Novel Approaches to Medical Protection against Chemical Warfare Nerve Agents

Chemical Warfare Agents: Chemistry, Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutics

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 145-174

  Saxena, Ashima ^a   Luo, Chunyuan ^a   Chilukuri, Nageswararao ^a   Maxwell, Donald M ^b   Doctor, Bhupendra P ^a  

^a WALTER REED ARMY INSTITUTE OF RESEARCH   (United States)

^b US ARMY MEDICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF CHEMICAL DEFENSE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85152820187     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1201/9781420046625-13     Document Type: Chapter

References (168)

1. Aas, P. Future considerations for the medical management of nerve-agent intoxication, Prehospital Disaster Med., 18, 208, 2003.
2. Aharoni, A. et al. Directed evolution of mammalian paraoxonases PON1 and PON3 for bacterial expression and catalytic specialization, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 101, 482, 2004.
3. Ahmed, Z.et al. Apolipoprotein A-1 promotes the formation of phosphatidylcholine core aldehydes that are hydrolyzed by paraoxonase (PON-1) during high density lipoprotein oxidation with a peroxynitrite donor, J. Biol. Chem., 276, 24473, 2001.
4. Albuquerque, E.X.et al. Effective countermeasure against poisoning by organophosphorus insecticides and nerve agents, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 103, 13220, 2006.
5. Allon, N.et al. Prophylaxis against soman inhalation toxicity in guinea pigs by pretreatment alone with human serum butyrylcholinesterase, Toxicol. Sci., 43, 121, 1998.
6. Altamirano, C.V. and Lockridge, O. Conserved aromatic residues of the C-terminus of butyrylcholinesterase mediates the association of tetramers, Biochemistry, 38, 13414, 1999.
7. Amitai, G. et al. Enhanced stereoselective hydrolysis of toxic organophosphates by directly evolved variants of mammalian paraoxonase. FEBS J., 273, 1906, 2006.
8. Anderson, D.R.et al. Effects of subacute pretreatment with carbamate together with adjunct pretreatment against nerve agent exposure, Drug Chem. Toxicol., 14, 1, 1991.
9. Ashani, Y. Prospective of human butyrylcholinesterase as a detoxifying antidote and potential regulator of controlled-release drugs, Drug Dev. Res., 50, 298, 2000.
10. Ashani, Y. and Pistinner, S. Estimation of the upper limit of human butyrylcholinesterase dose required for protection against organophosphates toxicity: a mathematically based toxicokinetic model, Toxicol. Sci., 77, 358, 2004.
11. Ashani, Y.et al. Prophylaxis against organophosphate poisoning by an enzyme hydrolyzing organophosphorus compounds in mice, Life Sci., 49, 367, 1991a.
12. Ashani, Y.et al. Butyrylcholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase prophylaxis against soman poisoning in mice, Biochem. Pharmacol., 41, 37, 1991b.
13. Ashani, Y.et al. Amino acid residues controlling reactivation of organophosphonyl conjugates of acetylcholinesterase by mono- and bisquaternary oximes, J. Biol. Chem., 270, 6370, 1995.
14. Ashani, Y. et al. Current capabilities in extrapolating from animal to human the capacity of human butyrylcholinesterase to detoxify organophosphates, in Structure and Function of Cholinesterases and Related Proteins, Doctor, B.P., Quinn D.M., and Taylor, P., Eds., Plenum Press, New York, 255, 1998.
15. Aviram, M. et al. Paraoxonase inhibits high-density lipoprotein oxidation and preserves its functions. A possible peroxidative role for paraoxonase, J. Clin. Invest., 101, 1581, 1998.
16. Bajgar, J., Jakl, A. and Hrdina, V. Influence of trimedoxime and atropine on acetylcholinesterase activity in some parts of the brain of mice poisoned by isopropylmethyl phosphonofluoridate, Biochem. Pharmacol., 20, 3230, 1971.
17. Ballantyne, B. and Marrs, T.C. Overview of the biological and clinical aspects of organophosphates and carbamates, in Clinical and Experimental Toxicology of Organophosphates and Carbamates, Ballantyne, B. and Marrs, T.C., Eds., Butterworth, Oxford, England, 1, 1992.
