The stratum corneum of the epidermis in atopic dermatitis

Skin Barrier

Volumn , Issue , 2005, Pages 569-589

  Jensen, Jens Michael ^a   Proksch, Ehrhardt ^b   Elias, Peter M ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL SCHLESWIG HOLSTEIN   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF KIEL   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 85129364076     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (162)

1. Shultz LF, Hanifin JM. Epidemiology of atopic dermatitis. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2002; 22:1-24.
2. Mar A, Tam M, Jolley D, Marks R. The cumulative incidence of atopic dermatitis in the first 12 months among Chinese, Vietnamese, and Caucasian infants born in Melbourne, Australia. J Am Acad Dermatol 1999; 40 (4):597-602.
3. Nemes Z, Steinert PM. Bricks and mortar of the epidermal barrier. Exp Mol Med 1999; 31:5-19.
4. Taieb A. Hypothesis: from epidermal barrier dysfunction to atopic disorders. Contact Dermatitis 1999; 41 (4):177-180.
5. Vanselow NA, Yamate M, Adams MS, Callies Q. The increased prevalence of allergic disease in anhidrotic congenital ectodermal dysplasia. J Allergy 1970; 45 (5):302-309.
6. Tupker RA, Pinnagoda J, Coenraads PJ, Nater JP. Susceptibility to irritants: role of barrier function, skin dryness and history of atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1990; 123 (2):199-205.
7. Spitz JL. Genodermatosis. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1996:214-215.
8. Ochs HD. The Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2001; 20 (1): 61-86.
9. Schurer NY, Elias PM. The biochemistry and function of stratum corneum lipids. Adv Lipid Res 1991; 24:27-56.
10. Chavanas S, Bodemer C, Rochat A, Hamel-Teillac D, Ali M, Irvine AD, Bonafe JL, Wilkinson J, Taieb A, Barrandon Y, Harper JI, de Prost Y, Hovnanian A. Mutations in SPINK5, encoding a serine protease inhibitor, cause Netherton syndrome. Nat Genet 2000; 25 (2):141-142.
11. Walley AJ, Chavanas S, Moffatt MF, Esnouf RM, Ubhi B, Lawrence R, Wong K, Abecasis GR, Jones EY, Harper JI, Hovnanian A, Cookson WO. Gene polymorphism in Netherton and common atopic disease. Nat Genet 2001; 29 (2):175-178.
12. Sprecher E, Chavanas S, DiGiovanna JJ, Amin S, Nielsen K, Prendiville JS, Silverman R, Esterly NB, Spraker MK, Guelig E, de Luna ML, Williams ML, Buehler B, Siegfried EC, Van Maldergem L, Pfendner E, Bale SJ, Uitto J, Hovnanian A, Richard G. The spectrum of pathogenic mutations in SPINK5 in 19 families with Netherton syndrome: implications for mutation detection and first case of prenatal diagnosis. J Invest Dermatol 2001; 117 (2):179-187.
13. Komatsu N, Takata M, Otsuki N, Ohka R, Amano O, Takehara K, Saijoh K. Elevated stratum corneum hydrolytic activity in Netherton syndrome suggests an inhibitory regulation of desquamation by SPINK5-derived peptides. J Invest Dermatol 2002; 118 (3):436-443.
14. Bitoun E, Micheloni A, Lamant L, Bonnart C, Tartaglia-Polcini A, Cobbold C, Al Saati T, Mariotti F, Mazereeuw-Hautier J, Boralevi F, Hohl D, Harper J, Bodemer C, D'Alessio M, Hovnanian A. LEKTI proteolytic processing in human primary keratinocytes, tissue distribution and defective expression in Netherton syndrome. Hum Mol Genet 2003; 12 (19):2417-2430.
15. Kato A, Fukai K, Oiso N, Hosomi N, Murakami T, Ishii M. Association of SPINK5 gene polymorphisms with atopic dermatitis in the Japanese population. Br J Dermatol 2003; 148:665-669.
16. Wachter AM, Lezdey J. Treatment of atopic dermatitis with alpha 1-proteinase inhibitor. Ann Allergy 1992; 69 (5):407-114.
17. Denda M, Kitamura K, Elias PM, Feingold KR. Trans-4- (Aminomethyl)cyclohexane carboxylic acid (T-AMCHA), an anti-fibrinolytic agent, accelerates barrier recovery and prevents the epidermal hyperplasia induced by epidermal injury in hairless mice and humans. J Invest Dermatol 1997; 109 (1):84-90.
