Mycotoxigenic fungi, mycotoxins, and management of rice grains

Toxin Reviews

Volumn 27, Issue 42067, 2008, Pages 287-317

  Reddy, K R N ^a   Reddy, C S ^a   Abbas, H K ^b   Abel, C A ^b   Muralidharan, K ^a  

^a DIRECTORATE OF RICE RESEARCH   (India)

^b AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH SERVICE   (United States)

Author keywords

botanicals; microbiologicals; mycotoxigenic fungi; mycotoxins; rice

Indexed keywords

EID: 85015519709     PISSN: 15569543     EISSN: 15569551     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/15569540802432308     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. H. K. Abbas, R. D. Cartwright, W. T. Shier, M. M. Abouzied, C. B. Bird, L. G. Rice, P. Frankross, G. L. Sciumbato, and F. I. Meredith. (1997). Natural occurrence of fumonisins in rice with Fusarium sheath rot disease. Plant Dis 82 (1): 22–25.
2. H. K. Abbas, R. D. Cartwright, W. Xie, C. J. Mirocha, J. L. Richard, T. J. Dvorak, G. L. Sciumbato, and W. T. Shier. (1999). Mycotoxin production by Fusarium proliferatum isolates from rice with Fusarium sheath rot disease. Mycopathologia 147: 97–104.
3. E. F. Abd-Allah, and S. M. Ezzat. (2005). Natural occurrence of citrinin in rice grains and its biocontrol by Trichoderma hamatum. Phytoparasitica 33 (1): 73–84.
4. A. Akgul, and M Kivanç. (1988). Inhibitory effect of selected Turkish spices and oregano components on some food borne fungi. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 6: 263–268.
5. J. F. Alberts, Y. Engelbrecht, P. S. Steyn, W. H. Holzapfel, and W. H. Vanzyl. (2006). Biological degradation of AFB1 by Rhodococcus erythropolis cultures. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 109: 121–126.
6. R. M. A. Almeida, W. Gambale, B. Correa, C. R. Paula, and I. G. Asevedo. (1991). Mycoflora and aflatoxigenic species of Aspergillus sp. isolated from rice. Microbiologia 22 (2): 161–163.
7. H. D. Altuntas, Z. Hamurcu, N. İmamoğlu, and B. C. Liman. (2003). Effects of ochratoxin A on micronucleus frequenncy in human lymphocytes. Nahrung/Food 47 (1): 33–35.
8. S. A. Balajee, J. L. Gribskov, E. Hanley, D. Nickle, and K. A. Marr. (2005). Aspergillus lentulus sp. nov., a new sibling species of A. fumigatus. Eukaryotic Cell 4: 625–632.
9. J. M. R. S. Bandara, E. K. Vithanega, and G. A. Bean. (1991). Occurrence of aflatoxins in parboiled rice in Sri Lanka. Mycopathologia 116: 65–70.
10. L. J. Bars, and L. P. Bars. (1992). Fungal contamination of aromatic herbs, aflatoxinogenesis and residues in infusions. Microbiol. Alim. Nutr. 10: 267–271.
11. R. M. Belmont, and R. Carvajal. (1998). Control of Aspergillus flavus in maize with plant essential oils and their components. J. Food Prot. 61: 616–619.
12. R. V. Bhat, and K. A. V. R. Krishnamachari. (1978). Food toxins and disease outbreaks in India. Agrogya J. Health Sci. 4: 92–100.
13. C. Breckenridge, U. Samarajeewa, and S. N. Arseculeratne. (1986). Aflatoxin contamination and moisture levels in Sri Lankan market rice. J. National Sci. Council 14 (2): 173–180.
14. L. B. Bullerman, F. Y. Lieu, and A. Seier. (1977). Inhibition of growth and aflatoxin production by cinnamon and clove oils, Cinnamic aldehyde and eugenol. J. Food Sci. 42 (4): 1107–1109.
15. C. Calistru, M. McLean, and P. Berjak. (1997). In vitro studies on the potential for biological control of Aspergiulls flavus and Fusarium moniliforme by Trichoderma species. 1. Macroscopical and microscopical observations of fungal interactions. Mycopathologia 139: 115–121.
16. A. P. Carlos, B. O. Reinaldo, D. Paulo, and C. Benedito. (2000). Mycoflora and aflatoxigenic species in derivatives of milled rice. Ciênc. Tecnol. Aliment. 20 (1): 37–49.
17. M. Castells, S. Marin, V. Sanchis, and A. J. Ramos. (2006). Reduction of aflatoxins by extrusion-cooking of rice meal. J. Food Sci. 71 (7): 369–377.
