The tale wagged by the DAG: Broadening the scope of causal inference and explanation for epidemiology

International Journal of Epidemiology

Volumn 45, Issue 6, 2016, Pages 1787-1808

  Krieger, Nancy ^a   Smith, George Davey ^b  

^a HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BAYESIAN ANALYSIS; EPIDEMIOLOGY; GRAPHICAL METHOD; PHILOSOPHY; TWENTY FIRST CENTURY;

ACCURACY; ARTICLE; CAUSAL INFERENCE; DIRECTED ACYCLIC GRAPH; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; HEALTH STATUS; HUMAN; HYPOTHESIS; METHODOLOGY; NARRATIVE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RACISM; SCIENTIST; SOCIOLOGY; TRIANGULATION; ALGORITHM; CAUSALITY; EPIDEMIOLOGY; STATISTICAL ANALYSIS;

ALGORITHMS; CAUSALITY; CONFOUNDING FACTORS (EPIDEMIOLOGY); DATA INTERPRETATION, STATISTICAL; EPIDEMIOLOGIC METHODS; HUMANS;

EID: 85017108629     PISSN: 03005771     EISSN: 14643685     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyw114     Document Type: Article

References (192)

1. Glass TA, Goodman SN, Hernán MA, Samet JM. Causal inference in public health. Annu Rev Public Health 2013;34:61-75.
2. Greenland S, Pearl J, Robins JM. Causal diagrams for epidemiological research. Epidemiology 1999;10:37-48.
3. Robins JM, Hernán MA, Brumbach B. Marginal structural models and causal inference in epidemiology. Epidemiology 2000;11:550-60.
4. VanderWeele TJ, Vansteelandt S, Robins JM. Marginal structural models for sufficient cause interactions. Am J Epidemiol 2010;171:506-14.
5. Richmond RC, Al-Amin A, Davey Smith G, Relton C. Approaches for drawing causal inferences from epidemiological birth cohorts: a review. Early Hum Dev 2014;90:769-80.
6. VanderWeele T. Explanation in Causal Inference: Methods for Mediation and Interaction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2015.
7. Hernán MA, Robins JM. Causal Inference. Boca Raton, FL: Chapman& Hall/CRC, forthcoming (2016). http://www.hsph. harvard.edu/miguel-hernan/causal-inference-book/ (23 March 2016, date last accessed).
8. Porta M, Vineis P, Bolúmar F. The current deconstruction of paradoxes: one sign of the ongoing methodological 'revolution'. Eur J Epidemiol 2015;30:1079-87.
9. Broadbent A. Causation and prediction in epidemiology: a guide to the 'methodological revolution'. Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci 2015;54:72-80.
10. Vandenbroucke JP, Broadbent A, Pearce N. Causality and causal inference in epidemiology: the need for a pluralistic approach. Int J Epidemiol 2016;45:1776-86.
11. Web of Science. http://ipscience.thomsonreuters.com/product/ web-of-science/ (28 January 2016, date last accessed).
12. Sydenstricker E. Health & Environment. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 1933.
13. Morris JN. Uses of Epidemiology. Edinburgh, UK: E. & S. Livingstone, 1957.
14. Susser M. Causal Thinking in Health Sciences: Concepts and Strategies of Epidemiology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1973.
15. Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S. Epidemiology-is it time to call it a day? Int J Epidemiol 2001;30:1-11.
16. Davey Smith G. Epidemiology, epigenetics and the -Gloomy Prospect': embracing randomness in population health research and practice. Int J Epidemiol 2011;40:537-62.
17. Krieger N. Epidemiology and the People's Health: Theory and Context. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011.
18. Cornfield J, Haenszel W, Hammond EC, Lilienfeld AM, Shimkin MB, Wynder EL. Smoking and lung cancer: recent evidence and a discussion of some questions. J Natl Cancer Inst 1959;22:173-203 (Reprinted Int J Epidemiol 2009;38:1175-91).
19. Stallones RA. The association between tobacco smoking and coronary heart disease. Draft report of June 28 [1963] to the Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health. Int J Epidemiol 2015;44:735-43.
20. Blackburn H. Commentary: 'The association between tobacco smoking and coronary heart disease'. An unpublished memorandum by Reuel Stallones, consultant in cardiovascular diseases to the U.S. Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health, 28 June and 19 July 1963. Int J Epidemiol 2015 44:744-48.