18. Hachem JP, Crumrine D, Fluhr J, Brown BE, Feingold KR, Elias PM. pH directly regulates epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis, and stratum corneum integrity/ cohesion. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 121 (2):345-353.
19. Wood LC, Jackson SM, Elias PM, Grunfeld C, Feingold KR. Cutaneous barrier perturbation stimulates cytokine production in the epidermis of mice. J Clin Invest 1992; 90 (2):482-487.
20. Wood LC, Elias PM, Calhoun C, Tsai JC, Grunfeld C, Feingold KR. Barrier disruption stimulates interleukin-1 alpha expression and release from a pre-formed pool in murine epidermis. J Invest Dermatol 1996; 106 (3):397-403.
21. Gfesser M, Rakoski J, Ring J. The disturbance of epidermal barrier function in atopy patch test reactions in atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1996; 135 (4):560-565.
22. Denda M, Sato J, Masuda Y, Tsuchiya T, Koyama J, Kuramoto M, Elias PM, Feingold KR. Exposure to a dry environment enhances epidermal permeability barrier function. J Invest Dermatol 1998; 111 (5):858-863.
23. Yoshiike T, Aikawa Y, Sindhvananda J, Suto H, Nishimura K, Kawamoto T, Ogawa H. Skin barrier defect in atopic dermatitis: increased permeability of the stratum corneum using dimethyl sulfoxide and theophylline. J Dermatol Sci 1993; 5 (2):92-96.
24. Jensen JM, Folster-Holst R, Baranowsky A, Schunck M, Winoto-Morbach S, Neumann C, Schutze S, Proksch E. Impaired sphingomyelinase activity and epidermal differentiation in atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2004. In press.
25. Ogawa H, Yoshiike T. A speculative view of atopic dermatitis: barrier dysfunction in pathogenesis. J Dermatol Sci 1993; 5 (3):197-204.
26. Matsumoto M, Sugiura H, Uehara M. Skin barrier function in patients with completely healed atopic dermatitis. J Dermatol Sci 2000; 23 (3):178-182.
27. Bos et al. 1994.
28. McNally NJ, Phillips DR, Williams HC. The problem of atopic eczema: aetiological clues from the environment and lifestyles. Soc Sci Med 1998; 46 (6):729-741.
29. Elias PM, Wood LC, Feingold KR. Relationship of the epidermal barrier to irritant contact dermatitis. In: Beltrani V, ed. Immunology and Allergy Clinics of North America. Vol. 17. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1997:417-430.
30. Elias PM, Wood LC, Feingold KR. Epidermal pathogenesis of inflammatory dermatoses. Am J Contact Dermat 1999; 10 (3):119-126.
31. Garg A, Chren MM, Sands LP, Matsui MS, Marenus KD, Feingold KR, Elias PM. Psychological stress perturbs epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis: implications for the pathogenesis of stress-associated skin disorders. Arch Dermatol 2001; 137 (1): 53-59.
32. Altemus M, Rao B, Dhabhar FS, Ding W, Granstein RD. Stress-induced changes in skin barrier function in healthy women. J Invest Dermatol 2001; 117 (2):309-317.
33. Darsow U, Ring J. Atopic patch test. Atopic eczema and allergy. Hautarzt 2003; 54 (10): 930-936.
34. Werner Y, Lindberg M. Transepidermal water loss in dry and clinically normal skin in patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 1985; 65 (2):102-105.
35. Imokawa G. Skin moisturizers: development and clinical use of ceramides. In: Loden M, ed. Dry skin and moisturizers. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1999:269-299.
36. Imokawa G, Hattori M. A possible function of structural lipids in the water-holding properties of the stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol 1985; 84 (4):282-284.
37. Imokawa G, Akasaki S, Hattori M, Yoshizuka N. Selective recovery of deranged waterholding properties by stratum corneum lipids. J Invest Dermatol 1986; 87 (6):758-761.
38. Imokawa G, Abe A, Jin K, Higaki Y, Kawashima M, Hidano A. Decreased level of ceramides in stratum corneum of atopic dermatitis: an etiologic factor in atopic dry skin? J Invest Dermatol 1991; 96 (4):523-526.
39. Tabata N, O'Goshi K, Zhen YX, Kligman AM, Tagami H. Biophysical assessment of persistent effects of moisturizers after their daily applications: evaluation of corneotherapy. Dermatology 2000; 200 (4):308-313.
40. Scott IR, Harding CR. Filaggrin breakdown to water binding compounds during development of the rat stratum corneum is controlled by the water activity of the environment. Dev Biol 1986; 115 (1):84-92.
