Role of Topical Emollients and Moisturizers in the Treatment of Dry Skin Barrier Disorders

American Journal of Clinical Dermatology

Volumn 4, Issue 11, 2003, Pages 771-788

  Lodén, Marie ^a  

^a ACO Hud AB   (Sweden)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTIOXIDANT; BUTYLCRESOL; CERAMIDE DERIVATIVE; CHELATING AGENT; CHOLESTEROL; CLOBETASOL; CORTICOSTEROID; CYTOKINE; DODECYL SULFATE SODIUM; EDETIC ACID; EMOLLIENT AGENT; EMULSIFYING AGENT; FAT; GLUCOSYLCERAMIDE; GLYCEROL; HUMECTANT; LACTIC ACID; MACROGOL; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PETROLATUM; PHOSPHOLIPID; PRESERVATIVE; PRIMROSE OIL; PROPYLENE GLYCOL; SKIN LIPID; SUNFLOWER OIL; TOCOPHEROL; UNINDEXED DRUG; UREA DERIVATIVE;

ATOPIC DERMATITIS; ATOPY; BURNING SENSATION; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; CHEMISTRY; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTACT DERMATITIS; COSMETIC INDUSTRY; DIETARY INTAKE; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DNA SYNTHESIS; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG FORMULATION; DRY SKIN; EPIDERMIS; EPIDERMIS HYPERPLASIA; HUMAN; HYDRATION; HYPERKERATOSIS; ICHTHYOSIS; MENTAL STRESS; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PH; PITYROSPORUM OVALE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PSORIASIS; REVIEW; SEBORRHEIC DERMATITIS; SIDE EFFECT; SKIN DISEASE; SKIN FUNCTION; SKIN INFLAMMATION; SKIN MANIFESTATION; SKIN PERMEABILITY; SKIN STRUCTURE; SKIN WATER LOSS; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; STRATUM CORNEUM; TREATMENT OUTCOME; XEROSIS;

ADMINISTRATION, TOPICAL; DERMATITIS; EMOLLIENTS; EPIDERMIS; HUMANS; ICHTHYOSIS; SKIN ABSORPTION; WATER LOSS, INSENSIBLE;

EID: 0344011551     PISSN: 11750561     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00128071-200304110-00005     Document Type: Review

References (215)

1. Lucky AW, Leach AD, Laskarzewski P, et al. Use of an emollient as a steroid-sparing agent in the treatment of mild to moderate atopic dermatitis in children. Pediatr Dermatol 1997; 14: 321-4
2. Cork MJ. The role of Staphylococcus aureus in atopic eczema: treatment strategies. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 1996; 7: S31-7
3. Strange P, Skov L, Lisby S, et al. Staphylococal enterotoxin B applied on intact normal and intact atopic skin induces dermatitis. Arch Dermatol 1996; 132: 27-33
4. Ashida Y, Ogo M, Denda M. Epidermal interleukin-1 alpha generation is amplified at low humidity: implications for the pathogenesis of inflammatory dermatoses. Br J Dermatol 2001; 144: 238-43
5. Morris-Jones R, Robertson SJ, Ross JS, et al. Dermatitis caused by physical irritants. Br J Dermatol 2002; 147: 270-5
6. Ghadially R, Brown BE, Sequeira-Martin SM, et al. The aged epidermal permeability barrier: structural, functional, and lipid biochemical abnormalities in humans and a senescent murine model. J Clin Invest 1995; 95: 2281-90
7. Garg A, Chren MM, Sands LP, et al. Psychological stress perturbs epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis: implications for the pathogenesis of stress-associated skin disorders. Arch Dermatol 2001; 137: 53-9
8. Proksch E, Feingold KR, Man MQ, et al. Barrier function regulates epidermal DNA synthesis. J Clin Invest 1991; 87: 1668-73
9. Denda M, Wood LC, Emami S, et al. The epidermal hyperplasia associated with repeated barrier disruption by acetone treatment or tape stripping cannot be attributed to increased water loss. Arch Dermatol Res 1996; 288: 230-8
10. Wood LC, Jackson SM, Elias PM, et al. Cutaneous barrier perturbation stimulates cytokine production in the epidermis of mice. J Clin Invest 1992; 90: 482-7
11. Werner Y, Lindberg M. Transepidermal water loss in dry and clinically normal skin in patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 1985; 65: 102-5
12. Loden M, Olsson H, Axell T, et al. Friction, capacitance and transepidermal water loss (TEWL) in dry atopic and normal skin. Br J Dermatol 1992; 126: 137-41
13. Thune P. Evaluation of the hydration and the water-holding capacity in atopic skin and so-called dry skin. Acta Derm Venereol Suppl (Stockh) 1989; 144: 133-5
14. Finlay AY, Nicholls S, King CS, et al. The 'dry' non-eczematous skin associated with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1980; 103: 249-56
15. Ghadially R, Reed JT, Elias PM. Stratum corneum structure and function correlates with phenotype in psoriasis. J Invest Dermatol 1996; 107: 558-64
16. Motta S, Monti M, Sesana S, et al. Abnormality of water barrier function in psoriasis. Arch Dermatol 1994; 130: 452-6
17. Elias PM, Schmuth M, Uchida Y, et al. Basis for the permeability barrier abnormality in lamellar ichthyosis. Exp Dermatol 2002; 11: 248-56
