a low animal protein, high fiber diet in the prevention of recurrent calcium oxalate kidney stones Am J Epidemiol 144 1996 25 33
119. L. Borghi, T. Schianchi, T. Meschi Comparison of two diets for the prevention of recurrent stones in idiopathic hypercalciuria N Engl J Med 346 2002 77 84
120. G.C. Curhan, W.C. Willett, E.B. Rimm, M.J. Stampfer A prospective study of dietary calcium and other nutrients and the risk of symptomatic kidney stones N Engl J Med 328 1993 833 838
121. G.C. Curhan, W.C. Willett, E.L. Knight, M.J. Stampfer Dietary factors and the risk of incident kidney stones in younger women Nurses' Health Study II Arch Intern Med 164 2004 885 891
122. S.A. New, S.P. Robins, M.K. Campbell Dietary influences on bone mass and bone metabolism Further evidence of a positive link between fruit and vegetable consumption and bone health? Am J Clin Nutr 71 2000 142 151
123. J.E. Kerstetter, M.E. Mitnick, C.M. Gundberg Changes in bone turnover in young women consuming different levels of dietary protein J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84 1999 1052 1055
124. D. Feskanich, W.C. Willett, M.J. Stampfer, G.A. Colditz Protein consumption and bone fractures in women Am J Epidemiol 143 1996 472 479
125. J. Bowen, M. Noakes, P.M. Clifton A high dairy protein, high-calcium diet minimizes bone turnover in overweight adults during weight loss J Nutr 134 2004 568 573
126. F. Ginty Dietary protein and bone health Proc Nutr Soc 62 2003 867 876
127. R.G. Munger, J.R. Cerhan, B.C. Chiu Prospective study of dietary protein intake and risk of hip fracture in postmenopausal women Am J Clin Nutr 69 1999 147 152
128. P.H. Lin, F. Ginty, L.J. Appel The DASH diet and sodium reduction improve markers of bone turnover and calcium metabolism in adults J Nutr 133 2003 3130 3136
129. G. Gambaro, S. Favaro, A. D'Angelo Risk for renal failure in nephrolithiasis Am J Kidney Dis 37 2001 233 243
130. L.F. Fried, T.J. Orchard, B.L. Kasiske Effect of lipid reduction on the progression of renal disease A meta-analysis Kidney Int 59 2001 260 269
131. W.F. Keane, B.L. Kasiske, M.P. O'Donnell Hyperlipidemia and the progression of renal disease Am J Clin Nutr 47 1988 157 160
132. J.H. Talbott, K.L. Terplan The kidney in gout Medicine (Baltimore) 39 1960 405 467
133. R.J. Johnson, S.D. Kivlighn, Y.G. Kim, S. Suga, A.B. Fogo Reappraisal of the pathogenesis and consequences of hyperuricemia in hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and renal disease Am J Kidney Dis 33 1999 225 234
134. H.K. Choi, K. Atkinson, E.W. Karlson, W. Willett, G. Curhan Purine-rich foods, dairy and protein intake, and the risk of gout in men N Engl J Med 350 2004 1093 1103
135. J. Selhub, J.W. Miller The pathogenesis of homocysteinemia Interruption of the coordinate regulation by S-adenosylmethionine of the remethylation and transsulfuration of homocysteine Am J Clin Nutr 55 1992 131 138
136. P.F. Jacques, A.G. Bostom, P.W. Wilson, S. Rich, I.H. Rosenberg, J. Selhub Determinants of plasma total homocysteine concentration in the Framingham offspring cohort Am J Clin Nutr 73 2001 613 621
137. M. Ward, H. McNulty, K. Pentieva Fluctuations in dietary methionine intake do not alter plasma homocysteine concentration in healthy men J Nutr 130 2000 2653 2657
138. N. Haulrik, S. Toubro, J. Dyerberg, S. Stender, A.R. Skov, A. Astrup Effect of protein and methionine intakes on plasma homocysteine concentrations A 6-mo randomized controlled trial in overweight subjects Am J Clin Nutr 76 2002 1202 1206
139. R.Z. Stolzenberg-Solomon, E.R. Miller III, M.G. Maguire, J. Selhub, L.J. Appel Association of dietary protein intake and coffee consumption with serum homocysteine concentrations in an older population Am J Clin Nutr 69 1999 467 475
140. A.N. Friedman, A.G. Bostom, J. Selhub, A.S. Levey, I.H. Rosenberg The kidney and homocysteine metabolism J Am Soc Nephrol 12 2001 2181 2189
141. M. Arnadottir, B. Hultberg, P. Nilsson-Ehle, H. Thysell The effect of reduced glomerular filtration rate on plasma total homocysteine concentration Scand J Clin Lab Invest 56 1996 41 46
142. D.A. de Luis, N. Fernandez, R. Aller, J. De Luis, M. Arranz, O. Izaola Relation between total homocysteine levels and beer intake in patients with diabetes mellitus type 2 Ann Nutr Metab 47 2003 119 123
143. R. Kark, R. Johnson, J. Lewis Defects of pemmican as an emergency ration for infantry troops War Med 7 1945 345 352
144. S. Giovannetti, Q. Maggiore A low-nitrogen diet with proteins of high biological value for severe chronic uraemia Lancet 37 1964 1000 1003