41. Eberlein-Konig B, Schafer T, Huss-Marp J, Darsow U, Mohrenschlager M, Herbert O, Abeck D, Kramer U, Behrendt H, Ring J. Skin surface pH, stratum corneum hydration, trans-epidermal water loss and skin roughness related to atopic eczema and skin dryness in a population of primary school children. Acta Derm Venereol 2000; 80:188-191.
42. Choi SJ, Song MG, Sung WT, Lee DY, Lee JH, Lee ES, Yang JM. Comparison of transepidermal water loss, capacitance and pH values in the skin between intrinsic and extrinsic atopic dermatitis patients. J Korean Med Sci 2003; 18 (1):93-96.
43. Sator PG, Schmidt JB, Honigsmann H. Comparison of epidermal hydration and skin surface lipids in healthy individuals and in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2003; 48 (3):352-358.
44. Sugarman JL, Fluhr JW, Fowler AJ, Bruckner T, Diepgen TL, Williams ML. The objective severity assessment of atopic dermatitis score: an objective measure using permeability barrier function and stratum corneum hydration with computer-assisted estimates for extent of disease. Arch Dermatol 2003; 139 (11):1417-1422.
45. Kiriyama T, Sugiura H, Uehara M. Residual washing detergent in cotton clothes: a factor of winter deterioration of dry skin in atopic dermatitis. J Dermatol 2003; 30:708-712.
46. Loden M, Andersson AC, Lindberg M. Improvement in skin barrier function in patients with atopic dermatitis after treatment with a moisturizing cream (Canoderm). Br J Dermatol 1999; 140 (2):264-267.
47. Peris K, Valeri P, Altobelli E, Fargnoli MC, Carrozzo AM, Chimenti S. Efficacy evaluation of an oil-in-water emulsion (Dermoflan) in atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 2002; 82 (6):465-466.
48. Loden M, Andersson AC, Anderson C, Bergbrant IM, Frodin T, Ohman H, Sandstrom MH, Sarnhult T, Voog E, Stenberg B, Pawlik E, Preisler-Haggqvist A, Svensson A, Lindberg M. A double-blind study comparing the effect of glycerin and urea on dry, eczematous skin in atopic patients. Acta Derm Venereol 2002; 82 (1):45-47.
49. Loden M. Role of topical emollients and moisturizers in the treatment of dry skin barrier disorders. Am J Clin Dermatol 2003; 4 (11):771-788.
50. Rippke F, Schreiner V, Schwanitz HJ. The acidic milieu of the horny layer: new findings on the physiology and pathophysiology of skin pH. Am J Clin Dermatol 2002; 3 (4): 261-272.
51. Brattsand M, Egelrud T. Purification, molecular cloning, and expression of a human stratum corneum trypsin-like serine protease with possible function in desquamation. J Biol Chem 1999; 274 (42):30033-30040.
52. Ekholm IE, Brattsand M, Egelrud T. Stratum corneum tryptic enzyme in normal epidermis: a missing link in the desquamation process? J Invest Dermatol 2000; 114 (1): 56-63.
53. Lundqvist EN, Egelrud T. Biologically active, alternatively processed interleukin-1 beta in psoriatic scales. Eur J Immunol 1997; 27 (9):2165-2171.
54. Hamid Q, Boguniewicz M, Leung DY. Differential in situ cytokine gene expression in acute versus chronic atopic dermatitis. J Clin Invest 1994; 94 (2):870-876.
55. Engler RJ, Kenner J, Leung DY. Smallpox vaccination: risk considerations for patients with atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2002; 110 (3):357-365.
56. Nomura I, Goleva E, Howell MD, Hamid QA, Ong PY, Hall CF, Darst MA, Gao B, Boguniewicz M, Travers JB, Leung DY. Cytokine milieu of atopic dermatitis, as compared to psoriasis, skin prevents induction of innate immune response genes. J Immunol 2003; 171 (6):3262-3269.
57. Denda M, Tsuchiya T, Elias PM, Feingold KR. Stress alters cutaneous permeability barrier homeostasis. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000; 278 (2):R367-R372.
58. Toole JW, Hofstader SL, Ramsay CA. Darier's disease and Kaposi's varicelliform eruption. J Am Acad Dermatol 1979; 1 (4):321-324.
59. Werner Y. The water content of the stratum corneum in patients with atopic dermatitis. Measurement with the Corneometer CM 420. Acta Derm Venereol 1986; 66 (4):281-284.
60. Proksch E, Jensen JM, Elias PM. Skin lipids and epidermal differentiation in atopic dermatitis. Clin Dermatol 2003; 21 (2):134-144.