18. Biggadike, H.G.et al. Selective plasma hydrolysis of glucocorticoid gamma-lactones and cyclic carbonates by the enzyme paraoxonase: an ideal plasma inactivation mechanism, J. Med. Chem., 43, 19, 2000.
19. Billecke, S.et al. Human serum paraoxonase (PON 1) isozymes Q and R hydrolyze lactones and cyclic carbonate esters, Drug Metab. Dispos., 28, 1335, 2000.
20. Boskovic, B., Kovacevic, V. and Jovanovic, D. PAM-2 Cl, HI-6, and HGG-12 in soman and tabun poisoning, Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 4, S106, 1984.
21. Brandeis, R.et al. Prevention of soman-induced cognitive deficits by pretreatment with human butyrylcholinesterase in rats, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 46, 889, 1993.
22. Broomfield, C.A. A purified recombinant organophosphorus acid anhydrase protects mice against soman, Chem. Biol. Interact., 87, 279, 1993.
23. Broomfield, C.A.et al. Protection by butyrylcholinesterase against organophosphorus poisoning in nonhuman primates, J. Pharm. Exp. Ther., 259, 633, 1991.
24. Cabal, J.et al. A comparison of the efficacy of the reactivators of acetylcholinesterase inhibited with tabun, Ceska Slov. Farm., 54, 192, 2005.
25. Cali, M.et al. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of pyridinium oximes: mode of interaction with acetylcholinesterase, effect on tabun- and soman-poisoned mice and their cytotoxicity, Toxicology, 219, 85, 2006.
26. Caranto, G.R.et al. Amplification of the effectiveness of acetylcholinesterase for detoxification of organophosphorus compounds by bis-quaternary oximes, Biochem. Pharmacol., 47, 347, 1994.
27. Cascio, C.et al. The use of serum cholinesterase in severe phosphorus poisoning. Personal experience, Minerva Anestesiol., 54, 337, 1988.
28. Castro, C.A.et al. Behavioral efficacy of diazepam against nerve agent exposure in rhesus monkeys, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 41, 159, 1991.
29. Cerasoli, D.M.et al. In vitro and in vivo characterization of recombinant human butyrylcholinesterase (Protexia) as a potential nerve agent bioscavenger, Chem. Biol. Interact., 157-158, 363, 2005a.
30. Cerasoli, D.M. et al. Pretreatment with pegylated protexia protects against exposure to the nerve agents VX and soman, presented at Society for Neuroscience meeting, 31, 337, 2005b.
31. Charles, S.A.et al. Improving hepatitis therapy; attaching polyethylene glycol “tail” to interferon for better clinical properties, Mod. Drug Discov., 5, 59, 2000.
32. Chilukuri, N.et al. Polyethylene glycosylation prolongs the circulatory stability of recombinant human butyrylcholinesetrase, Chem. Biol. Interact., 157-158, 115, 2005a.
33. Chilukuri, N. et al. Purification and characterization of recombinant human monomeric butyrylcholinesterase, in Joint Service Scientific Conference on Chemical and Biological Defense Research, Timonium, MD, 2005b.
34. Choudary, P.V., Kamita, S.G. and Maeda, S. Expression of foreign genes in Bombyx mori larvae using baculovirus vectors, Methods Mol. Biol., 39, 243, 1995.
35. Clark, M.G.et al. Effects of physostigmine and human butyrylcholinesterase on acoustic startle reflex and prepulse inhibition in C57BL/6J mice, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 81, 497, 2005.
36. Clement, J.G. and Erhardt, N. In vitro oxime-induced reactivation of various molecular forms of soman-inhibited acetylcholinesterase in striated muscle from rat, monkey and human, Arch. Toxicol., 68, 648, 1994.
37. Coehlo, F. and Birks, J. Physostigmine for Alzheimer’s disease, Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2, CD001499, 2001.
38. Cowan, J.et al. Gene therapy to prevent organophosphate intoxication, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 173, 1, 2001.
39. Dacre, J.C. Toxicology of some anticholinesterases used as chemical warfare agents-a review, in Cholinesterases, Fundamental and Applied Aspects, Brzin, M., Barnard, E.A. and Sket, D., Eds., de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany, 415, 1984.