21. Hill AB. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc R Soc Med 1965;58:295-300.
22. Brandt AM. The Cigarette Century: The Rise, Fall, and Deadly Persistence of the Product that Defined America. New York, NY: Basic Books, 2007.
23. Proctor R. Golden Holocaust: Origins of the Cigarette Catastrophe and the Case for Abolition. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2011.
24. Yeo EJ. Social surveys in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In: Porter RM, Ross D (eds). The Cambridge History of Science. Vol 7: The Modern Social Sciences. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
25. Porter TM. Trust in Numbers: The Pursuit of Objectivity in Science and Public Life. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995.
26. Hacking I. The Taming of Chance. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
27. Krieger N. Epidemiology and the social sciences: towards a critical engagement in the 21st century. Epidemiol Rev 2000;22:155-63.
28. Krieger N. Who and what is apopulation'? Historical debates, current controversies, and implications for understanding 'population health' and rectifying health inequities. Milbank Q 2012;90:634-81.
29. Hamlin C. Public Health and Social Justice in the Age of Chadwick: Britain, 1800-1854. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
30. Glymour MM, Greenland S. Causal diagrams. In: Rothman K, Greenland S, Lash T (eds). Modern Epidemiology. 3rd edn. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008; 183-209.
31. Forita R, Spallek J, Zeeb H. Directed acyclic graphs. In: Ahrens W, Pigeot I (eds). Handbook of Epidemiology. 2nd edn. New York, NY: Springer Science+Business Media, 2014; 1481-571.
32. Pearl J. Causality -Models, Reasoning, and Inference. 2nd edn. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
33. Swanson SD. Communicating causality. Eur J Epidemiol 2015;30:1073-75.
34. VanderWeele TJ, Hernán MA. Causal effects and natural laws: towards a conceptualization of causal counterfactuals for nonmanipulable exposures, with application to the effects of race and sex. In: Berzuini C, Dawid P, Bernardinelli L (eds). Causality: Statistical Perspectives and Applications. New York, NY: Wiley, 2012; 101-13.
35. Imbens GW, Rubin DB. Causal Inference for Statistics, Social and Biomedical Sciences: An Introduction. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015.
36. Holland PW. Statistics and causal inference. J Am Stat Assoc 1986;81:945-60.
37. Curd M, Psillos S (eds). The Routledge Companion to the Philosophy of Science. 2nd edn. New Brunswick, NJ: Routledge, 2013.
38. Bird A, Ladyman J (eds). Arguing about Science. New York, NY: Routledge, 2012.
39. Beebee H, Hitchcock C, Menzies P. The Oxford Handbook of Causation. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2009.
40. Illari PM, Russo F, Williamson J (eds). Causality in the Sciences. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2011.
41. Ziman JM. Real Science: What It Is, and What It Means. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
42. Lipton P. Inference to the Best Explanation. 2nd edn. London: Routledge, 2004.
43. Losee J. Theories of Causality: From Antiquity to the Present. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press, 2012.
44. Reiss JR. Causation in the social sciences: evidence, inference, and purpose. Philos Soc Sci 2009;39:20-40.
45. Reiss J. Causation in the sciences: an inferentialist account. Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci 2012;43:769-77.
46. Cartwright N. Hunting Causes and Using Them: Approaches in Philosophy and Economics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
47. Cartwright N, Hardie J. Evidence-led Policy: A Practical Guide to Doing it Better. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2012.
48. Davey Smith G, Hermani G. Mendelian randomization: genetic anchors for causal inference in epidemiological studies. Hum Molr Genet 2014;23(R1):R89-98.
49. Davey Smith G. The Wright stuff: genes in the interrogation of correlation and causation. Eur J Pers 2012;26:395-97.
50. Krieger N, Davey Smith G. Re: 'Seeking causal explanations in social epidemiology'. (letter). Am J Epidemiol 2000;151:831-32.
51. Rockhill B. Theorizing about cases at the individual level while estimating effects at the population level: implications for prevention. Epidemiology 2005;16:124-29.
52. Marmot M. Social causes of social inequalities in health. In: Anand S, Peter F, Sen A (eds). Public Health, Ethics, and Equity. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2004; 37-62.
53. World Health Organization, Commission on the Social Determinants of Health. Closing the Gap in a Generation: Health Equity Through Action on the Social Determinants of Health. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2008.