61. Sugarman JH, Fleischer AB Jr, Feldman SR. Off-label prescribing in the treatment of dermatologic disease. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002; 47 (2):217-223.
62. Elias PM, Menon GK. Structural and lipid biochemical correlates of the epidermal permeability barrier. Adv Lipid Res 1991; 24:1-26.
63. Lee SH, Elias PM, Proksch E, Menon GK, Mao-Quiang M, Feingold KR. Calcium and potassium are important regulators of barrier homeostasis in murine epidermis. J Clin Invest 1992; 89 (2):530-538.
64. + gradients in murine epidermis: quantitative measurement using PIXE. J Invest Dermatol 1998; 111 (6):1198-201.
65. Mauro T, Holleran WM, Grayson S, Gao WN, Man MQ, Kriehuber E, Behne M, Feingold KR, Elias PM. Barrier recovery is impeded at neutral pH, independent ofionic effects: implications for extracellular lipid processing. Arch Dermatol Res 1998; 290 (4):215-222.
66. Mauro T, Holleran WM, Grayson S, Gao WN, Man MQ, Kriehuber E, Behne M, Feingold KR, Elias PM. Barrier recovery is impeded at neutral pH, independent ofionic effects: implications for extracellular lipid processing. Arch Dermatol Res 1998; 290 (7):405.
67. Ekanayake-Mudiyanselage S, Aschauer H, Schmook FP, Jensen JM, Meingassner JG, Proksch E. Expression of epidermal keratins and the cornified envelope protein involucrin is influenced by permeability barrier disruption. J Invest Dermatol 1998; 111 (3):517-523.
68. Jakobza D, Reichmann G, Langnick W, Langnick A, Schulze P. Surface skin lipids in atopic dermatitis (author's transl). Dermatol Monatsschr 1981; 167 (1):26-29.
69. Barth JH, Ridden J, Philpott MP, Greenall MJ, Kealey T. Lipogenesis by isolated human apocrine sweat glands: testosterone has no effect during long-term organ maintenance. J Invest Dermatol 1989; 92 (3):333-336.
70. Mustakallio KK, Kiistala U, Piha HJ, Nieminen E. Epidermal lipids in Besnier's prurigo (atopic eczema). Ann Med Exp Biol Fenn 1967; 45 (3):323-325.
71. Schafer L, Kragballe K. Abnormalities in epidermal lipid metabolism in patients with atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 1991; 96 (1):10-15.
72. Schurer NY, Plewig G, Elias PM. Stratum corneum lipid function. Dermatologica 1991; 183 (2):77-94.
73. Melnik B, Hollmann J, Hofmann U, Yuh MS, Plewig G. Lipid composition of outer stratum corneum and nails in atopic and control subjects. Arch Dermatol Res 1990; 282 (8):549-551.
74. Di Nardo A, Wertz P, Giannetti A, Seidenari S. Ceramide and cholesterol composition of the skin of patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 1998; 78 (1): 27-30.
75. Fartasch M, Bassukas ID, Diepgen TL. Disturbed extruding mechanism of lamellar bodies in dry non-eczematous skin of atopics. Br J Dermatol 1992; 127 (3):221-227.
76. Madison KC. Barrier function of the skin: "la raison d'etre" of the epidermis. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 121 (2):231-241.
77. Long SA, Wertz PW, Strauss JS, Downing DT. Human stratum corneum polar lipids and desquamation. Arch Dermatol Res 1985; 277 (4):284-287.
78. Robson KJ, Stewart ME, Michelsen S, Lazo ND, Downing DT. 6-Hydroxy-4-sphingenine in human epidermal ceramides. J Lipid Res 1994; 35 (11):2060-2068.
79. Stewart ME, Downing DT. A new 6-hydroxy-4-sphingenine-containing ceramide in human skin. J Lipid Res 1999; 40 (8):1434-1439.
80. Ponec M, Weerheim A, Lankhorst P, Wertz P. New acylceramide in native and reconstructed epidermis. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 120 (4):581-588.
81. Yamamoto A, Serizawa S, Ito M, Sato Y. Stratum corneum lipid abnormalities in atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol Res 1991; 283 (4):219-223.
82. Matsumoto Y, Hamashima H, Masuda K, Shiojima K, Sasatsu M, Arai T. The antibacterial activity of plaunotol against Staphylococcus aureus isolated from the skin of patients with atopic dermatitis. Microbios 1998; 96 (385):149-155.