18. Lavrijsen AP, Oestmann E, Hermans J, et al. Barrier function parameters in various keratinization disorders: transepidermal water loss and vascular response to hexyl nicotinate. Br J Dermatol 1993; 129: 547-53
19. Lavrijsen AP, Bouwstra JA, Gooris GS, et al. Reduced skin barrier function parallels abnormal stratum corneum lipid organization in patients with lamellar ichthyosis. J Invest Dermatol 1995; 105: 619-24
20. Gånemo A, Virtanen M, Vahlquist A. Improved topical treatment of lamellar ichthyosis: a double blind study of four different cream formulations. Br J Dermatol 1999; 141: 1027-32
21. Broberg A, Svensson Å, Borres MP, et al. Atopic dermatitis in 5-6-year-old Swedish children: cumulative incidence, point prevalence, and severity scoring. Allergy 2000; 55: 1025-9
22. Larsen FS, Diepgen T, Svensson Å. The occurence of atopic dermatitis in North Europe: an international questionnaire study. J Am Acad Dermatol 1996; 34: 760-4
23. Taieb A. Hypothesis: from epidermal barrier dysfunction to atopic disorders. Contact Dermatitis 1999; 41: 177-80
24. Leveque JL, Grove GL, de Rigal J, et al. Biophysical characterization of dry facial skin. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1987; 82: 171-7
25. Linde YW. "Dry" skin in atopic dermatitis: a clinical study. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1989; 69: 311-4
26. Lodén M, Olsson H, Axell T, et al. Friction, capacitance and transepidermal water loss (TEWL) in dry atopic and normal skin. Br J Dermatol 1992; 126: 137-41
27. Downing DT. Lipid and protein structures in the permeability barrier. In: Lodén M, Maibach HI, editors. Dry skin and moisturizers; chemistry and function. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2000: 59-70
28. Blank IH. Factors which influence the water content of the stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol 1952; 18: 433-40
29. Elias PM. Lipids and the epidermal permeability barrier. Arch Dermatol Res 1981; 270: 95-117
30. Takenouchi M, Suzuki H, Tagami H. Hydration characteristics of pathologic stratum corneum-evaluation of bound water. J Invest Dermatol 1986; 87: 574-6
31. Anderson RL, Cassidy JM, Hansen JR, et al. Hydration of stratum corneum. Biopolymers 1973; 12: 2789-802
32. Blank IH. Further observations on factors which influence the water content of the stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol 1953; 21: 259-71
33. Jacobi OK. Moisture regulation in the skin. Drug Cosmet Ind 1959; 84: 732-812
34. Laden K. Natural moisturization factors in skin. Am Perfum Cosmet 1967; 82: 77-9
35. Laden K, Spitzer R. Identification of a natural moisturizing agent in skin. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1967; 18: 351-60
36. Imokawa G, Kuno H, Kawai M. Stratum corneum lipids serve as a bound-water modulator. J Invest Dermatol 1991; 96: 845-51
37. Middleton J. Development of a skin cream designed to reduce dry and flaky skin. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1974; 25: 519-34
38. 13C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Invest Dermatol 1995; 104 (5): 806-12
39. Suzuki Y, Nomura J, Koyama J, et al. The role of proteases in stratum corneum: involvement in stratum corneum desquamation. Arch Dermatol Res 1994; 286: 249-53
40. Rawlings AV, Harding C, Watkinson A, et al. The effect of glycerol and humidity on desmosome degradation in stratum corneum. Arch Dermatol Res 1995; 287: 457-64
41. Öhman H, Vahlquist A. The pH gradient over the stratum corneum differs in X-linked recessive and autosomal dominant ichthyosis: a clue to the molecular origin of the "acid skin mantle"? J Invest Dermatol 1998; 111: 674-7
42. Lundström A, Egelrud T. Cell shedding from human plantar skin in vitro: evidence of its dependence on endogenous proteolysis. J Invest Dermatol 1988; 91: 340-3
43. Sato J, Denda M, Nakanishi J, et al. Cholesterol sulfate inhibits proteases that are involved in desquamation of stratum corneum. J Invest Dermatol 1998; 111: 189-93
44. Bouwstra JA, Gooris GS, Dubbelaar FE, et al. Cholesterol sulfate and calcium affect stratum corneum lipid organization over a wide temperature range. J Lipid Res 1999; 40: 2303-12
45. Bouwstra JA, Dubbelaar FE, Gooris GS, et al. The role of ceramide composition in the lipid organisation of the skin barrier. Biochim Biophys Acta 1999; 1419: 127-36
46. Scheuplein RJ, Blank IH. Permeability of the skin. Physiol Rev 1971; 51: 702-47
47. Potts RO, Francoeur ML. The influence of stratum corneum morphology on water permeability. J Invest Dermatol 1991; 96: 495-9
48. Rougier A, Lotte C, Corcuff P, et al. Relationship between skin permeability and corneocyte size according to anatomic site, age, and sex in man. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1988; 39: 15-26