54. Birn AE, Pillay Y, Holtz TH. Textbook of International Health: Global Health in a Dynamic World. 3rd edn. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2009.
55. World Health Organization. World Health Statistics 2014. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014
56. Global Health Watch. Global Health Watch 4: An Alternative World Health Report. London: Zed Books, 2014.
57. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Fifth Assessment Report (AR5). 2014. http://ipcc.ch/report/ar5/ index.shtml (23 March 2016, date last accessed).
58. McMichael AJ. Population health in the Anthropocene: gains, losses, and emerging trends. Anthropocene Rev 2014;1:44-56.
59. Patz JA, Frumkin H, Holloway T, Vimont DJ, Haines A. Climate change: challenges and opportunities for global health. JAMA 2014;312:1565-80.
60. UNAIDS. An Introduction to Triangulation. Geneva: UNAIDS, 2010.
61. Rose S. Lifelines: Biology Beyond Determinism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1998.
62. Krieger N. Embodiment: a conceptual glossary for epidemiology. J Epidemiol Community Health 2005;59:350-55.
63. Hu FB. Obesity Epidemiology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2008.
64. Banack HR, Kaufman J. The obesity paradox: understanding the effect of obesity on mortality among individuals with cardiovascular disease. Prev Med 2014 62:96-102.
65. Nestle M. Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health. Revised and expanded 10th anniversary edn. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2013.
66. Booth S, Coveney J. Food Democracy: From Consumer to Food Citizen. Springer Briefs in Public Health. Singapore: Springer, 2015.
67. Varbo A, Benn M, Davey Smith G, Timpson NJ, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, Nordestgaard BG. Remnant cholesterol, lowdensity lipoprotein cholesterol, and blood pressure as mediators from obesity to ischemic heart disease. Circ Res 2015;116:65-73.
68. Würtz P, Wang Q, Kangas AJ et al. Metabolic signatures of adiposity in young adults: mendelian randomization analysis and effects of weight change. PLoS Med 2014;11:e1001765.
69. Crookshank FG. First principles: and epidemiology. Proc R Soc Med 1920. 13(Sect Epidemiol State Med):159-84.
70. Lakoff A. Vaccine politics and the management of reason. Public Culture 2015;27:419-25.
71. Ganapathiraju PV, Mossink CB, Plumb J. Endgame for polio eradication? Options for overcoming social and political factors in the progress to eradicating polio. Glob Public Health 2015;10:463-73.
72. Lillviv DF, Kirkland A, Frick A. Power and persuasion in the vaccine debates: an analysis of political efforts and outcomes in the United States. MilbankQ2014;92:475-508.
73. Casper MJ, Carpenter LM. Sex, drugs, and politics: the HPV vaccine for cervical cancer. Sociol Health Illness 2008;30:886-99.
74. Bumiller E. We have met the enemy and he is power point. New York Times, 26 April 2010.
75. Fisher R. "Afghandyland," where you can't win and you can't quit. New York Times, 11 December 2009.
76. Lipton P. Précis of Inference to the Best Explanation. 2nd edn. Philos Phenom Res 2007;74:421-23.
77. Lipton P. Causation and explanation. In: Beebee H, Hitchcock C, Menzies P (eds). The Oxford Handbook of Causation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2009; 619-31.
78. Douven I. Abduction. In: Zalta EN (ed). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2011 edn. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2011.
79. Psillos S. The fine structure of inference to the best explanation. Philos Phenom Res 2007;74:441-48.
80. Broadbent A. What could possibly go wrong? -a heuristic for predicting population health outcomes of interventions. Prev Med 2011;53:256-59.
81. Davey Smith G, Egger M. Incommunicable knowledge? Interpreting and applying the results of clinical trials and metaanalysis. J Clin Epidemiol 1998;51:289-95.
82. Koons R. Defeasible reasoning. In: Zalta EN (ed). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2014 edn. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 2014.
83. Koch E, Otarala A, Kirschbaum A. A landmark for Popperian epidemiology: refutation of the randomized aldactone evaluation study. J Epidemiol Community Health 2005;59:1000-06.
84. Hyams KC. The investigation fatigue syndrome: a case study of the limitations of inductive inferences and non-falsifiable hypotheses in medical research. Med Hypotheses 2003;60:760-66.