83. Marekov LN, Steinert PM. Ceramides are bound to structural proteins of the human foreskin epidermal cornified cell envelope. J Biol Chem 1998; 273 (28):17763-17770.
84. Meguro S, Arai Y, Masukawa Y, Uie K, Tokimitsu I. Relationship between covalently bound ceramides and transepidermal water loss (TEWL). Arch Dermatol Res 2000; 292 (9):463-468.
85. Macheleidt O, Kaiser HW, Sandhoff K. Deficiency of epidermal protein-bound omega-hydroxyceramides in atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2002; 119 (1):166-173.
86. Bleck O, Abeck D, Ring J, Hoppe U, Vietzke JP, Wolber R, Brandt O, Schreiner V. Two ceramide subfractions detectable in Cer (AS) position by HPTLC in skin surface lipids of non-lesional skin of atopic eczema. J Invest Dermatol 1999; 113 (6):894-900.
87. Holleran WM, Takagi Y, Menon GK, Legler G, Feingold KR, Elias PM. Processing of epidermal glucosylceramides is required for optimal mammalian cutaneous permeability barrier function. J Clin Invest 1993; 91 (4):1656-1664.
88. Holleran WM, Ginns EI, Menon GK, Grundmann JU, Fartasch M, McKinney CE, Elias PM, Sidransky E. Consequences of beta-glucocerebrosidase deficiency in epidermis. Ultrastructure and permeability barrier alterations in Gaucher disease. J Clin Invest 1994; 93 (4):1756-1764.
89. Jensen JM, Schutze S, Forl M, Kronke M, Proksch E. Roles for tumor necrosis factor receptor p55 and sphingomyelinase in repairing the cutaneous permeability barrier. J Clin Invest 1999; 104 (12):1761-1770.
90. Uchida Y, Hara M, Nishio H, Sidransky E, Inoue S, Otsuka F, Suzuki A, Elias PM, Holleran WM, Hamanaka S. Epidermal sphingomyelins are precursors for selected stratum corneum ceramides. J Lipid Res 2000; 41 (12):2071-2082.
91. Hara J, Higuchi K, Okamoto R, Kawashima M, Imokawa G. High-expression of sphingomyelin deacylase is an important determinant of ceramide deficiency leading to barrier disruption in atopic dermatitis. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115 (3):406-413.
92. Jin K, Higaki Y, Takagi Y, Higuchi K, Yada Y, Kawashima M, Imokawa G. Analysis of beta-glucocerebrosidase and ceramidase activities in atopic and aged dry skin. Acta Derm Venereol 1994; 74 (5):337-340.
93. Redoules D, Tarroux R, Perie J. Epidermal enzymes: their role in homeostasis and their relationships with dermatoses. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol 1998; 11 (4-5): 183-192.
94. Kreder D, Krut O, Adam-Klages S, Wiegmann K, Scherer G, Plitz T, Jensen JM, Proksch E, Steinmann J, Pfeffer K, Kronke M. Impaired neutral sphingomyelinase activation and cutaneous barrier repair in FAN-deficient mice. EMBO J 1999; 18 (9): 2472-2479.
95. Kusuda S, Cui CY, Takahashi M, Tezuka T. Localization of sphingomyelinase in lesional skin of atopic dermatitis patients. J Invest Dermatol 1998; 111 (5):733-738.
96. Schmuth M, Man MQ, Weber F, Gao W, Feingold KR, Fritsch P, Elias PM, Holleran WM. Permeability barrier disorder in Niemann-Pick disease: sphingomyelinceramide processing required for normal barrier homeostasis. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115 (3):459-466.
97. Ohnishi Y, Okino N, Ito M, Imayama S. Ceramidase activity in bacterial skin flora as a possible cause of ceramide deficiency in atopic dermatitis. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 1999; 6 (1):101-104.
98. Murata Y, Ogata J, Higaki Y, Kawashima M, Yada Y, Higuchi K, Tsuchiya T, Kawainami S, Imokawa G. Abnormal expression of sphingomyelin acylase in atopic dermatitis: an etiologic factor for ceramide deficiency? J Invest Dermatol 1996; 106 (6): 1242-1249.
99. Higuchi K, Hara J, Okamoto R, Kawashima M, Imokawa G. The skin of atopic dermatitis patients contains a novel enzyme, glucosylceramide sphingomyelin deacylase, which cleaves the N-acyl linkage of sphingomyelin and glucosylceramide. Biochem J 2000; 350 (Pt 3):747-756.
100. Imokawa G. Lipid abnormalities in atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 2001; 45 (suppl 1):S29-S32.