40. Das, P.K. and Liddell, J. Purification and properties of human serum cholinesterase, Biochem. J., 116, 875, 1970.
41. Davis, H.G.et al. The effect of the human serum paraoxonase polymorphism is reversed with diazooxon, soman and sarin, Nat. Genet., 14, 334, 1996.
42. de Candole, C.A.et al. The failure of respiration in death by anticholinesterase poisoning, Br. J. Pharmacol. Chemother., 6, 466, 1953.
43. de Jong, L.P. and Wolring, G.Z. Stereospecific reactivation by some Hagedorn-oximes of acetylcholinesterases from various species including man, inhibited by soman, Biochem. Pharmacol., 33, 1119, 1984.
44. de Jong, L.P.A. and Kosen, S.P. Stereospecific reactivation of human brain and erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase inhibited by 1, 2, 2-trimethylpropyl methyl-phosphonofluoridate (soman), Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 830, 345, 1985.
45. de Jong, L.P.A. and Wolring, G.Z. Aging and stereospecific reactivation of mouse erythrocyte and brain acetylcholinesterases inhibited by soman, Biochem. Pharmacol., 34, 142, 1985.
46. de Jong, L.P.A.et al. The bispyridinium-di-oxime HLo-7: a potent reactivator for acetylcholinesterase inhibited by the stereoisomers of tabun and soman, Biochem. Pharmacol., 38, 633, 1989.
47. DeFrank, J.J.et al. Screening of halophilic bacteria and Alteromonas species for organophosphorus hydrolyzing activity, Chem. Biol. Interact., 87, 141, 1993.
48. Deshpande, S.S.et al. Effectiveness of physostigmine as a pretreatment drug for protection of rats from organophosphate poisoning, Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 6, 566, 1986.
49. Dirnhuber, P.et al. The protection of primates against soman poisoning by pretreatment with pydridostigmine, J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 31, 295, 1979.
50. Doctor, B.P. and Saxena, A. Bioscavengers for the protection of humans against organophosphate toxicity, Chem. Biol. Interact., 157-158, 167, 2005.
51. Dumas, D.P. et al. Inactivation of organophosphorus nerve agents by the phosphotriesterase from Pseudomonas diminuta, Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 277, 155, 1990.
52. Dunn, M.A. and Sidell, F.R. Progress in medical defense against nerve agents, J. Am. Med. Assoc., 262, 649, 1989.
53. Duysen, E.G., Bartels, C.F. and Lockridge, O. Wild-type and A328W mutant human butyrylcholinesterase tetramers expressed in Chinese hamster ovary cells have a 16-hour half-life in the circulation and protect mice from cocaine toxicity, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 302, 751, 2002.
54. Ekstrom, F.et al. Crystal structures of acetylcholinesterase in complex with HI-6, Ortho-7 and obidoxime: structural basis for differences in the ability to reactivate tabun conjugates, Biochem. Pharmacol., 72, 597, 2006a.
55. Ekstrom, F.et al. Structural changes of phenyalanine 338 and histidine 447 revealed by the crystal structure of tabun-inhibited murine acetylcholinesterase, Biochemistry, 45, 74, 2006b.
56. Ellman, G.L.et al. A new and rapid colorimetric determination of acetylcholinesterase activity, Biochem.Pharmacol., 7, 88, 1961.
57. Eyer, P.et al. Studies on the decomposition of the oxime HI 6 in aqueous solution, Arch. Toxicol., 59, 266, 1986.
58. Eyer, P.et al. Studies on the stability and decomposition of the Hagedorn-oxime HLo-7 in aqueous solution, Arch. Toxicol., 63, 59, 1989.
59. Eyer, P., Hagedorn, I. and Klimmek, R. HLo-7 dimethanesulfonate, a potent bispyridinium-dioxime against anticholinesterases, Arch. Toxicol., 66, 603, 1992.
60. Fleisher, J.H. and Harris, L.W. Dealkylation as a mechanism for aging of cholinesterase after poisoning with pinacolyl methylphosphonofluoridate, Biochem. Pharmacol., 14, 641, 1965.