85. Maclure M. Multivariate refutation of aetiological hypotheses in non-experimental epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 1990;19:782-87.
86. Buck C. Popper's philosophy for epidemiologists. Int J Epidemiol 1975;4:159-68.
87. Susser M. The logic of Sir Karl Popper and the practice of epidemiology. Am J Epidemiol 1986;124:711-18.
88. Jacobsen M. Against Popperized epidemiology. Int J Epidemiol 1976;5:9-11.
89. Rothman KJ, Greenland S, Lash TL. Modern Epidemiology. 3rd edn. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams&Wilkins, 2008; 20-25, 30.
90. Greenland S. Induction vs Popper: substance vs semantics. Int J Epidemiol 1998;4:543-48.
91. MacMahon B, Sawa JM. Physical damage to the fetus. Milbank Q1961;39:14-83.
92. Denda M. Newly discovered olfactory receptors in epidermal keratinocytes are associated with proliferation, migration, and re-epithelialization of keratinocytes. J Invest Dermatol 2014;134:2677-79.
93. Busse D, Kudella P, Grüning N-M et al. A synthetic sandalwood odorant induces wound-healing processes in human keratinocytes via the olfactory receptor OR2AT4. J Invest Dermatol 2014;134:2823-32.
94. Oudshoorn N. Beyond the Natural Body: An Archaeology of Sex Hormones. London: Routledge, 1994.
95. Krieger N, Löwy I; Women, Hormones, and Cancer group. Hormone replacement therapy, cancer, controversies and women's health: historical, epidemiological, biological, clinical and advocacy perspectives. J Epidemiol Community Health 2005;59:740-48.
96. Krieger N. History, biology, and health inequities: emergent embodied phenotypes and the illustrative case of the breast cancer estrogen receptor. Am J Public Health 2013;103:22-27.
97. Heldring N, Pike A, Andersson S et al. Estrogen receptors: how do they signal and what are their targets? Physiol Rev 2007;87:905-31.
98. Vrtačnik P, Ostanek B, Mencej-Bedrac? S, More J. The many faces of estrogen signaling. Biochem Med (Zagreb) 2014;24:329-42.
99. Terris M (ed). Goldberger on Pellagra. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1964.
100. Etheridge EW. The Butterfly Caste: A Social History of Pellagra in the South. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing, 1972.
101. Elmore JE, Feinstein AR. Joseph Goldberger: an unsung hero of American clinical epidemiology. Ann Intern Med 1994;121:372-75.
102. Klevay LM. And so spake Goldberger in 1916: pellagra is not infectious! J Am Coll Nutr 1997;16:290-92.
103. National Institutes of Health, Office of NIH History. Dr. Joseph Goldberger and the War on Pellagra (2010). http://history. nih.gov/exhibits/goldberger/index.html (23 March 2016, date last accessed).
104. Lansha DJ. The discovery of niacin, biotin, and panthothenic acid. Ann Nutr Metabol 2012;61:246-53.
105. Davenport CB. The hereditary factor in pellagra. Arch Intern Med 1916;18:4-31.
106. Goldberger J, Wheeler GA, Sullivan MX, Jones KK. The Experimental Production of Pellagra in Human Subjects by Means of Diet. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1920.
107. Goldberger J, Wheeler GA, Lillie RD, Rogers LM. A study of the blacktongue-preventive action of 16 foodstuffs, with special reference to the identity of blacktongue of dogs and pellagra of man. Public Health Rep 1928;43:1385-454.
108. Goldberger J, Wheeler GA, Sydenstricker E. A study of the relation of family income and other economic factors to pellagra incidence in seven cotton-mill villages of South Carolina in 1916. Public Health Rep 1920;35:2673-714.
109. Goldberger J, Wheeler GA, Sydenstricker A. A study of the relation of diet to pellagra incidence in seven textile-mill communities of South Carolina in 1916. Public Health Rep 1920;35:648-713.
110. Goldberger J, Sydenstricker E. Pellagra in the Mississippi Flood Area: report of an inquiry relating to the prevalence of pellagra in the area affected by the overflow of the Mississippi and its tributaries in Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana in the spring of 1927. Public Health Rep 1927;42:2706-25.