101. Behne M, Uchida Y, Seki T, de Montellano PO, Elias PM, Holleran WM. Omega-hydroxyceramides are required for corneocyte lipid envelope (CLE) formation and normal epidermal permeability barrier function. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 114 (1):185-192.
102. Elias PM, Brown BE. The mammalian cutaneous permeability barrier: defective barrier function is essential fatty acid deficiency correlates with abnormal intercellular lipid deposition. Lab Invest 1978; 39 (6):574-583.
103. Wertz PW, Cho ES, Downing DT. Effect of essential fatty acid deficiency on the epidermal sphingolipids of the rat. Biochim Biophys Acta 1983; 753 (3):350-355.
104. Wertz PW, Swartzendruber DC, Abraham W, Madison KC, Downing DT. Essential fatty acids and epidermal integrity. Arch Dermatol 1987; 123 (10):1381-1384.
105. Bouwstra JA, Gooris GS, Dubbelaar FE, Weerheim AM, Ponec M. pH, cholesterol sulfate, and fatty acids affect the stratum corneum lipid organization. J Investig Dermatol Symp Proc 1998; 3 (2):69-74.
106. Komuves LG, Hanley K, Lefebvre AM, Man MQ, Ng DC, Bikle DD, Williams ML, Elias PM, Auwerx J, Feingold KR. Stimulation of PPARalpha promotes epidermal keratinocyte differentiation in vivo. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115 (3):353-360.
107. Komuves LG, Hanley K, Man MQ, Elias PM, Williams ML, Feingold KR. Keratinocyte differentiation in hyperproliferative epidermis: topical application of PPARalpha activators restores tissue homeostasis. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115 (3):361-367.
108. Proksch E, Feingold KR, Elias PM. Epidermal HMG CoA reductase activity in essential fatty acid deficiency: barrier requirements rather than eicosanoid generation regulate cholesterol synthesis. J Invest Dermatol 1992; 99 (2):216-220.
109. Hou SY, Rehfeld SJ, Plachy WZ. X-ray diffraction and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy of mammalian stratum corneum lipid domains. Adv Lipid Res 1991; 24:141-71.
110. Melton JL, Wertz PW, Swartzendruber DC, Downing DT. Effects ofessential fatty acid deficiency on epidermal O-acylsphingolipids and transepidermal water loss in young pigs. Biochim Biophys Acta 1987; 921 (2):191-197.
111. Horrobin DF. Essential fatty acid metabolism and its modification in atopic eczema. Am J Clin Nutr 2000; 71 (suppl 1):367S-372S.
112. Melnik BC, Plewig G. Is the origin of atopy linked to deficient conversion of omega-6-fatty acids to prostaglandin E1? J Am Acad Dermatol 1989; 21 (3 Pt 1):557-563.
113. Morse PF, Horrobin DF, Manku MS, Stewart JC, Allen R, Littlewood S, Wright S, Burton J, Gould DJ, Holt PJ, et al. Meta-analysis of placebo-controlled studies of the efficacy of Epogam in the treatment of atopic eczema. Relationship between plasma essential fatty acid changes and clinical response. Br J Dermatol 1989; 121 (1):75-90.
114. Berth-Jones J, Graham-Brown RA. Placebo-controlled trial of essential fatty acid supplementation in atopic dermatitis. Lancet 1993; 341 (8860):1557-1560.
115. Berth-Jones J, Graham-Brown RA. Placebo-controlled trial of essential fatty acid supplementation in atopic dermatitis. Lancet 1993; 342 (8870):564.
116. Henz BM, Jablonska S, van de Kerkhof PC, Stingl G, Blaszczyk M, Vandervalk PG, Veenhuizen R, Muggli R, Raederstorff D. Double-blind, multicentre analysis of the efficacy of borage oil in patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1999; 140 (4):685-688.
117. Manku MS, Horrobin DF, Morse N, Kyte V, Jenkins K, Wright S, Burton JL. Reduced levels of prostaglandin precursors in the blood of atopic patients: defective delta-6-desaturase function as a biochemical basis for atopy. Prostaglandins Leukot Med 1982; 9 (6):615-628.
118. Al-Jaberi H, Marks R. Studies of the clinically uninvolved skin in patients with dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1984; 111 (4):437-443.
119. Watanabe M, Tagami H, Horii I, Takahashi M, Kligman AM. Functional analyses of the superficial stratum corneum in atopic xerosis. Arch Dermatol 1991; 127 (11): 1689-1692.