61. Gan, K.N.et al. Purification of human serum paraoxonase/arylesterase, Drug. Metab. Dispos., 19, 100, 1991.
62. Gao, Y.et al. Gene transfer of cocaine hydrolase suppresses cardiovascular responses to cocaine in rats, Mol.Pharmacol., 67, 204, 2004.
63. Garcia, G.et al. Human serum butyrylcholinesterase: site-specific glycan analysis, Glycomics, 2004.Cambridge, MA.
64. Garcia, G.E.et al. Glycan structure comparison of native human plasma butyrylcholinesterase (Hu-BChE) and transgenic goat produced Hu-BChE, FASEB J., 19, A867, 2005.
65. Genovese, R.F. and Doctor, B.P. Behavioral and pharmacological assessment of butyrylcholinesterase in rats, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 51, 647, 1995.
66. Genovese, R.F. et al. Evaluation of purified horse serum butyrylcholinesterase in rats, in Proceedings of the Medical Defense Bioscience Review, Baltimore, MD, 3, 1035, 1993.
67. Gentry, M.K., Nuwayser, E.S. and Doctor, B.P. Effects of repeated administration of butyrylcholinresterase on antibody induction in rabbits, in Proceedings of the Medical Defense Bioscience Review, Baltimore, MD, 3, 1051, 1993.
68. Gentry, M.K., Nuwayser, E.S. and Doctor, B.P. Immunological effect of repeated administration of cholinesterases in rabbits, in Proceedings of the Medical Defense Bioscience Review, Baltimore, MD, 1, 183, 1996.
69. Gordon, J.J., Leadbeater, L. and Maidment, M.P. The protection of animals against organophosphorous poisoning by pretreatment with a carbamate, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 43, 207, 1978.
70. Grunwald, J.et al. Large scale purification and long term stability of human butyrylcholinesterase: a potential bioscavenger drug, J. Biochem. Biophys. Methods, 34, 123, 1997.
71. Grunwald, J.et al. Huperzine A as a pretreatment candidate drug against nerve agent toxicity, Life Sci., 54, 991, 1994.
72. Hagedorn, I., Schoene, K. and Schenkel, H. Reactti-vierung phosphorylierter acetylcholinesterase: insomere bisquartare salze von pyridine-aldoxime Salts, Arzneim Forsch, 28, 2055, 1978.
73. Harel, M.et al. Structure and evolution of the serum paraoxonase family of detoxifying and anti-atherosclerotic enzymes, Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol., 11, 412, 2004.
74. Harris, L.W.et al. Physostigmine (alone and together with adjunct) pretreatment against soman, sarin, tabun and VX intoxication, Drug Chem. Toxicol., 14, 265, 1991.
75. Haupt, H.et al. Isolation and physico-chemical characterization of cholinesterase in human serum, Blut, 14, 65, 1966.
76. Heath, A.J.W. and Meredith, T. Atropine in the management of anticholinesterase poisoning, in Clinical and Experimental Toxicology of Organophosphates and Carbamates, Ballantyne B. and Marrs, T.C., Eds., Butterworth, Oxford, 543, 1992.
77. Heffron, P.F. and Hobbinger, F. Relationship between inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and response of the rat phrenic nerve-diaphragm preparation to indirect stimulation at higher frequencies, Br. J. Pharmacol., 66, 323, 1979.
78. Herkenhoff, S.et al. Effect of organophosphorus hydrolysing enzymes on obidoxime-induced reactivation of organophosphate-inhibited human acetylcholinesterase, Arch. Toxicol., 78, 338, 2004.
79. Jakubowski, H. Calcium-dependent human serum homocysteine thiolactone hydrolase. A protective mechanism against protein N-homocysteinylation, J. Biol. Chem., 275, 3957, 2000.
80. Janowsky, D.S., Davis, J.M. and Overstreet, D.H. Anticholinesterase (DFP) toxicity antagonism by chronic donepezil: a potential nerve agent treatment, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 81, 917, 2005.
81. Jarv, S. Stereochemical aspects of cholinesterase catalysis, Bioorg. Chem., 12, 259, 1984.
82. Jenkins, T., Balinsky, D. and Patient, D.W. Cholinesterase in plasma: first reported absence in the Bantu: halflife determination, Science, 156, 1748, 1967.