111. Ebrahim S. Yerushalmy and the problems of causal inference. Int J Epidemiol 2014;43:1349-51.
112. Parascandola M. Commentary: smoking, birthweight, and mortality: Jacob Yerushalmy on self-selection and the pitfalls of causal inference. Int J Epidemiol 2014;43:1373-77.
113. Yerushalmy J. The relationship of parents' cigarette smoking to outcome of pregnancy -implications to the problem of inferring causation from an observed association. Am J Epidemiol 1971;93:443-56. (Reprinted Int J Epidemiol 2014;43:1355-66).
114. VanderWeele TJ. Commentary: resolution of the birthweight paradox: competing explanations and analytical insights. Int J Epidemiol 2014;43:1368-73.
115. Kramer MS, Zhang X, Platt RW. Commentary: Yerushalmy, maternal cigarette smoking and the perinatal mortality crossover. Int J Epidemiol 2014;43:1378-81.
116. Hernández-Díaz S, Schisterman EF, Hérnan MA. The birthweight paradox uncovered? Am J Epidemiol 2006;164:1115-20.
117. VanderWeele TJ, Mumford SL, Schisterman EF. Conditioning on intermediates in perinatal epidemiology. Epidemiology 2012;23:1-9.
118. Keyes KM, Davey Smith G, Susser E. Commentary: smoking in pregnancy and offspring health: early insights into family-based and 'negative-control' studies? Int J Epidemiol 2014;43:1381-88.
119. Davey Smith G. Assessing intrauterine influences on offspring health outcomes: can epidemiological studies yield robust outcomes? Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2008;102:245-56.
120. Lowe CR. Effect of mothers' smoking habits on birth weight of their children. Br Med J 1959;2:673-76.
121. Kuja-Halkola R, D'Onofrio BM, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and adverse outcomes in offspring: genetic and environmental sources of covariance. Behav Genet 2014;44:456-67.
122. Magnus P, Berg K, Bjerkedal T, Nance W. The heritability of smoking behavior in pregnancy, and the birth weights of offspring of smoking-discordant twins. Scand J Soc Med 1985;13:29-34.
123. Tyrell J, Huikari V, Christie JT et al. Genetic variation in the 15q25 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor gene cluster (CHRNA5-CHRNA3-CHRNB4) interacts with maternal self-reported smoking status during pregnancy to influence birth weight. Hum Mol Genet 2012;21:5344-58.
124. Evans WN, Ringel JS. Can higher cigarette taxes improve birth outcomes? J Public Econ 1999;72:135-54.
125. Hamilton BH. Estimating treatment effects in randomized clinical trials with non-compliance: the impact of maternal smoking on birthweight. Health Econ 2001;10:399-410.
126. Elderton M, Pearson K. A First Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism on the Physique and Ability of the Offspring. London: Dulau, 1910.
127. Pearson K, Elderton EM. A Second Study of the Influence of Parental Alcoholism on the Physique and Ability of the Offspring. London: Dulau, 1910.
128. Stigler SM. Karl Pearson and the Cambridge economists. In: Stigler SM (ed). Statistics on the Table. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999; 13-50.
129. Pigou AC. Alcoholism and Heredity. Westminster Gazette, 2nd February 1911. Reprinted in Int J Epidemiol 2017 (in press).
130. Davey Smith G. Pigou, Pearson, and parental intemperance: debating 'collider bias' in 1911. Int J Epidemiol 2017 (in press).
131. Berkson J. Limitations of the application of the fourfold table analysis to hospital data. Biomet Bull 1946;2:47-53.
132. Greenland S, Neutra RR. An analysis of detection bias and proposed corrections in the study of estrogens and endometrial cancer. J Chron Dis 1981;34:433-38.
133. Greenland S. Randomization, statistics, and causal inference. Epidemiology 1990;1:421-29.
134. Greenland S, Mansournia MA. Limitations of individual causal models, causal graphs, and ignorability assumptions, as illustrated by random confounding and design unfaithfulness. Eur J Epidemiol 2015; DOI: 10.1007/s10654-015-9995-7.
135. Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S, Frankel S. How policy informs the evidence. BMJ 2001;322:184.
136. Krieger N, Alegría M, Almeida-Filho N et al. Who, and what, causes health inequities? Reflections on emerging debates from an exploratory Latin American/North American workshop. J Epidemiol Community Health 2010;64:747-49.