49. Grove GL, Kligman AM. Corneocytes size as an indirect measure of epidermal proliferative activity. In: Marks R, Plewig G, editor. Stratum corneum. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1983: 191-4
50. Blank IH, Moloney J, Emslie AG, et al. The diffusion of water across the stratum corneum as a function of its water content. J Invest Dermatol 1984; 82: 188-94
51. Tiemessen HLGM, Bodde HM, Junginger HE. A silicone membrane sandwich method to measure drug transport through isolated human stratum corneum having a fixed water content. Int J Pharmacol 1989; 56: 87-94
52. Van Hal DA, Jeremiasse E, Junginger HE, et al. Structure of fully hydrated human stratum corneum: a freeze-fracture electron microscopy study. J Invest Dermatol 1996; 106: 89-95
53. Mak VHW, Potts RO, Guy RH. Does hydration affect intercellular lipid organization in the stratum corneum? Pharm Res 1991; 8: 1064-5
54. Elias PM, Menon GK. Structural and lipid biochemical correlates of the epidermal permeability barrier. Adv Lipid Res 1991; 24: 1-26
55. White SH, Mirejovsky D, King GI. Structure of lamellar lipid domains and corneocyte envelopes of murine stratum corneum: an X-ray diffraction study. Biochemistry 1988; 27: 3725-32
56. Bouwstra JA, Gooris GS, van der Spek JA, et al. The structure of human stratum corneum as determined by small angle X-ray scattering. J Invest Dermatol 1991; 96: 1006-14
57. Knutson K, Krill SL, Lambert WJ, et al. Physiochemical aspects of transdermal permeation. J Control Release 1987; 6: 59-74
58. Forslind B. A domain mosaic model of the skin barrier. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1994; 74: 1-6
59. Holleran WM, Takagi Y, Menon GK, et al. Permeability barrier requirements regulate epidermal beta-glucocerebrosidase. J Lipid Res 1994; 35: 905-12
60. Holleran WM, Takagi Y, Menon GK, et al. Processing of epidermal glucosylceramides is required for optimal mammalian cutaneous permeability barrier function. J Clin Invest 1993; 91: 1656-64
61. Holleran WM, Ginns EI, Menon GK, et al. Consequences of beta-glucocerebrosidase deficiency in epidermis: ultrastructure and permeability barrier alterations in Gaucher disease. J Clin Invest 1994; 93: 1756-64
62. Man MQ, Feingold KR, Jain M, et al. Extracellular processing of phospholipids is required for permeability barrier homeostasis. J Lipid Res 1995; 36 (9): 1925-35
63. Mauro T, Holleran WM, Grayson S, et al. Barrier recovery is impeded at neutral pH, independent of ionic effects: implications for extracellular lipid processing. Arch Dermatol Res 1998; 290: 215-22
64. Redoules D, Tarroux R, Assalit MF, et al. Characterisation and assy of five enzymatic activities in the stratum corneum using tape-strippings. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol 1999; 12: 182-92
65. Jensen JM, Schutze S, Forl M, et al. Roles for tumor necrosis factor receptor p55 and sphingomyelinase in repairing the cutaneous permeability barrier. J Clin Invest 1999; 104: 1761-70
66. Forslind B. The skin barrier: analysis of physiologically important elements and trace elements. Acta Derm Venereol 2000; 208: 46-52
67. Feingold KR, Elias PM. The environmental interface: regulation of permeability barrier homeostasis. In: Lodén M, Maibach HI, editor. Dry skin and moisturizers: chemistry and function. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2000: 45-58
68. Mao-Qiang M, Mauro T, Bench G, et al. Calcium and potassium inhibit barrier recovery after disruption, independent of the type of insult in hairless mice. Exp Dermatol 1997; 6: 36-40
69. Menon GK, Feingold KR, Elias PM. Lamellar body secretory response to barrier disruption. J Invest Dermatol 1992; 98: 279-89
70. Serup J, Jemec GBE. Handbook of non-invasive methods and the skin. Boca Raton: CRC Press Inc, 1995
71. Dupuis D, Rougier A, Lotte C, et al. In vivo relationship between percutaneous absorption and transepidermal water loss according to anatomic site in man. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1986; 37: 351-7
72. Aalto-Korte K, Turpeinen M. Transepidermal water loss and absorption of hydrocortisone in widespread dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1993; 128: 633-5
73. Rogiers V. EEMCO guidance for the assessment of transepidermal water loss in cosmetic science. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol 2001; 14: 117-28
74. Pinnagoda J, Tupker RA, Agner T, et al. Guidelines for transepidermal water loss (TEWL) measurement: a report from the Standardization Group of the European Society of Contact Dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 1990; 22: 164-78