83. Josse, D. et al. Identification of residues essential for human paraoxonase (PON1) arylesterase/organophosphatase activities, Biochemistry, 38, 2816, 1999.
84. Josse, D.et al. The active site of human paraoxonase (PON1), J. Appl. Toxicol., 21, S7, 2001.
85. Keller, K.J. Overcoming inhibitions, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 103, 13263, 2006.
86. Kiderlen, D., Eyer, P. and Worek, F. Formation and disposition of diethylphosphoryl-obidoxime, a potent anticholinesterase that is hydrolyzed by human paraoxonase (PON1), Biochem. Pharmacol., 69, 1853, 2005.
87. Koelle, G.B. Cholinesterases and anticholinesterases, in Handbuch der Experimentallen Pharmakologie, Vol.XV, Ekhler, O. and Farah, A., Eds., Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1963.
88. Koplovitz, I. and Stewart, J.R. Efficacy of oxime plus atropine treatment against soman poisoning in the atropinesterase-free rabbit, Drug Chem. Toxicol., 15, 117, 1992.
89. Kuca, K., Cabal, J. and Kassa, J. A comparison of the efficacy of a bispyridinium oxime-1, 4-bis-(2-hydroxyiminomethylpyridinium) butane dibromide and currently used oximes to reactivate sarin, tabun or cyclosarin-inhibited acetylcholinesterase by in vitro methods, Pharmazie, 59, 795, 2004.
90. Kuca, K.et al. Strategy for the development of new acetylcholinesterase reactivators-antidotes used for treatment of nerve agent poisonings, Biomed. Pap. Med. Fac. Univ. Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub., 149, 429, 2005.
91. Kuca, K., Juna, D. and Musilek, K. Structural requirements of acetylcholinesterase reactivators, Mini Rev. Med.Chem., 6, 269, 2006.
92. Lallement, G.et al. Efficacy of huperzine in preventing soman-induced seizures, neuropathological changes and lethality, Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol., 11, 387, 1997.
93. Lallement, G.et al. Subchronic administration of various pretreatments of nerve gas poisoning II. Compared efficacy against soman toxicity, Drug Chem. Toxicol., 24, 165, 2001a.
94. Lallement, G.et al. Subchronic administration of various pretreatments of nerve agent poisoning. I. Protection of blood and central cholinesterases, innocuousness towards blood-brain barrier permeability, Drug Chem. Toxicol., 24, 151, 2001b.
95. Leadbeater, L., Inns, R.H. and Rylands, J.M. Treatment of soman poisoning, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 5, S225, 1985.
96. Lenz, D.E.et al. Protection against soman poisoning by human butyrylcholinesterase in guinea pigs and cynomolgus monkeys, Chem-Biol. Interact., 157-158, 205, 2005.
97. Li, B.et al. Protection from the toxicity of diisopropylfluorophosphate by adeno-associated virus expressing acetylcholinesterase, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 214, 152, 2006.
98. Lim, D.K.et al. Prevention of soman toxicity after the continuous administration of physostigmine, Pharmacol.Biochem. Behav., 31, 482, 1988.
99. Lim, D.K.et al. Trihexyphenidyl enhances physostigmine prophylaxis against poisoning in guinea pigs, Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 16, 482, 1991.
100. Lipp, J. and Dola, T. Comparison of the efficacy of HS-6 versus HI-6 when combined with atropine, pyridostigmine and clonazepam for soman poisoning in the monkey, Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther., 246, 138, 1980.
101. Lockridge, O., Eckerson, H.W. and La Du, B.N. Interchain disulfide bonds and subunit organization in human serum cholinesterase, J. Biol. Chem., 254, 8324, 1979.
102. Lockridge, O.et al. Complete amino acid sequence of human serum cholinesterase, J. Biol. Chem., 262, 549, 1987.
103. Lockridge, O.et al. A single amino acid substitution, Gly117His, confers phosphotriesterase (organophosphorus acid anhydride hydrolase) activity on human butyrylcholinesterase, Biochemistry, 36, 786, 1997.
