Hormone replacement therapy, cancer, controversies, and women's health: Historical, epidemiological, biological, clinical, and advocacy perspectives

Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health

Volumn 59, Issue 9, 2005, Pages 740-748

  Krieger, Nancy ^a   Löwy, Ilana ^b   Aronowitz, Robert ^c   Bigby, Judyann ^d,e   Dickersin, Kay ^f   Garner, Elizabeth ^d   Gaudillière, Jean Paul ^b   Hinestrosa, Carolina ^g   Hubbard, Ruth ^h   Johnson, Paula A ^d   Missmer, Stacey A ^a   Norsigian, Judy ⁱ   Pearson, Cynthia ^j   Rosenberg, Charles E ^h   Rosenberg, Lynn ^k   Rosenkrantz, Barbara G ^h   Seaman, Barbara ^o   Sonnenschein, Carlos ^l   Soto, Ana M ^l   Thornton, Joe ^m   Weisz, George ⁿ   more..

^a HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b INSERM   (France)

^c UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

^d BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^e HARVARD MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^f BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^g National Breast Cancer Coalition   (United States)

^h HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

ⁱ Our Bodies Ourselves   (United States)

^j National Women's Health Network   (United States)

^k BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^l TUFTS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^m UNIVERSITY OF OREGON   (United States)

ⁿ MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^o Boston University ^*

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ESTROGEN; GESTAGEN;

WOMENS HEALTH;

CANCER; CANCER RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL PRACTICE; DRUG INDUSTRY; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; HEALTH CARE; HORMONE SUBSTITUTION; HUMAN; PREVENTIVE MEDICINE; REVIEW; SEXUALITY;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DRUG INDUSTRY; FEMALE; HORMONE REPLACEMENT THERAPY; HORMONES; HUMANS; INDUSTRY; NEOPLASMS; PATIENT ADVOCACY; PHYSICIAN-PATIENT RELATIONS; RISK; SEXUALITY; SOCIAL CONTROL, FORMAL; SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY; WOMEN'S HEALTH;

EID: 23844512186     PISSN: 0143005X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1136/jech.2005.033316     Document Type: Review

References (155)