18. D. Cazzaniga, J. C. Basilico, R. J. Gonzalez, R. L. Torres, and D. M. de Greef. (2001). Mycotoxins inactivation by extrusion cooking of corn flour. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 33 (2): 144–147.
19. M. P. Chary, and S. M. Reddy. (1987). Mycotoxins contamination of dehusked rice in the flooded area of Warangal. Natl. Acad. Sci. Lett. 10 (4): 129–132.
20. M. Chin, and W. S. Cheng. (1998). Inhibition of Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus by some herbs and spices. J. Food Prot. 61: 123–125.
21. A. K. Choudhary. (1992). Influence of microbial co-inhabitants on aflatoxin biosynthesis Aspergillus niger on maize kernel. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 14: 143–147.
22. R. Choudhury, G. U. Ahmed, and J. Kalita. (1999). Sitophilus oryzae induced changes in stored rice with reference to moisture content and Aspergillus flavus incidence. Insect Environ. 4: 133.
23. M. V. M. Chulim, F. B. Perez, and G. C. Escamilla. (2003). Biodegradation of starch and acrylic–grafted starch by Aspergillus niger. J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 89: 2764–2770.
24. M. R. Desai, and S. K. Ghosh. (2003). Occupational exposure to airborne fungi among rice mill workers with special reference to aflatoxin producing A. flavus strains. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 10: 159–162.
25. S. Desai, R. P. Thakur, V. P. Rao, and V. Anjaiah. (2000). Characterisation of isolates of trichoderma for biocontrol potential against A. flavus infection in groundnut. Int. Int. 20: 57–59.
26. A. E. Desjardins, H. K. Manandhar, R. D. Plattner, G. G. Manandhar, S. M. Poling, and C. M. Maragos. (2000). Fusarium sp. from Napalese rice and production of mycotoxins and gibberellic acid by selected species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66 (3): 1022–1025.
27. T. V. P. Elangovan, K. Indira, and I. Kalyanasundaram. (1999). Prevalence of AFB1 in rice bran and some associated factors. Indian Phytopath. 52: 129–133.
28. T. J. Faria, R. S. Ferreira, L. Yassumoto, J. Roberto, P. Souza, N. K. Ishikawa, and. Barbosa. (2006). Antifungal activity of essential oil isolated from Ocimum gratissimum L. (eugenol chemotype) against Phytopathogenic fungi. Brazilian Arch. Biol. Technol. 49 (6): 867–871.
29. B. Fouzia, and N. Samajpati. (2000). Mycotoxin production on rice, pulses and oilseeds. Naturwissenschaften 87: 275–277.
30. L. A. Goldblatt. (1971). Control and removal of aflatoxin. J Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. 48: 605–610.
31. S. I. I. Hafez, I. A. E. I. Kady, M. B. Mazen, and O. M. O. E. I. Maghraby. (2004). Mycoflora and trichothecene toxins of paddy grains from Egypt. Mycopathologia 100 (2): 103–112.
32. H. Hitokoto, S. Morozumi, T. Wauke, S. Sakai, and H. Kurata. (1980). Inhibitory effects of spices on growth and toxin production of toxigenic fungi. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 39 (4): 818–822.
33. International Agency for Research on Cancer. (1993). Some naturally occurring substances: Food items and constituents, heterocyclicaromatic amines and mycotoxins. IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans (pp. 489–521). Geneva.
34. P. Jayaraman, and I. Kalyanasundaram. (1990). Natural occurrence of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in rice bran. Mycopathologia 110 (2): 81–85.
35. P. Jayaraman, and I. Kalyansundaram. (1994). A comparison of bran from parboiled and raw rice: nutrient content and aflatoxin production. Indian Phytopath. 47: 147–152.
36. P. Jeswal. (1986). Storage suitability for elaboration of aflatoxin in cereals. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 65 (1): 101–106.
37. G. N. Jham, O. D. Dhingra, C. M. Jardim, and M. M. Valente. (2005). Identification of major fungitoxic component of cinnamon bark oil. Fitopathol. 30 (4): 404–408.