104. Lundy, P.M.et al. Comparison of several oximes against poisoning by soman, tabun and GF, Toxicology, 72, 99, 1992.
105. Luo, C. and Liang, J. Evaluation of combined toxic effects of GB/GF and efficacy of jielin injection against combined poisoning in mice, Toxicol. Lett., 92, 195, 1997.
106. Luo, C.et al. Phosphoryl oxime inhibition of acetylcholinesterase during oxime reactivation is prevented by edrophonium, Biochemistry, 38, 9937, 1999.
107. Luo, C. et al. Strategy for reactivation of organophosphate-inhibited human butyrylcholinesterase, in Cholinesterases in the Second Millenium: Biomolecular and Pathological Aspects, Inestrosa, N.C. and Campos, E.O., Eds., Diseno e Impresiones JandJ Ltda, Chile, 251, 2004.
108. Luo, C. et al. Aging and oxime-induced reactivation of nerve agent-inhibited human and guinea pig acetylcholinesterases, presented at the Bioscience Review, Maryland, USA, 2006a.
109. Luo, C. et al. Development of a broad-spectrum oxime for the treatment of nerve agent toxicity, in Proceedings of the 25th Army Science Conference, Orlando, FL, 2006b.
110. Lusis, A.J. Artherosclerosis, Nature, 407, 233-241, 2000.
111. Masson, P.et al. Importance of aspartate-70 in organophosphate inhibition oxime re-activation and aging of human butyrylcholinesetrase, Biochem. J., 325, 53, 1997.
112. Masson, P.et al. Enzymes hydrolyzing organophosphates as potential catalytic scavengers against organophosphate poisoning, J. Physiol., 92, 357, 1998.
113. Matzke, S.M.et al. Behavioral and immunological effects of exogenous butyrylcholinesterase in rhesus monkeys, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 62, 523, 1999.
114. Maxwell, D.M. and Brecht, K.M. The role of carboxylesterase in species variation of oxime protection against soman, Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev., 15, 135, 1991.
115. Maxwell, D.M. et al. Acetycholinesterase inhibition: does it explain the toxicity of organophosphorus compounds? Arch. Toxicol., 80, 756, 2006.
116. Maxwell, D.M.et al. Protection of rhesus monkeys against soman and prevention of performance decrement by pretreatment with acetylcholinesterase, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 115, 44, 1992.
117. Maynard, R.L. and Beswick, F.W. Organophosphorus compounds as chemical warfare agents, in Clinical and Experimental Toxicology of Organophosphates and Carbamates, Ballantyne, B. and Marrs, T.C., Eds., Butterworth, Oxford, England, 373, 1992.
118. McTiernan, C.et al. Brain cDNA clone for human cholinesterase, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci U.S.A., 84, 6682, 1987.
119. Meshulam, Y.et al. Prophylactic transdermal treatment with physostigmine and scopolamine against soman intoxication in guinea-pigs, J. Appl. Toxicol., 15, 263, 1995.
120. Millard, C.B., Lockridge, O. and Broomfield, C.A. Design and expression of organophosphorous acid anhydride hydrolase activity in human butyrylcholinesterase activity, Biochemistry, 34, 15925, 1995.
121. Millard, C.A., Lockridge, O. and Broomfield, C.A. Organophosphorus acid anhydride hydrolase activity in human butyrylcholinesterase: synergy results in a somanase, Biochemistry, 37, 237, 1998.
122. Miller, S.A.et al. Efficacy of physostigmine as a pretreatment for organophosphate poisoning, Pharmacol.Biochem. Behav., 44, 343, 1993.
123. Moore, D.H. et al. Review of nerve agent inhibitors and reactivators of acetylcholinesterase, in Enzymes of the Cholinesterase Family, Quinn, D.M. et al. Eds., Plenum Press, New York, 297, 1995.
124. Mor, T.S.et al. Expression of recombinant human acetylcholinesterase in transgenic tomato plants, Biotechnol.Bioeng., 75, 259, 2001.
125. Myers, T.M. et al. Safety evaluation of human serum butyrylcholinesterase in rhesus monkeys, in Proceedings of the Joint Service Scientific Conference on Chemical and Biological Defense Research, Hunt Valley, MD, 2003.