137. Krieger N. Discrimination and health inequities. In: Berkman L, Kawachi I, GlymourM(eds). Social Epidemiology. 2nd edn. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2014; 63-125.
138. Krieger N, Rowley D, Herman AA, Avery B, Phillips MT. Racism, sexism and social class: implications for studies of health, disease, and well-being. Am J Prev Med 1993;9(Suppl 6): 82-122.
139. Gee GC, Ford CL. Structural racism and health inequities: old issues, new directions. Du Bois Rev 2011;8:115-32.
140. Williams DR. Miles to go before we sleep: racial inequities in health. J Health Soc Behav 2012;53:279-95.
141. Metzl JM, Roberts DE. Structural competency meets structural racism: race, politics, and the structure of medical knowledge. Virtual Mentor: AMA J Ethics 2014;16:675-90.
142. VanderWeele TJ, Robinson WR. On the causal interpretation of race in regressions adjusting for confounding and mediating variables. Epidemiology 2014;25:473-54.
143. Russo F, Wunsch G, Mouchart M. Inferring causality through counterfactuals in observational studies -some epistemological issues. Bull Sociol Methodol 2011;111:43-64.
144. Greiner J, Rubin D. Causal effects of perceived immutable characteristics. Rev Econ Stat 2011;93:775-85.
145. Sen M, Wasow O. Race as a 'bundle of sticks': designs that estimate effects of seeming immutable characteristics. Annu Rev Polit Sci 2016;19:499-522.
146. Marks J. The nature/culture of genetic facts. Annu Rev Anthropol 2013;42:247-67.
147. Wailoo K, Nelson A, Lee C. Genetics and the Unsettled Past: The Collision of DNA, Race, and History. New Brunswick, NJ; Rutgers, 2012.
148. Fujimora JH, Bolnick DA, Rajagopalan R et al. Clines without classes: how to make sense of human variation. Soc Theory 2014;32:208-27.
149. Koenig B, Lee S, Richardson S (eds). Revisiting Race in a Genomic Age. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2008.
150. Fullwiley D. The 'contemporary synthesis': when politically inclusive genomic science relies on biological notions of race. Isis 2014;105:803-14.
151. Weiss KM, Lang JC. Non-Darwinian estimation: my ancestors, my genes' ancestors. Genome Res 2009;19:703-10.
152. Bliss C. Defining health justice in the postgenomic era. In: Richardson SS, Hallam S (eds). Postgenomics: Perspectives on Biology after the Genome. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015; 174-191.
153. Frank R. Back to the future? the emergence of a geneticized conceptualization of race in sociology. Am Acad Polit Soc Sci 2015;661:51-64.
154. Krieger N. Re: 'On the causal interpretation of race'. Epidemiology 2014;25:937.
155. Smith JM. On the fourteenth query of Thomas Jefferson's notes on Virginia. Anglo-African Magazine 1859;1:225-228.
156. Du Bois WEB. The Health and Physique of the Negro. Atlanta, GA: Atlanta University Press, 1906.
157. Fix ME, Struyk RJ. Clear and Convincing Evidence: Measurement of Discrimination in America. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press, 1993.
158. Blank RM, Dabady R, Citro CF (eds). Measuring Racial Discrimination. Washington, DC: National Research Council, National Academy Press, 2004.
159. Reskin B. The race discrimination system. Annu Rev Sociol 2012;38:17-35.
160. Marcellisi A. Is race a cause? Philos Sci 2013;80:650-59.
161. Kaufman JS. Race: ritual, regression, and reality. Epidemiology 2014;25:485-87.
162. Yudell M. Race Unmasked: Biology and Race in the Twentieth Century. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2014.
163. Ernst W, Harris B (eds). Race, Science, and Medicine, 1700-1960. London: Routledge, 1999.
164. Tilley H. Racial science, geopolitics, and empires: paradoxes of power. Isis 2014;105:773-81.
165. Anderson W. Racial conceptions in the Global South. Isis 2014;105:782-92.
166. Pascoe P. What Comes Naturally: Miscegenation Law and the Making of Race in America. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2009.
167. Khanna N. 'If you're half-black, you're just black': reflected appraisals and the persistence of the one-drop rule. Sociol Q 2010;51:96-121.
168. Thorton R. Tribal membership requirements and the demography of 'old' and 'new' Native Americans. Popul Res Policy Rev 1997;16:33-42.