1. Writing Group for the Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risk and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women. Principal results from the women's health initiative randomised controlled trial. JAMA 2002;288:321-33.
2. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, et al. Randomised trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. JAMA 1998;280:605-13.
3. Petitti DB. Hormone replacement therapy for prevention. More evidence, more pessimism. JAMA 2002;288:99-101.
4. Seaman B. The greatest experiment ever performed on women. New York: Hyperion Books, 2003.
5. Kolata G, Petersen M. Hormone replacement study a shock to the medical system. New York Times 2002;10 Jul.
6. Wilson RA, Wilson TA. The fate of nontreated postmenopausal woman: a plea for the maintenance of adequate estrogen from puberty to the grave. J Am Geriatric Society 1963;11:347-61.
7. Rhoades FP. Minimizing the menopause. J Am Geriatric Society 1967;15:346-54.
8. McCrea FB. The politics of menopause: the discovery of a deficiency disease. Social Problems 1983;31:111-23.
9. Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA. Estrogen replacement therapy and coronary heart disease: a quantitative assessment of the epidemiologic evidence. (reprinted Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:445-53). Prev Med 1991;20:47-63.
10. Mendelsohn ME, Karas RH. Protective effects of estrogen on the cardiovascular system. N Engl J Med 1999;340:1801-11.
11. Barrett-Connor E, Stuenkal CA. Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) - risks and benefits. Int J Epidemiol 2001;30:423-36.
12. Ettinger B, Grady D, Tosteson, et al. Effect of the womens' health initiative on women's decision to discontinue postmenopausal hormone therapy. Obstet Gynecol 2003;102:1225-32.
13. Hersh AL, Stefanick ML, Stafford RS. National use of postmenopausal hormone therapy: Annual trends and response to recent evidence. JAMA 2004;291:47-53.
14. Buist DSM, Newton KM, Miglioretti DL, et al. Hormone therapy prescribing patterns in the United States. Obstet Gynecol 2004;104:1042-50.
15. Majumdar SR, Almasi EA, Stafford R. Promotion and prescribing of hormone therapy after report of harm by the women's health initiative. JAMA 2004;292:1983-8.
16. Andre M. L'impact de WHI sur les femmes. Quotidien de Médecin 2003;12:Dec.
17. Grodstein F, Clarkson TB, Manson JE. Understanding divergent data on posthormonal hormone therapy. New Engl J Med 2003;348:645-50.
18. Stampfer M. Commentary: Hormones and heart disease: do trials and observational studies address different questions? Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:454-5.
19. Vandenbroucke JP. Commentary: The HRT story: vindication of old epidemiological theory. Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:456-67.
20. Barrett-Connor E. Commentary: Observation versus intervention - what's different? Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:457-9.
21. Kuller LH. Commentary: Hazards of studying women: the oestrogen oesterogen/progesterone dilemma. Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:459-60.
22. Petitti DB. Commentary: Hormone replacement therapy and coronary heart disease: four lessons. Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:461-3.
23. Lawlor DA, Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S. The hormone replacement-coronary heart disease conundrum: is this the death of observational epidemiology? Int J Epidemiol 2004;33:464-7.
24. Krieger N. Postmenopausal hormone therapy. (Letter). New Engl J Med 2003;348:2363-4.
25. Lacassagne A. Les rapports entre les hormones sexuelles et la formation du cancer. Ergebnisse in Hormon- und Vitaminforschung 1939;2:259-96.
26. Lacassagne A. Relationships of hormones and mammary adenocarcinoma in the mouse. Am J Cancer 1939;37:414-24.
27. Auchincloss C, Haagensen DC. Cancer of the breast possibly induced by estrogenic substances. JAMA 1940;114:1517-23.
28. Gaudillière JP. Hormones at risk: cancer and the medical uses of industrially-produced sex steroids in Germany, 1930-1960. In: Schlicht T, Tröhler US, eds. Risk and safety in medical innovation. London: Routledge (in press).
29. Gusberg SB. Precursor of corpus carcinoma estrogens and adenomateus hyperplasia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1947;54:905-7.
30. Taylor HC. Endocrine factors in the origin of tumors of the uterus. In: Twombley GH, Pack GT, eds. Endocrinology of neoplastic diseases. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947:119-37.
31. Nathanson IT. The relationships of hormones to diseases of the breast. In: Twombley GH, Pack CT, eds. Endocrinology of neoplastic disease. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1947:138-78.