126. Nicolet Y.et al. Crystal structure of human butyrylcholinesterase and of its complexes with substrate and products, J. Biol. Chem., 278, 41141, 2003.
127. Oldiges, H. and Schoene, K. Pyridinium and imidazolium salts as antidotes for soman and paraoxon poisoning in mice, Archiv fur Toxikologie, 26, 293, 1970.
128. Ostergaard, D.et al. Half-life of plasma cholinesterase, Acta Anaesth. Scand., 32, 266, 1988.
129. Philippens, I.H.et al. Scopolamine augments the efficacy of physostigmine against soman poisoning in guinea pigs, Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 65, 175, 2000.
130. Puu, G., Artursson, E. and Bucht, G. Reactivation of nerve agent inhibited human acetylcholinesterases by HI-6 and obidoxime, Biochem. Pharmacol., 35, 1505, 1986.
131. Raveh, L.et al. Acetylcholinesterase prophylaxis against organophosphate poisoning: quantitative correlation between protection and blood-enzyme level in mice, Biochem. Pharmacol., 38, 529, 1989.
132. Raveh, L.et al. Protection against tabun toxicity in mice by prophylaxis with an enzyme hydrolyzing organophosphate esters, Biochem. Pharmacol., 44, 397, 1992.
133. Raveh, L.et al. Human butyrylcholinesterase as a general prophylactic antidote for nerve agent toxicity, Biochem. Pharmacol., 45, 2465, 1993.
134. Raveh, L.et al. The stoichiometry of protection against soman and VX toxicity in monkeys pretreated with human butyrylcholinesterase, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 145, 43, 1997.
135. Rosenberg, Y.et al. Pharmacokinetics and immunologic consequences of exposing macaques to purified homologous butyrylcholinesterase, Life Sci., 72, 125, 2002.
136. Saxena, A.et al. Role of oligosaccharides in the pharmacokinetics of tissue-derived and genetically engineered cholinesterases, Mol. Pharmacol., 53, 112, 1998a.
137. Saxena, A.et al. The pH dependence of dealkylation in soman-inhibited cholinesterases and their mutants: further evidence for a push-pull mechanism, Biochemistry, 37, 15086, 1998b.
138. Saxena, A. et al. Edrophonium as a reactivator of organophosphate-inhibited human butyrylcholinesterase, presented at the Second Singapore International Symposium on Protection Against Toxic (SISPAT)Substances, Singapore, 4-7 December 2000.
139. Saxena, A. et al. Development of human serum butyrylcholinesterase as a bioscavenger for medical protection against organophosphate chemical warfare agents, in Proceedings of the 4thSingapore International Symposium on Protection Against Toxic Substances, Singapore, 2004.
140. Saxena, A.et al. Human serum butyrylcholinesterase: in vitro and in vivo stability, pharmacokinetics, and safety in mice, Chem. Biol. Interact., 157-158, 199, 2005.
141. Saxena, A. et al. Göttingen minipigs are protected against sarin vapor by human serum butyrylcholinesterase, in Proceedings of the 5thSingapore International Symposium on Protection Against Toxic Substances, Singapore, 2006.
142. Scharff, E.I. et al. Crystal structure of di-isopropylfluorophosphatase from Loligo vulgaris, Structure, 9, 493, 2001.
143. Schoene, K. Pyridinium salts as organophosphate antagonists. Monogr. Neural Sci., 7, 85, 1980.
144. Schoene, K. and Oldiges H. Efficacy of pyridinium salts in tabun and sarin poisoning in vivo and in vitro. Arch.Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther., 204, 110-123, 1973.
145. Shafferman, A.et al. Aging of phosphylated human acetylcholinesterase: catalytic processes mediated by aromatic and polar residues of the active centre, Biochem. J., 318, 833, 1996.
146. Shih, T.M., Kan, R.K. and McDonough, J.H. In vivo reactivation by oximes of nerve agent-inhibited cholinesterase activity in guinea pigs, presented at the Bioscience Review, Hunt Valley, Maryland, 2004.
147. Sidell, F.R. Nerve agents, in Textbook of Military Medicine: Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare, Zajchuk, R. and Bellamy, R.F., Eds., Walter Reed Army Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA: The Office of The Surgeon General, TTM Publications, Bordon, Institute, 129, 1997.