169. Romero M, Margolis E (eds). The Blackwell Companion to Social Inequalities. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2005.
170. Tilly C. Identities, Boundaries, and Social Ties. Boulder, CO: Paradigm Publishers, 2005.
171. Chay KY, Greenstone M. The convergence in black-white infant mortality rates during the 1960's. Am Econ Rev 2000;90:326-32.
172. Almond DV, Chay KY, Greenstone M. Civil Rights, the War on Poverty, and Black-White convergence in infant mortality in the rural South and Mississippi. 31 December 2006. MIT Economics Working Paper No. 07-04. http://papers.ssrn.com/ sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id = 961021 (23 March 2016, date last accessed).
173. Almond D, Chay KY. The long-run and intergenerational impact of poor infant health: evidence from cohorts born during the Civil Rights era. Working Paper. 2008. http://users.nber. org/~almond/chay_npc_paper.pdf (23 March 2016, date last accessed).
174. Kaplan G, Ranjit N, Burgard S. Lifting gates, lengthening lives: did civil rights policies improve the health of African-American women in the 1960s and 1970s? In: Schoeni RF, House JS, Kaplan G, Pollack H (eds). Making Americans Healthier: Social and Economic Policy as Health Policy. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008; 145-70.
175. Krieger N, Chen JT, Coull B, Waterman PD, Beckfield J. The unique impact of abolition of Jim Crow laws on reducing inequities in infant death rates and implications for choice of comparison groups in analyzing societal determinants of health. Am J Public Health 2013;103:2234-44.
176. Krieger N, Chen JT, Coull BA, Beckfield J, Kiang MV, Waterman PD. Jim Crow and premature mortality among the US black and white population, 1960-2009: an age-periodcohort analysis. Epidemiology 2014;25:494-504.
177. Beckfield J, Krieger N. Epi + demos + cracy: linking political systems and priorities to the magnitude of health inequities -evidence, gaps, and a research agenda. Epidemiol Rev 2009;31:152-77.
178. Thomas KK. Deluxe Jim Crow: Civil Rights and American Health Policy, 1935-1954. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 2011.
179. de Shazo RD, Smith R, Skipworth LB. Black physicians and the struggle for civil rights: lessons from the Mississippi experience. Part 1: the forces for and against change. Am J Med 2014;127:920-25.
180. Dittmer J. The Good Doctors: The Medical Committee for Human Rights and the Struggle for Social Justice. New York, NY: Bloomsbury, 2010.
181. Oakes JM, Andrade KN. Methodological innovation and advances in social epidemiology. Curr Epidemiol Rep 2014;1:38-44.
182. Harper S, Strumpf EL. Commentary: social epidemiology: questionable answers and answerable questions. Epidemiology 2012;23:795-98.
183. Nandi A, Harper S. How consequential is social epidemiology. Curr Epidemiol Rep 2014;2:61-70.
184. Krieger N. Epidemiology and the web of causation: has anyone seen the spider? Soc Sci Med 1994;39:887-903.
185. Krieger N. Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century: an ecosocial perspective. Int J Epidemiol 2001;30:668-77.
186. Peters BG. Strategies for Comparative Research in Political Science. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave MacMillan, 2013.
187. Rutherford GW, McFarland W, Spindler H et al. Public health triangulation: approach and application to synthesizing data to understand national and local HIV epidemics. BMC Public Health 2010;10:447.
188. Brion MJ, Lawlor DA, Matijasevich A et al. What are causal effects of breastfeeding on IQ, obesity and blood pressure? Evidence from comparing high-income with middle-income cohorts. Int J Epidemiol 2011;40:670-80.
189. Krieger N, Kosheleva A, Waterman PD, Chen JT, Beckfield J, Kiang MV. Fifty-year trends in US socioeconomic inequalities in health: US-born Black and White Americans, 1959-2008. Int J Epidemiol 2014;43:1294-131.
190. Chen JT, Beckfield J,Waterman PD, Krieger N. Can changes in the distribution of and associations between education and income bias temporal comparisons of health disparities? -an exploration with causal graphs and simulations. Am J Epidemiol 2013;177:870-81.
191. Ebi KL, Rocklöv J. Climate change and health modeling: horses for courses. Glob Health Action 2014;7:24154.
192. Klein N. This Changes Everything: Capitalism vs the Climate. New York, NY: Simon&Schuster, 2014.