38. S. Juglal, R. Govinden, and B. Odhav. (2002). Spice oils for the control of co-occurring mycotoxin producing fungi. J. Food Prot. 65: 683–687.
39. M. Karapýnar. (1989). Inhibition effects of some spice agents on aflatoxigenic mould growths. Proceedings of the International Food Symposium. Bursa, Turkey, April 4–6, 129–137. (In Turkish).
40. J. G. Kim, and Y. W. Lee. (1996). Grain development and AFB1 accumulation in pre-harvest rice inoculated with Aspergillus parasiticus. J. Plant Prot. 59: 1318–1321.
41. M. A. Klich, L. S. Lee, and H. E. Huizar. (1986). The occurrence of Aspergillus flavus in vegetative tissues of cotton plants and its relation to seed infection. Mycopathologia 95: 171–174.
42. S. Konishi, M. Nakajima, S. Tabata, H. Ishikuro, T. Tanaka, and H. Norizuki. (2006). Occurrence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and fumonisins in retailed foods in Japan. J. Food Prot. 69: 1365–1370.
43. V. Kumar, M. S. Basu, and T. P. Rajendran. (2008). Mycotoxin research and mycoflora in some commercially important agricultural commodities. Crop Prot. 27: 891–905.
44. R. D. Lauzon, R. C. Mabesa, J. Villaralbo, E. Highley, and G. I. Johnson. (1995). Inhibition of aflatoxin contamination in rice by Cladosporium fulvum. 17th ASEAN technical seminar on grain postharvest technology, Lumut, Malaysia, July 25–27. ACIAR-Technical Reports Series No. 37: 61–65.
45. Z. Liu, J. Gao, and J. Yu. (2006). Aflatoxins in stored maize and rice grains in liaoning province, china. J. Stored Prod. Res. 42: 468–479.
46. G. C. Llewellyn, P. C. Sherertz, C. W. Armstrong, G. B. Miller Jr., J. D. Reynolds, T. D. Kimbrough, G. A. Bean, W. M. Hagler Jr., C. A. Haney, C. S. Trempus, C. E. O'Rear, and W. V. Dashek. (1988). Mycotoxigenic isolates and toxin production on buckwheat and rice hulls used as bedding materials. J. Industr. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 3 (6): 351–356.
47. H. Ma, L. A. Shook, S. G. W. Kaminskyj, and T. E. S. Dahms. (2005). Surface ultrastructure and elasticity in growing tips and mature regions of Aspergillus hyphae describe wall maturation. Microbiology 151: 3679–3688.
48. S. S. Mabrouk, and M. A. Shayeb. (1980). Inhibition of aflatoxin formation by some spices. J. Food Sci. 171 (5): 344–347.
49. 2 in maize, rice, millet, buckwheat, lentils and beans etc in 1987 and 1988. Levnedsmiddelstyrelsen. No. 200
50. H. A. Makun, T. A. Gbodi, H. O. Akanya, A. E. Sakalo, and H. G. Ogbadu. (2007). Fungi and some mycotoxins contaminating rice (Oryza sativa) in Niger state, Nigeria. African J. Biotechnol. 6 (2): 99–108.
51. U. N. Mangala, K. R. N. Reddy, L. Singotamu, P. M. S. Chary, C. S. Reddy, and K. Muralidharan. (2006). Aspergilli colonize and produce AFB1 in discolored rice grains. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 36 (3): 418–426.
52. C. S. Mathela. (1981). In vitro antifungal examination of some terpenoids. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 51: 513–516.
53. S. E. Megalla, G. A. Bennett, J. J. Ellis, and O. I. Shotwell. (2007). Production of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone by isolates of Fusarium graminearum Schw. J. Basic Microbiol. 26 (7): 415–419.
54. R. A. Miller, N. E. Bussell, C. K. Rickets, and H. Jordi. (1979). Analysis and purification of eugenol. J. Dent. Res. 58 (4): 1394–1400.
55. C. Munimbazi, and L. B. Bullerman. (1998). Inhibition of aflatoxin production of A. parasiticus NRRL 2999 by Bacillus pumilus. Mycopathologia 140: 163–169.
56. I. Murillo, L. Cavallarin, and B. S. Segundo. (1999). Cytology of infection of maize seedlings by Fusarium moniliforme and immunolocalization of the pathogenesis- related PRms protein. Biochem. Cell Biol. 89 (9): 737–747.
57. D. J. Mycock, and P. Berjak. (1991). In defence of aldehyde-osmium fixation and critical point drying for characterization of seed storage fungi by scanning electron microscopy. J. Microscopy 163 (3): 321–331.