148. Siripornadulsil, S.et al. Molecular mechanisms of proline-mediated tolerance to toxic heavy metals in transgenic microalgae, Plant Cell, 14, 2837, 2002.
149. Solana, R.P.et al. Evaluation of the efficacy of two carbamates, physostigmine and pydridostigmine, when used in conjunction for protection against organophosphate exposure, Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 15, 814, 1990.
150. Stewart, W.C. The effects of sarin and atropine on the respiratory center and neuromuscular junctions of the rat, Can. J. Biochem. Physiol., 37, 651, 1959.
151. Stewart, W.C. and Anderson, E.A. Effects of a cholinesterase inhibitor when injected into the medulla of the rabbit, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 162, 309, 1968.
152. Stovner, J. and Stadskleiv, K. Suxamethonium apnea terminated with commercial serum cholinesterase, Acta Anaesth. Scand., 20, 211, 1976.
153. Sun, W. et al. Pharmacokinetics, stability, safety and toxicity of purified human serum butyrylcholinesterase in mice. NATO TG-004 Meeting, 29 Sept-3 Oct 2003, Medicine Hat, Canada.
154. Sun, W. et al. Long term effect of human butyrylcholinesterase pretreatment followed by acute soman challenge in cynomolgus monkeys, in Joint Service Scientific Conference on Chemical and Biological Defense Research, Timonium, MD, 2005.
155. Sun, W.et al. Safety and pharmacokinetics of human serum butyrylcholinesterase in guinea pigs, Chem-Biol.Interact., 157-158, 428, 2005.
156. Sundwall, A. Minimum concentrations of N-methylpyridinium-2-aldoxime methane suphonate (P2S) which reverse neuromuscular block, Biochem. Pharmacol., 8, 413, 1961.
157. Talbot, B.G.et al. A comparison of in vivo and in vitro rates of aging of soman-inhibited erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase in different animal species, Drug Chem. Toxicol., 11, 289, 1988.
158. Taylor, P. Anticholinesterase agents, in The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Gilman, A.G., Rall, T.W., Nies, A.S. and Taylor, P., Eds., Macmillan, New York, 131, 1990.
159. Tuovinen, K.et al. Success of pyridostigmine, physostigmine, eptastigmine and phosphotriesterase treatments in acute sarin intoxication, Toxicology, 134, 169, 1999.
160. von Bredow, J.et al. Efficacy evaluation of physostigmine and anticholinergic adjuncts as a pretreatment for nerve agent intoxication, Fundam. Appl. Toxicol., 17, 782, 1991.
161. Wang, Y. Resistance to organophosphorous agent toxicity in transgenic mice expressing G117H mutant of human butyrylcholinesetrase, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 196, 356, 2004.
162. Wilson, I.B. and Ginsburg, S.A powerful reactivator of alkyl phosphate-inhibited acetylcholinesterase, Biochim.Biophys. Acta., 18, 168, 1955.
163. Worek, F., Eyer, P. and Szinicz, L., Inhibition, reactivation and aging kinetics of cyclohexylmethylphosphonofluoridate-inhibited human cholinesterases, Arch. Toxicol., 72, 580, 1998.
164. Worek, F.et al. Reactivation kinetics of acetylcholinesterase from different species inhibited by highly toxic organophosphates, Arch. Toxicol., 76, 523, 2002.
165. Worek, F.et al. Kinetic analysis of interactions between human acetylcholinesterase, structurally different organophosphorus compounds and oximes, Biochem. Pharmacol., 68, 2237, 2004.
166. Worek, F.et al. Evaluation of oxime efficacy in nerve agent poisoning: development of a kinetic-based dynamic model, Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol., 209, 193, 2005.
167. Yeung, D.T.et al. Structure/function analyses of human serum paraoxonase (HuPON1) mutants designed from a DFPase-like homology model, Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1702, 67, 2004.
168. Yeung, D.T., Lenz, D.E. and Cerasoli, D.M., Analysis of active-site amino-acid residues of human serum paraoxonase using competitive substrates, FEBS J., 272, 2225, 2005.