120. Fartasch M, Williams ML, Elias PM. Altered lamellar body secretion and stratum corneum membrane structure in Netherton syndrome: differentiation from other infantile erythrodermas and pathogenic implications. Arch Dermatol 1999; 135 (7):823-832.
121. Van Neste D, Lachapelle JM, Desmons F. Atopic dermatitis: a histologic and radioautographic study (after 3H-thymidine labelling) of epidermal and dermal lesions. Ann Dermatol Venereol 1979; 106 (4):327-335.
122. Proksch E, Feingold KR, Man MQ, Elias PM. Barrier function regulates epidermal DNA synthesis. J Clin Invest 1991; 87 (5):1668-1673.
123. Jensen JM, Schutze S, Neumann C, Proksch E. Impaired cutaneous permeability barrier function, skin hydration, and sphingomyelinase activity in keratin 10 deficient mice. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115 (4):708-713.
124. Engelke M, Jensen JM, Ekanayake-Mudiyanselage S, Proksch E. Effects of xerosis and ageing on epidermal proliferation and differentiation. Br J Dermatol 1997; 137 (2): 219-225.
125. Seguchi T, Cui CY, Kusuda S, Takahashi M, Aisu K, Tezuka T. Decreased expression of filaggrin in atopic skin. Arch Dermatol Res 1996; 288 (8):442-446.
126. Wertz PW, Madison KC, Downing DT. Covalently bound lipids of human stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol 1989; 92 (1):109-111.
127. Yoneda K, McBride OW, Korge BP, Kim IG, Steinert PM. The cornified cell envelope: loricrin and transglutaminases. J Dermatol 1992; 19 (11):761-764.
128. Hohl D. Expression patterns of loricrin in dermatological disorders. Am J Dermatopathol 1993; 15 (1):20-27.
129. Cookson WO, Ubhi B, Lawrence R, Abecasis GR, Walley AJ, Cox HE, Coleman R, Leaves NI, Trembath RC, Moffatt MF, Harper JI. Genetic linkage of childhood atopic dermatitis to psoriasis susceptibility loci. Nat Genet 2001; 27 (4):372-373.
130. Wiegmann K, Schutze S, Machleidt T, Witte D, Kronke M. Functional dichotomy of neutral and acidic sphingomyelinases in tumor necrosis factor signaling. Cell 1994; 78 (6):1005-1015.
131. Heinrich M, Neumeyer J, Jakob M, Hallas C, Tchikov V, Winoto-Morbach S, Wickel M, Schneider-Brachert W, Trauzold A, Hethke A, Schutze S. Cathepsin D links TNF-induced acid sphingomyelinase to Bid-mediated caspase-9 and -3 activation. Cell Death Differ 2004. In press.
132. Doering T, Holleran WM, Potratz A, Vielhaber G, Elias PM, Suzuki K, Sandhoff K. Sphingolipid activator proteins are required for epidermal permeability barrier formation. J Biol Chem 1999; 274 (16):11038-11045.
133. Cui CY, Kusuda S, Seguchi T, Takahashi M, Aisu K, Tezuka T. Decreased level of prosaposin in atopic skin. J Invest Dermatol 1997; 109 (3):319-323.
134. Gondo A, Saeki N, Tokuda Y. Challenge reactions in atopic dermatitis after percutaneous entry of mite antigen. Br J Dermatol 1986; 115 (4):485-493.
135. Nassif A, Chan SC, Storrs FJ, Hanifin JM. Abnormal skin irritancy in atopic dermatitis and in atopy without dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1994; 130:1402-1407.
136. Ghadially R, Halkier-Sorensen L, Elias PM. Effects of petrolatum on stratum corneum structure and function. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992; 26 (3 Pt 2):387-396.
137. Shahidullah M, Raffle EJ, Rimmer AR, Frain-Bell W. Transepidermal water loss in patients with dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1969; 81 (10):722-730.
138. Agner T. Non-invasive measuring methods for the investigation of irritant patch test reactions. A study of patients with hand eczema, atopic dermatitis and controls. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl (Stockh) 1992; 173:1-26.
139. Seidenari S, Giusti G. Objective assessment of the skin of children affected by atopic dermatitis: a study of pH, capacitance and TEWL in eczematous and clinically uninvolved skin. Acta Derm Venereol 1995; 75 (6):429-433.
140. Nishijima T, Tokura Y, Imokawa G, Seo N, Furukawa F, Takigawa M. Altered permeability and disordered cutaneous immunoregulatory function in mice with acute barrier disruption. J Invest Dermatol 1997; 109 (2):175-182.