75. Potts RO. Stratum corneum hydration: experimental techniques and interpretations of results. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1986; 37: 9-33
76. Morrison BM. ServoMed evaporimeter: precautions when evaluating the effect of skin care products on barrier function. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1992; 43: 161-7
77. Lodén M. The increase in skin hydration after application of emollients with different amounts of lipids. Acta Derm Venereol 1992; 72: 327-30
78. Kolbe L. Non-invasive methods for testing of the stratum corneum barrier function. In: Lodén M, Maibach HI, editor. Dry skin and moisturizers: chemistry and function. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2000: 393-401
79. Barany E, Lindberg M, Lodén M. Unexpected skin barrier influence from nonionic emulsifiers. Int J Pharm 2000; 195: 189-95
80. Kibbe AW. Handbook of pharmaceutical excipients. 3rd ed. Washington: American Pharmaceutical Association, Pharmaceutical Press, 2000
81. Yunginger JW, Calobrisi SD. Investigation of the allergenicity of a refined peanut oil-containing topical dermatologic agent in persons who are sensitive to peanuts. Cutis 2001; 68: 153-5
82. Rhodes LE. Essential fatty acids. In: Lodén M, Maibach HI, editors. Dry skin and moisturizers: chemistry and function. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2000: 311-25
83. Wehr R, Krochmal L, Bagatell F, et al. A controlled two-center study of lactate 12% lotion and a petrolatum-based creme in patients with xerosis. Cutis 1986; 37: 205-9
84. Rosten M. The treatment of ichthyosis and hyperkeratotic conditions with urea. Aust J Derm 1970; 11: 142-4
85. Swanbeck G, Rajka G. Antipruritic effect of urea solutions. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1970; 50: 225-7
86. Farber EM, South DA. Urea ointment in the nonsurgical avulsion of nail drystrophies. Cutis 1978; 22: 689-92
87. Lodén M, Andersson AC, Anderson C, et al. A double-blind study comparing the effect of glycerin and urea on dry, eczematous skin in atopic patients. Acta Derm Venereol 2002; 82: 45-7
88. Froebe CL, Simion FA, Ohlmeyer H, et al. Prevention of stratum corneum lipid phase transitions in vitro by glycerol: an alternative mechanism for skin moisturization. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1990; 41: 51-65
89. Mattai J, Froebe CL, Rhein LD, et al. Prevention of model stratum corneum lipid phase transitions in vitro by cosmetic additives: differential scanning calometry, optical microscopy, and water evaporation studies. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1993; 44: 89-100
90. Rhodes LE, Diffey BL. Fluorescence spectroscopy: a rapid, noninvasive method for measurement of skin surface thickness of topical agents. Br J Dermatol 1997; 136: 12-7
91. Johnson R, Nusbaum BP, Horwitz SN, et al. Transfer of topically applied tetracycline in various vehicles. Arch Dermatol 1983; 119: 660-3
92. Schlagel CA, Sanborn EC. The weights of topical preparations required for total and partial body inunction. J Invest Dermatol 1964; 42: 253-6
93. Lynfield YL, Schechter BA. Choosing and using a vehicle. J Am Acad Dermatol 1984; 10: 56-9
94. Ivens UI, Steinkjer B, Serup J, et al. Ointment is evenly spread on the skin, in contrast to creams and solutions. Br J Dermatol 2001; 145: 264-7
95. Nicholls S, King CS, Marks R. Short term effects of emollients and a bath oil on the stratum corneum. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1978; 29: 617-24
96. Garber CA, Nightingale CT. Characterizing cosmetic effects and skin morphology by scanning electron microscopy. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1976; 27: 509-31
97. Lodén M, Olsson H, Skare L, et al. Instrumental and sensory evaluation of the frictional response of the skin following a single application of five moisturizing creams. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1992; 43: 13-20
98. Ghadially R, Halkier-Sorensen L, Elias PM. Effects of petrolatum on stratum corneum structure and function. J Am Acad Dermatol 1992; 26: 387-96
99. Moloney SJ. The in-vitro percutaneous absorption of glycerol trioleate through hairless mouse skin. J Pharm Pharmacol 1988; 40: 819-21
100. Wertz PW, Downing DT. Metabolism of topically applied fatty acid methyl esters in BALB/C mouse epidermis. J Dermatol Sci 1990; 1: 33-8
101. Dewsbury CE, Graham P, Darley CR. Topical eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in the treatment of psoriasis [letter]. Br J Dermatol 1989; 120: 581
102. Escobar SO, Achenbach R, Innantuono R, et al. Topical fish oil in psoriasis: a controlled and blind study. Clin Exp Dermatol 1992; 17: 159-62