58. D. J. Mycock, F. H. J. Rijkenberg, and P. Berjak. (1990). Infection of maize seedlings by Aspergillus flavus var. columnaris var. nov. Seed Sci. Technol. 18 (3): 693–701.
59. B. Nandi, and P. Haggblom. (1984). Production of aflatoxin in rough rice under different storage condition. Acta Agric. Scand. 34: 128–132.
60. A. Narain, and A. P. Mohanty. (1983). Bacterial antagonists of some phytopathogenic fungi. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 13: 28–31.
61. W. P. Norred. (1993). Fumonisins-mycotoxins produced by Fusarium moniliforme. J. Toxicol. Environ. Hlth. 38: 309–328.
62. A. Palaniswami, A. Manickam, and S. Neelakantan. (1989). Surveillance of toxigenic fungi and aflatoxins in rice and paddy grains. Madras Agric. J. 76: 481–489.
63. C. Palavras, E. Simionato, M. R. S. Sylos, and C. M. De. (2004). Effect of cooking on the levels of AFB1 and ochratoxin A in rice. Brazilian J. Food Technol. 7 (2): 167–171.
64. N. Pande, J. Saxena, and H. Pandey. (1990). Natural occurrence of mycotoxins in some cereals. Mycoses 33: 126–128.
65. J. W. Park, and Y. B. Kim. (2006). Effect of pressure cooking on AFB1 in rice. J. Agric. Food Chem. 54: 2431–2435.
66. N. Paster, M. Menasherov, U. Ravid, and B. Juven. (1995). Antifungal activity of oregano and thyme essential oils applied as fumigants against fungi attacking stored grain. J. Food Prot. 58: 81–85.
67. J. Pawan, J. S. Prasad, and P. K. Singh. (1990). Occurrence of aflatoxin and Aspergillus flavus in stored paddy seeds. Environ. Ecol. 8: 122–126.
68. A. Pena, E. F. Cerejo, C. Lino, and I. Silveira. (2005). Determination of ochratoxin A in Portuguese rice samples by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 382: 1288–1293.
69. M. Peraica, and A. M. Domijan. (2001). Mycotoxins in food and human health. Arh. Hig. Rada. Toksikol. 52: 23–35.
70. J. I. Pitt, A. D. Hocking, K. Bhudhasami, B. F. Miscamble, K. A. Wheeler, and E. K. P. Tanboon. (1994). The normal mycoflora of commodities from Thailand: beans, rice, small grains and other commodities. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 23 (1): 35–43.
71. A. R. Podile, and A. P. Prakash. (1996). Lysis and biological control of A. niger by Bacillus substilis AF1. Can. J. Microbiol. 42: 533–538.
72. T. Prasad, R. K. Sinha, and P. Jeswal. (1986). Aflatoxin problems in paddy under storage systems in Bihar. Indian Bot. Rep. 5: 45–49.
73. T. Prasad, R. K. Sinha, and P. Jeswal. (1987). Seed mycoflora of cereals and aflatoxin contamination under storage systems. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 66: 156–160.
74. C. R. Raghavender, B. N. Reddy, and G. S. Rani. (2007). Aflatoxin contamination of pearl millet during field and storage with reference to stage of grain maturation and insect damage. Mycotoxin Res. 23: 199–209.
75. G. J. Rao, G. Govindaraju, N. Sivasithamparam, and E. R. B. Shanmugasundaram. (2005). Uptake, translocation and persistence of mycotoxins in rice seedlings. Plant Soil 66 (1): 121–123.
76. K. R. N. Reddy. (2008). Estimation and prevention of aflatoxin contamination in rice, Ph.D. dissertation, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India.
77. B. N. Reddy, N. Brijitha, and C. R. Raghavender. (2005). Aflatoxin contamination in insect damaged seeds of horsegram under storage. Mycotoxin Res. 21 (3): 187–191.
78. B. N. Reddy, M. Nusrath, C. K. Kumari, and S. Nahdi. (1986). Mycotoxin contamination in some food commodities from tribal areas of Medak District, Andhra Pradesh. Indian Phytopath. 36 (4): 683–686.
79. B. N. Reddy, and C. R. Raghavender. (2006). Effect of fungal infection and insect infestation, moisture content, type of earhead and grain on mycotoxin production in field sorghum. In: H. Njapau, T. Socrates, H. van Egmond, and D. L. Park. Mycotoxins and Phycotoxins: Advances in Determination, Toxicology and Exposure Management. The Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers. pp. 43–52.