141. Mitchell EB, Crow J, Chapman MD, Jouhal SS, Pope FM, Platts-Mills TA. Basophils in allergen-induced patch test sites in atopic dermatitis. Lancet 1982; 1 (8264):127-130.
142. Adinoff AD, Tellez P, Clark RA. Atopic dermatitis and aeroallergen contact sensitivity. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1988; 81 (4):736-742.
143. Conti A, Di Nardo A, Seidenari S. No alteration of biophysical parameters in the skin of subjects with respiratory atopy. Dermatology 1996; 192 (4):317-320.
144. Conti A, Seidenari S. No increased skin reactivity in subjects with allergic rhinitis during the active phase of the disease. Acta Derm Venereol 2000; 80 (3):192-195.
145. Paganelli R, Atherton DJ, Levinsky RJ. Differences between normal and milk allergic subjects in their immune responses after milk ingestion. Arch Dis Child 1983; 58 (3): 201-206.
146. Ukabam SO, Mann RJ, Cooper BT. Small intestinal permeability to sugars in patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1984; 110 (6):649-652.
147. Pike MG, Heddle RJ, Boulton P, Turner MW, Atherton DJ. Increased intestinal permeability in atopic eczema. J Invest Dermatol 1986; 86 (2):101-104.
148. Barba A, Schena D, Andreaus MC, Faccini G, Pasini F, Brocco G, Cavallini G, Scuro LA, Chieregato GC. Intestinal permeability in patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1989; 120 (1):71-75.
149. Arlian LG, Neal JS, Morgan MS, Vyszenski-Moher DL, Rapp CM, Alexander AK. Reducing relative humidity is a practical way to control dust mites and their allergens in homes in temperate climates. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2001; 107 (1):99-104.
150. Harder J, Schroder JM. RNase 7, a novel innate immune defense antimicrobial protein of healthy human skin. J Biol Chem 2002; 277 (48):46779-46784.
151. Ong PY, Ohtake T, Brandt C, Strickland I, Boguniewicz M, Ganz T, Gallo RL, Leung DY. Endogenous antimicrobial peptides and skin infections in atopic dermatitis. N Engl J Med 2002; 347 (15):1151-1160.
152. Boman HG. Antibacterial peptides: basic facts and emerging concepts. J Intern Med 2003; 254 (3):197-215.
153. Miller SJ, Aly R, Shinefeld HR, Elias PM. In vitro and in vivo antistaphylococcal activity of human stratum corneum lipids. Arch Dermatol 1988; 124 (2):209-215.
154. Fluhr JW, Kao J, Jain M, Ahn SK, Feingold KR, Elias PM. Generation of free fatty acids from phospholipids regulates stratum corneum acidification and integrity. J Invest Dermatol 2001; 117 (1):44-51.
155. Arikawa J, Ishibashi M, Kawashima M, Takagi Y, Ichikawa Y, Imokawa G. Decreased levels of sphingosine, a natural antimicrobial agent, may be associated with vulnerability of the stratum corneum from patients with atopic dermatitis to colonization by Staphylococcus aureus. J Invest Dermatol 2002; 119 (2):433-439.
156. Schmuth M. Dropping lipids for epidermal defense. J Invest Dermatol 2003; 121 (2):xi.
157. Aalto-Korte K. Improvement of skin barrier function during treatment of atopic dermatitis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1995; 33 (6):969-972.
158. Mao-Qiang M, Brown BE, Wu-Pong S, Feingold KR, Elias PM. Exogenous nonphysiologic vs physiologic lipids. Divergent mechanisms for correction of permeability barrier dysfunction. Arch Dermatol 1995; 131 (7):809-816.
159. Chamlin SL, Frieden IJ, Fowler A, Williams M, Kao J, Sheu M, Elias PM. Ceramide-dominant, barrier-repair lipids improve childhood atopic dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 2001; 137 (8):1110-1112.
160. Berardesca E, Barbareschi M, Veraldi S, Pimpinelli N. Evaluation of efficacy of a skin lipid mixture in patients with irritant contact dermatitis, allergic contact dermatitis or atopic dermatitis: a multicenter study. Contact Dermatitis 2001; 45 (5):280-285.
161. Elias PM, Feingold KR. Does the tail wag the dog? Role of the barrier in the pathogenesis of inflammatory dermatoses and therapeutic implications. Arch Dermatol 2001; 137 (8):1079-1081.
162. Man MQ M, Feingold KR, Thornfeldt CR, Elias PM. Optimization of physiological lipid mixtures for barrier repair. J Invest Dermatol 1996; 106 (5):1096-1101.