32. Kaufmann C, Aurel-Müller H, Butenandt A, et al. Experimentelle Beiträge zur Bedeutung des Follikelshormons für die Carcinomentstehung. Zeitschrift für Krebsforschun 1949;56:482-542.
33. Weinstein EM. Estrogen use in postmenopausal women-cost, risks and benefits. New Engl J Med 1980;303:308-16.
34. Coronary Drug Project. The Coronary Drug Project. Initial findings leading to modification of its research protocol. JAMA 1970;214:1303-13.
35. Hoover R, Gray L, Cole P, et al. Menopausal estrogens and breast cancer. New Engl J Med 1976;295:401-5.
36. Ross R, Paganini-Hill A, Gerkins V, et al. A case control study of menopausal estrogen theory and breast cancer. JAMA 1980;243:1635-9.
37. Notelovitz M. Estrogen replacement therapy: indications, contraindications, and agent selection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:1832-41.
38. Bell S. Changing ideas: the medicalisation of menopause. Soc Sci Med 1987;24:535-42.
39. Rosenberg L. Hormone replacement therapy: the need for reconsideration. Am J Public Health 1993;83:1670-3.
40. Posthuma WFM, Westerndorp RGJ, Vandenbroucke JP. Cardioprotective effect of hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women: is the evidence biased? BMJ 1994;308:1268-9.
41. Pfeffer N. The stork and the syringe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
42. Oudshoorn N. United we stand: the pharmaceutical industry, laboratory and clinics in the development of sex hormones into scientific drugs, 1920-1940. Science, Technology Human Values 1993;18:5-24.
43. Oudshoorn N. Beyond the natural body: archeology of sex hormones. London: Routledge, 1994.
44. Hausman BL. Ovaries to Estrogen: Sex hormones and chemical femininity in the 20th century. J Med Humanities 1999;20:165-76.
45. Seaman B, Seaman G. Women and the crisis in sex hormones. New York: Bantam Books, 1977.
46. Klein R, Dumble LJ. Disempowering midlife women: the science and politics of hormone replacement therapy. Women's Studies International Forum 1994;17:327-44.
47. Hunt K. A 'cure for all ills'? Constructions of the menopause and the chequered fortunes of hormone replacement therapy. In: Wilkinson S, Kitzinger C, eds. Women and health: feminist perspectives. London: Taylor and Francis, 1994:41-65.
48. Worcester N, Whatley MH. The selling of HRT: Playing on the fear factor. Feminist Review 1992;41:1-26.
49. Kaufert PA, McKinlay SM. Estrogen-replacement therapy: the production of medical knowledge and the emergence of policy. In: Lewin E, Olsen V, eds. Women, health and healing, towards new perspectives. New York: Tavistock, 1985:113-38.
50. Pearson C, Fugh-Berman A, Allina A, et al, for the National Women's Health Network. The truth about hormone replacement therapy. Roseville, CA: Prima Publishing, 2002.
51. Breast Cancer Action. http://www.bcaction.org (accessed 3 Dec 2004).
52. Wilson RA. Feminine forever. New York: Evans, 1966.
53. Leysden B. The medicalization of menopause: from "feminine forever" to "healthy forever". In: Lykke N, Braidotti R, eds. Between monsters, godesses and cyborgs: feminist confrontations with science, medicine and cyberspace. London: Zed Books, 1996:173-92.
54. Haenszel W, McCrea Curnen MG. The first fifty years of the Connecticut Tumor Registry: reminiscences and prospects. Yale J Biol Med 1986;59:475-84.
55. McCrea FB, Markle GE. The estrogen replacement controversy in the USA and the UK. Different answers to the same question. Social Studies of Science 1984;14:1-26.
56. Löwy I, Weisz G. French hormones: progestins and therapeutic variation in France. Social Studies and Medicine 2005;60:2609-22.
57. Angell M. The truth about the drug companies: how they deceive us and what to do about it. New York: Random House, 2004.
58. Abramson J. Overdosed America: the broken promise of American medicine. New York: HarperCollins, 2004.
59. Mann C. Women's Health research blossoms. Science 1995;269:766-70.
60. Watkins ES. On the pill: a social history of oral contraceptives, 1950-1970. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998.
61. Coney S. The menopause industry. Alameda, CA: Hunter House, 1994:60-80.
62. Kennedy DL, Baum C, Forbes MB. Noncontraceptive estrogens and progestins: use patterns over time. Obstet Gynecol 1985;65:441-6.
63. Palmlund I. The marketing of estrogens for menopausal and post-menopausal women. J Psychosomatic Obstet Gynecol 1997;18:158-64.
64. Palmlund I. The social construction of menopause as risk. J Psychosomatic Obstet Gynecol 1997;18:87-94.
65. Kaufert PA. Myth and menopause. Sociol Health Illness 1982;4:141-66.
66. Boston Women's Health Book Collective. Our bodies ourselves for the new century. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1998:688-96.