103. Tollesson A, Frithz A. Borage oil, an effective new treatment for infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis [letter]. Br J Dermatol 1993; 129: 95
104. Tollesson A, Frithz A. Transepidermal water loss and water content in the stratum corneum in infantile seborrhoeic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 1993; 73: 18-20
105. Mao-Qiang M, Brown BE, Wu-Pong S, et al. Exogenous nonphysiologic vs physiologic lipids: divergent mechanisms for correction of permeability barrier dysfunction. Arch Dermatol 1995; 131: 809-16
106. Conti A, Rogers J, Verdejo P, et al. Seasonal influences on stratum corneum ceramide 1 and the influence of topical essential fatty acids. Int J Cosm Sci 1996; 18: 1-12
107. Thornfeldt C. Critical and optimal molar ratios of key lipids. In: Lodén M. Maibach HI, editors. Dry skin and moisturizers: chemistry and function. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2000: 337-47
108. Man MQ, Feingold KR, Elias PM. Exogenous lipids influence permeability barrier recovery in acetone-treated murine skin. Arch Dermatol 1993; 129: 728-38
109. Miller CC, Tang W, Ziboh VA, et al. Dietary supplementation with ethyl ester concentrates of fish oil (n-3) and borage oil (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids induces epidermal generation of local putative anti-inflammatory metabolites. J Invest Dermatol 1991; 96: 98-103
110. Orengo IF, Black HS, Wolf JE. Influence of fish oil supplementation on the minimal erythema dose in humans. Arch Dermatol Res 1992; 284: 219-21
111. Danno K, Ikai K, Imamura S. Anti-inflammatory effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on experimental skin inflammation models. Arch Dermatol Res 1993; 285: 432-5
112. Manku MS, Horrobin DF, Morse NL, et al. Essential fatty acids in the plasma phospholipids of patients with atopic eczema. Br J Dermatol 1984; 110: 643-8
113. Tree S, Marks R. An explanation for the 'placebo' effect of bland ointment bases. Br J Dermatol 1975; 92: 195-8
114. De Groot AC, Nater JP, Lende R, et al. Adverse effects of cosmetics and toiletries: a retrospective study in the general population. Int J Dermatol Sci 1988; 9: 255-9
115. Rietschel RL, Fowler JF. Fisher's contact dermatitis. 4th ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1995
116. Frosch PJ, Kligman AM. A method for appraising the stinging capacity of topically applied substances. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1977; 28: 197-209
117. Gabard B, Nook T, Muller KH. Tolerance of the lesioned skin to dermatological formulations. J Appl Cosmetol 1991; 9: 25-30
118. Larmi E, Lahti A, Hannuksela M. Immediate contact reactions to benzoic acid and the sodium salt of pyrrolidone carboxylic acid. Contact Dermatitis 1989; 20: 38-40
119. Tsai TF, Maibach HI. How irritant is water?: An overview. Contact Dermatitis 1999; 41: 311-4
120. Tupker RA, Willis C, Berardesca E, et al. Guidelines on sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) exposure tests: a report from the Standardization Group of the European Society of Contact Dermatitis. Contact Dermatitis 1997; 37: 53-69
121. Aungst BJ. The influence of fatty acids and fatty alcohols on skin permeability. In: Lodén M, Maibach HI, editors. Dry skin and moisturizers: chemistry and function. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2000: 299-325
122. Donbrow M, Azaz E, Pillersdorf A. Autooxidation of polysorbates. J Pharm Sci 1978; 67: 1676-81
123. De Groot AC. Sensitizing substances. In: Lodén M, Maibach HI, editors. Dry skin and moisturizers: chemistry and function. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2000: 403-11
124. Barany E, Lodén M. Content of fragrance mix ingredients and customer complaints of cosmetic products. Am J Contact Dermat 2000; 11: 74-9
125. Jansson T, Lodén M. Strategy to decrease the risk of adverse effects of fragrance ingredients in cosmetic products. Am J Contact Dermat 2001; 12: 166-9
126. Fan W, Kinnunen T, Niinimäke A, et al. Skin reactions to glycols used in dermatological and cosmetic vehicles. Am J Contact Dermat 1991; 2: 181-3
127. Funk JO, Maibach HI. Propylene glycol dermatitis: re-evaluation of an old problem. Contact Dermatitis 1994; 31: 236-41
128. Toxicity profile: propylene glycol. Surrey, UK: TNO BIBRA International Ltd, 1996
129. Glover ML, Reed MD. Propylene glycol: the safe diluent that continues to cause harm. Pharmacotherapy 1996; 16: 690-3
130. LaKind JS, McKenna EA, Hubner RP, et al. A review of the comparative mammalian toxicity of ethylene glycol and propylene glycol. Crit Rev Toxicol 1999; 29: 331-65
131. Mortensen B. Propylene glycol. Nord 1993; 29: 181-208
132. Drugs AAoP-Co. "Inactive" ingredients in pharmaceutical products: update (subject review). Pediatrics 1997; 99: 268-78