67. Houck JA. What do these women want? Feminist response to "Feminine Forever," 1963-1980. Bull Hist Med 2003;77:103-32.
68. Lane-Claypon JE. A further report on cancer of the breast, with special reference to its antecedent conditions. Reports on public health and medical subjects no 32. Ministry of Health. London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1926.
69. Wainwright JM. A comparison of conditions associated with breast cancer in Great Britain and America. Am J Cancer 1931;15:2610-45.
70. Kelsey JL, Bernstein L. Epidemiology and prevention of breast cancer. Annu Rev Public Health 1996;17:47-67.
71. Lawlor DA, Ebrahim S, Davey Smith G. Role of endogenous oestrogen in aetiology of coronary heart disease: analysis of age related trends in coronary heart disease and breast cancer in England and Wales and Japan. BMJ 2002;325:311-12.
72. Turnstall-Pedoe H. Myth and paradox of coronary risk and the menopause. Lancet 1998;351:1425-7.
73. LaCroix AZ, Newton KM, Leveille SG, et al. Healthy aging: a women's issue. West J Med 1997;167:220-32.
74. Khaw KT. Healthy aging. BMJ 1997;315:1090-6.
75. The Coronary Drug Project Research Group. The coronary drug project. Findings leading to discontinuation of the 2.5-mg day estrogen group. JAMA 1973;226:652-7.
76. Smith DC, Prentice R, Thomson DJ, et al. Association of exogenous estrogen and endogenous carcinoma. N Engl J Med 1975;293:1164-7.
77. Ziel HI, Finkle WD. Increased risk of endometrial carcinoma among the users of conjugated estrogens. N Engl J Med 1975;293:1167-70.
78. Petitti DB, Perlman JA, Sidney S. Estrogens and mortality. N Engl J Med 1986;315:131-2.
79. McPherson K, Hemminki E. Synthesising licensing data to assess drug safety. BMJ 2004;328:518-20.
80. Grady D, Rubin SM, Petitti DB, et al. Hormone therapy to prevent disease and prolong life in postmenopausal women. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:1016-36.
81. Lawlor DA, Davey Smith G, Ebrahim S. Socioeconomic position and hormone replacement therapy use: explaining the discrepancy in evidence from observational and randomized controlled trials. Am J Public Health 2004;94:2149-54.
82. Krieger N. Theories for social epidemiology in the 21st century: an ecosocial perspective. Int J Epidemiol 2001;30:668-77.
83. Krieger N, ed. Embodying inequality: epidemiologic perspectives. Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishers, 2004.
84. Barrett-Connor E. Postmenopausal estrogen and prevention bias. Ann Intern Med 1991;115:455-6.
85. Hemminki E, Sihvo S. A review of postmenopausal hormone therapy recommendations: potential for selection bias. Obstet Gynecol 1993;82:1021-8.
86. Sturgeon SR, Schairer C, Brinton LA, et al. Evidence of a healthy estrogen user survivor effect. Epidemiology 1995;6:227-31.
87. Petitti DB. Coronary heart disease and estrogen replacement therapy. Can compliance bias explain the results of observational studies? Ann Epidemiol 1994;4:115-18.
88. Vandenbroucke JP. Postmenopausal oestrogen and cardioprotection. Lancet 1991;337:1482-3.
89. Barkhem T, Nilsson S, Gustafsson JA. Molecular mechanisms, physiological consequences and pharmacological implications of estrogen receptor action. Am J Pharmacogenomics 2004;4:19-28.
90. McLachlan JA. Environmental signaling: what embryos and evolution teach us about endocrine disrupting chemicals. Endocr Rev 2001;22:319-41.
91. Soto AM, Sonnenschein C. The two faces of Janus: sex steroids as mediators of both cell proliferation and cell death. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001;93:1673-5.
92. Markey CM, Rubin BS, Soto AM, et al. Endocrine disruptors from Wingspread to environmental developmental biology. J Steroid Biochem Molec Biol 2003;83:235-44.
93. Markey CM, Soto AM, Sonnenschein C. Environmental disruptors of sex hormone action. In: Henry HL, Norman AW, eds. Encyclopedia of hormones. San Diego: Academic Press, 2003:523-33.
94. Colborn T, Dumanoski D, Myers JP. Our stolen future. New York: Dutton, 1996.
95. Krimsky S. Hormonal chaos: the scientific and social origins of the environmental endocrine hypothesis. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.
96. Guillette LJ. Endocrine disrupting contaminants: an evolutionary perspective. Philadelphia, PA: Francis and Taylor, 1997.
97. National Research Council, Committee on Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment. Hormonally active agents in the environment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999.
98. Colborn T, Dumanoski D, Myers JP. Our stolen future. Widespread pollutants with endocrine-disrupting effects. http://ourstolenfuture.org/Basics/ chemlist.htm (accessed 16 Dec 2005).
99. Thornton JW, McCally M, Houlihan J. Biomonitoring of industrial pollutants: health and policy implications of the chemical body burden. Public Health Rep 2002;117:315-23.
100. Egeland GM, Sweeney MH, Fingerhut MA, et al. Total serum testosterone and gonadotropins in workers exposed to dioxin. Am J Epidemiol 1994;139:272-81.
101. Yu ML, Guo YL, Hsu CC, et al. Menstruation and reproduction in women with polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) poisoning: long-term follow-up interviews of the women from the Taiwan Yucheng cohort. Int J Epidemiol 2000;29:672-7.
102. Koopman-Esseboom C, Morse DC, Weisglas-Kuperus N, et al. Effects of dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls on thyroid hormone status of pregnant women and their infants. Pediatr Res 1994;36:468-73.
103. Patandin S, Lanting CI, Mulder PG, et al. Effects of environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins on cognitive abilities in Dutch children at 42 months of age. J Pediatr 1999;134:33-41.
104. Ulrich EM, Caperell-Grant A, Jung SH, et al. Environmentally relevant xenoestrogen tissue concentrations correlated to biological responses in mice. Environ Health Perspect 2000;108:973-7.
105. DeVito MJ, Birnbaum LS, Farland WH, et al. Comparisons of estimated human body burdens of dioxinlike chemicals and TCDD body burdens in experimentally exposed animals. Environ Health Perspect 1995;103:820-31.
106. Gray LE, Ostby JS, Kelce WR. A dose-response analysis of the reproductive effects of a single gestational dose of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin in male long Evans hooded rat offspring. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 1997;146:11-20.
107. Harrison H, Pearce F. AAAS atlas of population and the environment. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001.
108. Markey CM, Coombs MA, Sonnenschein C, et al. Mammalian development in a changing environment: exposure to endocrine disruptors reveals the developmental plasticity of steroid-hormone target organs. Evolution and Development 2003;5:1-9.
109. Markey CM, Wadia PR, Rubin BS, et al. Long-term effects of fetal exposure to low doses of the xenoestrogen bisphenol-A in the female mouse genital tract. Biology of Reproduction. doi: 10.1095/biolreprod.104.036301.
110. Ekbom A, Trichopoulos D, Adami HO, et al. Evidence of prenatal influences on breast cancer risk. Lancet 1992;340:1015-18.
111. Henderson IC. Risk factors for breast cancer development. Cancer 1993;71:2127-40.
112. Russo J, Hu YF, Yang X, et al. Developmental, cellular, and molecular basis of human breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst Monographs 2000;27:17-37.
113. Hunt PA, Koehler KE, Susiarjo M, et al. Bisphenol a exposure causes meiotic aneuploidy in the female mouse. Curr Biol 2003;13:546-53.
114. Kurebayashi H, Betsui H, Ohno Y. Disposition of a low dose of 14C-bisphenol A in male rats and its main biliary excretion as BPA glucuronide. Toxicological Sciences 2003;73:17-25.
115. Oberg M, Sjodin A, Casabona H, et al. Tissue distribution and half-lives of polychlorinoted biphenyls and serum levels of 4-hydroxy-2,3,3′, 4′,5 pentachlorobiphenyl. Toxicological Sciences 2002;70:171-82.
116. Thornton J. Chemicals policy and the precautionary principle: the case of endocrine disruption. In: Tickner J, ed. Precaution, environmental science, and preventive public policy. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2003:103-26.
117. Thornton JW. Pandora's poison: chlorine, health and a new environmental strategy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000.
118. Krieger N, Northridge M, Gruskin S, et al. Assessing health impact assessment: multidisciplinary and international perspectives. J Epidemiol Community Health 2003;57:659-62.
119. Kriebel D, Tickner J. Reenergizing public health through precaution. Am J Public Health 2001;91:1351-5.
120. Tickner J, Raffenperger C, eds. Protecting public health and the environment: implementing the precautionary principle. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1999.
121. Larson EB, Fihn SD, Kirk LM, et al. The future of general internal medicine. Report and recommendations from the Society of General Internal Medicine (SGIM) Task Force on the Domain of General Internal Medicine. J Gen Intern Med 2004;19:69-77.
122. Ma J, Stafford RS, Cockburn JM, et al. A statistical analysis of the magnitude and composition of drug promotion in the United States in 1998. Clin Ther 2003;25:1503-7.
123. Aronowitz RA. Situating health risks. In: Rosenberg CE, Stevens R, Burns R, eds. American health care history and policy. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press (in press).
124. Sackett DL. The arrogance of preventive medicine. Can Med Assoc J 2002;167:363-4.
125. Notelovitz M. Estrogen replacement therapy: indications, contraindications, and agent selection. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:1832-41.