133. Cawley EP, Peterson NT, Wheeler CE. Salicylic acid poisoning in dermatological therapy. JAMA 1953; 151: 372-3
134. Denda M, Koyama J, Namba R, et al. Stratum corneum lipid morphology and transepidermal water loss in normal skin and surfactant-induced scaly skin. Arch Dermatol Res 1994; 286: 41-6
135. Imokawa G, Akasaki S, Minematsu Y, et al. Importance of intercellular lipids in water-retention properties of the stratum corneum: induction and recovery study of surfactant dry skin. Arch Dermatol Res 1989; 281: 45-51
136. Horii I, Nakayama Y, Obata M, et al. Stratum corneum hydration and amino acid content in xerotic skin. Br J Dermatol 1989; 121: 587-92
137. Watanabe M, Tagami H, Horii I, et al. Functional analyses of the superficial stratum corneum in atopic dermtitis. Arch Dermatol 1991; 127: 1689-92
138. Denda M, Hori J, Koyama J, et al. Stratum corneum sphingolipids and free amino acids in experimentally-induced scaly skin. Arch Dermatol Res 1992; 284: 363-7
139. Saint-Leger D, Francois AM, Leveque JL, et al. Stratum corneum lipids in skin xerosis. Dermatologica 1989; 178: 151-5
140. Held E, Lund H, Agner T. Effect of different moisturizers on SLS-irritated human skin. Contact Dermatitis 2001; 44: 229-34
141. Loden M. Barrier recovery and influence of irritant stimuli in skin treated with a moisturizing cream. Contact Dermatitis 1997; 36: 256-60
142. Zettersten EM, Ghadially R, Feingold KR, et al. Optimal ratios of topical stratum corneum lipids improve barrier recovery in chronologically aged skin. J Am Acad Dermatol 1997; 37: 403-8
143. De Paepe K, Derde M-P, Reseeuw D, et al. Incorporation of ceramide 3B in dermatocosmetic emulsions: effect of the transepidermal water loss of sodium lauryl sulphate-damaged skin. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2000; 14: 272-9
144. Lodén M, Barany E. Skin-identical lipids versus petrolatum in the treatment of tape-stripped and detergent-perturbed human skin. Acta Derm Venereol 2000; 80: 412-5
145. Halkier-Sorensen L, Thestrup-Pedersen K. The efficacy of a moisturizer (Locobase) among cleaners and kitchen assistants during everyday exposure to water and detergents. Contact Dermatitis 1993; 29: 266-71
146. Serup J. A double-blind comparison of two creams containing urea as the active ingredient: assessment of efficacy and side-effects by non-invasive techniques and a clinical scoring scheme. Acta Derm Venereol 1992; 177: 34-43
147. Rogers RS, Callen J, Wehr R, et al. Comparative efficacy of 12% ammonium lactate lotion and 5% lactic acid lotion in the treatment of moderate to severe xerosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989; 21: 714-6
148. Siskin SB, Quinlan PJ, Finkelstein MS, et al. The effect of ammonium lactate 12% lotion versus no therapy in the treatment of dry skin of the heels. Int J Dermatol 1983; 32: 905-7
149. Dahl MV, Dahl AC. 12% lactate lotion for the treatment of xerosis. Arch Dermatol 1983; 119: 27-30
150. Wehr RF, Kantor I, Jones EL, et al. A controlled comparative efficacy study of 5% ammonium lactate lotion versus an emollient control lotion in the treatment of moderate xerosis. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991; 25: 849-51
151. Middleton JD, Roberts ME. Effect of a skin cream containing the sodium salt of pyrrolidone carboxylic acid on dry and flaky skin. J Soc Cosmet Chem 1978; 29: 201-5
152. Schölermann A, Banké-Bochita J, Bohnsack K, et al. Efficacy and safety of Eucerin 10% urea lotion in the treatment of symptoms of aged skin. J Dermatol Treatm 1998; 9: 175-9
153. Frithz A. Investigation of Cortesal®, a hydrocortisone cream and its water-retaining cream base in the treatment of xerotic skin and dry eczemas. Curr Ther Res 1983; 33: 930-5
154. McNally NJ, Williams HC, Phillips DR, et al. Atopic eczema and domestic water hardness. Lancet 1998; 352: 527-31
155. Williams REA, Gibson AG, Aitchinson TC, et al. Assessment of a contact-plate sampling technique and subsequent quantitative bacterial studies in atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1990; 123: 493-501
156. Breuer K, Haussler S, Kapp A, et al. Staphylococcus aureus: colonizing features and influence of an antibacterial treatment in adults with atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 2002; 147: 55-61
157. Linde YW, Bengtsson A, Lodén M. 'Dry' skin in atopic dermatitis: II. a surface profilometry study. Acta Derm Venereol 1989; 69: 315-9
158. Berardesca E, Fideli D, Borroni G, et al. In vivo hydration and water-retention capacity of stratum corneum in clinically uninvolved skin in atopic and psoriatic patients. Acta Derm Venereol 1990; 70: 400-4
159. Wellner K, Wohlrab W. Quantitative evaluation of urea in stratum corneum of human skin. Arch Dermatol Res 1993; 285: 239-40
160. Forslind B, Werner-Linde Y, Lindberg M, et al. Elemental analysis mirrors epidermal differentiation. Acta Derm Venereol 1999; 79: 12-7
161. Hara J, Higuchi K, Okamato R, et al. High-expression of sphingomyelin deacylase is an important determinant of ceramide deficiency leading to barrier disruption in atopic dermatititis. J Invest Dermatol 2000; 115: 406-13
162. Murata Y, Ogata J, Higaki Y, et al. Abnormal expression of sphingomyelin acylase in atopic dermatitis: an etiologic factor for ceramide deficiency? J Invest Dermatol 1996; 106: 1242-9
163. Imokawa G, Abe A, Jin K, et al. Decreased level of ceramides in stratum corneum of atopic dermatitis: an etiologic factor in atopic dry skin? J Invest Dermatol 1991; 96: 523-6
164. Matsumoto M, Umemoto N, Sugiura H, et al. Difference in ceramide composition between "dry" and "normal" skin in patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 1999; 79: 246-7
165. Melnik B, Hollmann J, Hofmann U, et al. Lipid composition of outer stratum corneum and nails in atopic and control subjects. Arch Dermatol Res 1990; 282: 549-51
166. Di Nardo A, Wertz P, Giannetti A, et al. Ceramide and cholesterol composition of the skin of patients with atopic dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 1998; 78: 27-30
167. Pilgram GS, Vissers DC, van der Meulen H, et al. Aberrant lipid organization in stratum corneum of patients with atopic dermatitis and lamellar ichthyosis. J Invest Dermatol 2001; 117: 710-7
168. Matsumoto M, Sugiura H, Uehara M. Skin barrier function in patients with completely healed atopic dermatitis. J Dermatol Sci 2000; 23: 178
169. Wright S, Burton JL. Oral evening-primrose-seed oil improves atopic eczema. Lancet 1982; II: 1120-2
170. Hederos CA, Berg A. Epogam evening primrose oil treatment in atopic dermatitis and asthma. Arch Dis Child 1996; 75: 494-7
171. Bamford JTM, Gibson RW, Renier CM. Atopic eczema unresponsive to evening primrose oil (linoleic and α-linolenic acids). J Am Acad Dermatol 1985; 13: 959-65
172. Henz BM, Jablonska S, van de Kerkhof PCM, et al. Double-blind, multicentre analysis of the efficacy of borage oil in patients with atopic dermatitis. Br J Dermatol 1999; 140: 685-8
173. Elias PM, Wood LC, Feingold KR. Epidermal pathogenesis of inflammatory dermatoses. Am J Contact Dermat 1999; 10: 119-26
174. Vilaplana J, Coll J, Trullás C, et al. Clinical and non-invasive evaluation of 12% ammonium lactate emulsion for the treatment of dry skin in atopic and non-atopic subjects. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1992; 72: 28-33
175. Chamlin SL, Kao J, Frieden IJ, et al. Ceramide-dominant barrier repair lipids alleviate childhood atopic dermatitis: changes in barrier function provide a sensitive indicator of disease activity. J Am Acad Dermatol 2002; 47: 198-208
176. Andersson A-C, Lindberg M, Lodén M. The effect of two urea-containing creams on dry, eczematous skin in atopic patients: I. expert, patient and instrumental evaluation. J Dermatol Treat 1999; 10: 165-9
177. Lodén M, Andersson A-C, Lindberg M. Improvement in skin barrier function in patients with atopic dermatitis after treatment with a moisturizing cream (Canoderm®). Br J Dermatol 1999; 140: 264-7
178. Hagströmer L, Nyrén M, Emtestam L. Do urea and sodium chloride together increase the efficacy of moisturizers for atopic dermatitis skin: a comparative, double-blind and randomised study. Skin Pharmacol Appl Skin Physiol 2001; 14: 27-33
179. Baker H. Clinical dermatology. 4th ed. London: Baillière Tindall, 1998
180. Marstein S, Jellum E, Eldjarn L. The concentration of pyroglutamic acid (2-pyrrolidone-5-carboxylic acid) in normal and psoriatic epidermis, determined on a microgram scale by gas chromatography. Clin Chim Acta 1973; 43: 389-95
181. Motta S, Sesana S, Ghidoni R, et al. Content of the different lipid classes in psoriatic scale. Arch Dermatol Res 1995; 287: 691-4
182. Menon GK, Elias PM. Ultrastructural localization of calcium in psoriatic and normal human epidermis. Arch Dermatol 1991; 127: 57-63
183. Hartop PJ, Allenby CF, Prottey C. Comparison of barrier function and lipids in psoriasis and essential fatty acid-deficient rats. Clin Exp Dermatol 1978; 3: 259-67
184. Gupta AK, Ellis CN, Goldfarb MT, et al. The role of fish oil in psoriasis: a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the effect of fish oil and topical corticosteroid therapy in psoriasis. Int J Dermatol 1990; 29: 591-5
185. Zepelin HHH-V, Mrowietz U, Färber L, et al. Highly purified omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids for topical treatment of psoriasis: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled multicentre study. Br J Dermatol 1993; 129: 713-7