126. Anonymous. Guidelines for counseling postmenopausal women about preventive hormone therapy. American College of Physicians. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:1038-41.
127. AGS Clinical Practice Committee. Counseling postmenopausal women about preventive hormone therapy. J Am Geriatr Soc 1996;44:1120-2.
128. Nawaz H, Katz DL. American College of Preventive Medicine Practice Policy Statement. Perimenopausal and postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy. Am J Prev Med 1999;17:250-4.
129. National Institutes of Health State-of-the-Science Conference Statement. Management of menopause-related symptoms. Draft statement: March 23, 2005, http://consensus.nih.gov/ta/025/ 025MenopausalSymptomsDRAFThtml.htm (accessed 3 Apr 2005).
130. Editors. HRT: what are women (and their doctors) to do? Lancet 2004;364:2069-70.
131. Watkins E. "Doctor are you trying to kill me?" Ambivalences about the patients' package insert for estrogen. Bull Hist Med 2002;76:84-104.
132. US Food and Drug Administration. FDA updates hormone therapy information for post menopausal women. P04-18. http://www.fda.gov/ bbs/topics/NEWS/2004/ NEW01022.html (accessed 3 Apr 2005).
133. Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) and the Committee on Safety of Medicines (CSM). Hormone replacement therapy (HRT): latest safety update (updated 3 Dec 2003). http:// medicines.mhra.gov.uk/ ourwork/monitorsafequalmed/safetymessages/ hrtsafetyupdatedecember2003.pdf (accessed on 3 Apr 2005).
134. L'Agence française de sécurité sanitaire des produits de santé (Afssaps). Dossier de presse: Traitment hormonaux substitutifs de la menopause. 12 Mai 2004. http://agmed.sante.gouv.fr/pdf/10/ ddpths.pdf (accessed on 3 Apr 2005).
135. Lock M, Gordon D, eds. Biomedicine examined. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1988.
136. Fee E, Krieger N. Understanding AIDS: historical interpretations and the limits of biomedical individualism. Am J Public Health 1993;83:1477-86.
137. Hubbard R. The politics of women's biology. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1990:136-40.
138. Doyal L. What makes women sick: gender and the political economy of health. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1995.
139. Fee E, Krieger N, eds. Women's health, politics, and power: essays on sex/gender, medicine, and public health. Amityville, NY: Baywood Publications, 1994.
140. Smith-Rosenberg C, Rosenberg C. The female animal: medical and biological views of woman and her role in nineteenth-century America. In: Leavitt JW, ed. Women and health in America: historical readings. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984:12-27.
141. Gordon L. Woman's body, woman's right: a social history of birth control in America. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1977.
142. Dreifus C, ed. Seizing our bodies: the politics of women's health. New York: Vintage Books, 1979.
143. Ruzek SB. The women health movement: feminist alternatives to medical control. New York: Prager, 1978.
144. Morgen S. Into our hands: women health movement in the US. London: Routledge, 2002.
145. Long-Hall D. Biology, sex hormones and sexism in the 1920s. In: Wartofsky M, Gould C, eds. Women and philosophy. New York: Putnam, 1975:81-95.
146. Kopera H. The dawn of hormones replacement therapy. Maturitas 1991;13:187-8.
147. Ettinger B. Overview of estrogen replacement therapy: a historical perspective. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1998;217:5-7.
148. US Department of Health, Education and Welfare. DES task force summary report, DHEW publication no 79-1688 (NIH). Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health, 1978.
149. Apfel RJ, Fisher SM. To do no harm: DES and the dilemmas of modern medicine. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1984.
150. Bell SE. The meaning of risk, choice, and responsibility for a DES daughter. In: Radcliff KS, ed. Healing technology: feminist perspectives. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1989:245-61.
151. Kennedy DL, Baum C, Forbes MB. Noncontraceptive estrogens and progestins: use patterns over time. Obstet Gynecol 1985;65:441-6.
152. Wyssowsky DK, Golden L, Burke L. Use of menopausal estrogens and medroxyprogesterone in the United States. Obstet Gynecol 1995;85:6-10.
153. Lupton D. Constructing the menopausal body: discourses on hormone replacement therapy. Body and Society 1996;2:91-7.
154. Kaufert P, Lock M. Medicalization of women's third age. J Psychosomatic Obstet Gynecol 1997;18:81-6.
155. The Women Health Initiative Group. Design of the women health initiative clinical trial and observational study. Control Clin Trials 1998;19:61-109.