186. Fry L, Almeyda J, McMinn RM. Effect of plastic occlusive dressings on psoriatic epidermis. Br J Dermatol 1970; 82: 458-62
187. Hwang SM, Ahn SK, Menon GP, et al. Basis of occlusive therapy in psoriasis: correcting defects in permeability barrier and calcium gradient. Int J Dermatol 2001; 40: 223-31
188. Halprin KM, Fukui K, Ohkawara A. Flurandrenolone (Cordran) tape and carbohydrate metabolizing enzymes: use in the epidermis of people with psoriasis. Arch Dermatol 1969; 100: 336-41
189. Fisher LM, Maibach HI. Physical occlusion controlling epidermal mitosis. J Invest Dermatol 1972; 59: 106-8
190. Singh S, Gopal J, Mishra RN, et al. Topical 0.05% betamethasone dipropionate: efficacy in psoriasis with once a day vs twice a day application. Br J Dermatol 1995; 133: 497-8
191. Watsky KL, Frieije L, Lenevue M-C, et al. Water-in-oil emulsions as steroid-sparing adjunctive therapy in the treatment of psoriasis. Cutis 1992; 50: 383-6
192. Finlay AY. Emollients as adjuvant therapy for psoriasis. J Dermatol Treatm 1997; 8: S25-7
193. Comaish JS, Greener JS. The inhibiting effect of soft paraffin on the Kobner response in psoriasis. Br J Dermatol 1976; 94: 195-200
194. Swanbeck G. A new treatment of ichthyosis and other hyperkeratotic conditions. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1968; 48: 123-7
195. Hagemann I, Proksch E. Topical treatment by urea reduces epidermal hyperproliferation and induces differentiation in psoriasis. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1996; 76: 353-6
196. Wohlrab W, Schiemann S. Investigations on the mechanism of the activity of urea upon the epidermis [author's transl]. Arch Dermatol Res 1976; 255: 23-30
197. Sasaki Y, Tadaki T, Tagami H. The effects of a topical application of urea cream on the function of pathological stratum corneum. Acta Dermatol Kyoto 1989; 84: 581-6
198. Berardesca E, Vignoli GP, Distante F, et al. Effects of glycolic acid on psoriasis. Clin Exp Dermatol 1998; 23: 190-1
199. Vahlquist A. Ichthyosis: an inborn dryness of the skin. In: Lodén M, Maibach HI, editor. Dry skin and moisturizers: chemistry and function. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2000: 121-33
200. Sybert VP, Dale BA, Holbrook KA. Ichthyosis vulgaris: identification of a defect in filaggrin synthesis correlated with an absence of keratohyaline granules. J Invest Dermatol 1985; 84: 191-4
201. Williams ML, Feingold KR, Grubauer G, et al. Ichthyosis induced by cholesterollowering drugs: implications for epidermal cholesterol homeostasis. Arch Dermatol 1987; 123: 1535-8
202. Shapiro LJ, Weiss R, Buxman MM, et al. Enzymatic basis of typical x-linked ichthyosis. Lancet 1978; II: 756-7
203. Zettersten E, Man MQ, Sato J, et al. Recessive x-linked ichthyosis: role of cholesterol-sulfate accumulation in the barrier abnormality. J Invest Dermatol 1998; 111: 784-90
204. Ranasinghe AW, Wertz PW, Downing DT, et al. Lipid composition of cohesive and desquamated corneocytes from mouse ear skin. J Invest Dermatol 1986; 86: 187-90
205. Van Scott EJ, Yu RJ. Control of keratinization with alpha-hydroxy acids and related compounds: I. topical treatment of ichthyotic disorders. Arch Dermatol 1974; 110: 586-90
206. Van Scott EJ, Yu RJ. Hyperkeratinization, corneocyte cohesion, and alpha hydroxy acids. J Am Acad Dermatol 1984; 11: 867-79
207. Yu RJ, Van Scott EJ. Alpha-hydroxy acids: science and therapeutic use. Cos Derm 1994, 1-6
208. Blair C. The action of a urea-lactic acid ointment in ichthyosis: with particular reference to the thickness of the horny layer. Br J Dermatol 1976; 94: 145-53
209. Pope FM, Rees JK, Wells RS, et al. Out-patient treatment of ichthyosis: a double-blind trial of of ointments. Br J Dermatol 1972; 86: 291-6
210. Lykkesfeldt G, Hoyer H. Topical cholesterol treatment of recessive X-linked ichthyosis. Lancet 1983; II: 1337-8
211. Fredriksson T, Gip L. Urea creams in the treament of dry skin and hand dermatitis. Int J Dermatol 1975; 32: 442-4
212. Kuster W, Bohnsack K, Rippke F, et al. Efficacy of urea therapy in children with ichthyosis: a multicenter randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, semi-lateral study. Dermatology 1998; 196: 217-22
213. Redondo P, Bauza A. Topical N-acetylcysteine for lamellar ichthyosis [letter]. Lancet 1999; 354: 1880
214. Gånemo A, Vahlquist A. Lamellar ichthyosis is markedly improved by a noval combination of emollients. Br J Dermatol 1997; 137: 1011-31
215. Grice K, Sattar H, Baker H. Urea and retinoic acid in ichthyosis and their effect on transepidermal water loss and water holding capacity of stratum corneum. Acta Derm Venereol (Stockh) 1973; 54: 114-8