80. B. N. Reddy, and C. R. Raghavender. (2007). Outbreaks of aflatoxicoses in India. African J. Food Agric. Nutr. Devp. 7 (5): http://www.ajfand.net/Issue16/PDFs/Reddy_2750.pdf. Accessed 05.04.2008.
81. C. S. Reddy, K. R. N. Reddy, R. N. Kumar, G. S. Laha, and K. Muralidharan. (2004). Exploration of aflatoxin contamination and its management in rice. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol. 34 (3): 816–820.
82. K. R. N. Reddy, C. S. Reddy, U. N. Mangala, and K. Muralidharan. (2006). Site of Infection of Aspergillus sp. in seeds of rice cultivars. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol 36 (2): 271–277.
83. K. R. N. Reddy, C. S. Reddy, and K. Muralidharan. (2005). Characterization of AFB1 produced by Aspergillus flavus isolated from discolored rice grains. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol 35 (3): 470–474.
84. K. R. N. Reddy, C. S. Reddy, and K. Muralidharan. (2007). Exploration of ochratoxin A contamination and its management in rice. Amer. J. Pl. Physiol. 2 (3): 206–213.
85. K. R. N. Reddy, C. S. Reddy, and K. Muralidharan. (2008). Potential of botanicals and biocontrol agents on growth and aflatoxin production by Aspergillus flavus infecting rice grains. Food Control. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2008.03.009
86. C. S. Reddy, K. R. N. Reddy, M. Prameela, U. N. Mangala, and K. Muralidharan. (2007). Identification of antifungal component in clove that inhibits Aspergillus sp. colonizing rice grains. J. Mycol. Pl. Pathol 37 (1): 87–94.
87. F. Rehana, S. C. Basappa, and V. S. Murthy. (1979). Destruction of aflatoxin in rice by different cooking methods. J. Food Sci. Technol. 16: 111–112.
88. J. L. Richard, R. L. Lyon, R. E. Fichtner, and P. F. Ross. (1989). Use of thin layer chromatography for detection and high performance liquid chromatography for quantitating gliotoxin from rice cultures of Aspergillus fumigatus fresenius. Mycopathologia 107 (2–3): 145–151.
89. T. Saito, K. Hayamizu, M. Yanagisawa, O. Yamamoto, N. Wasada, S. Kinugasa, K. Tanabe, and T. Tamura. (2004). Integrated spectral data base system for organic compounds. Available at: http://www.aist.go.jp/RIODB/SDBS. Accessed September 30, 2004.
90. A. C. Sales, and T. Yoshizawa. (2005a). Mold counts and Aspergillus section Flavi populations in rice and its byproducts from the Philippines. J. Food Prot. 68 (1): 120–125.
91. A. C. Sales, and T. Yoshizawa. (2005b). Updated profile of aflatoxin and Aspergillus section Flavi contamination in rice and its byproducts from the Philippines. Food Addit. Contam. 22 (5): 429–436.
92. C. C. M. Santos, M. R. V. Lopes, and S. Y. Kosseki. (2001). Ocorrencia de aflatoxinas em amendoim e produtos de amendoim comercializados na região de São José de Rio Preto/SP. Revista do Instituto Adolfo Lutz 60 (2): 153–157.
93. J. Saxena, and C. S. Mathela. (1996). Antifungal activity of New compounds from Nepeta leucophylla and Nepeta clarkei. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62 (2): 702–704.
94. L. Singotamu, and P. H. P. R. Shetty. (1998). Scanning electron microscope studies to ascertain the quality of rice (Oryza sativa L.). Proc. Scanning 23 (3): 275–276.
95. R. K. Sinha, and A. Dubey. (1991). Aflatoxin production in different rice varieties of paddy and wheat by Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL-3240. J. Mycol. Plant Pathol. 21: 259–262.
96. J. S. Smith, and D. R. Lineback. (1975). Hydrolysis of native wheat and corn starch granules by glucoamylase from Aspergillus niger and Rhizopus niveus. Proceedings from the 60th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Cereal Chemists. Kansas City, October.
97. P. K. Sofia, R. Prasad, V. K. Vijay, and A. K. Srivastava. (2007). Evaluation of antibacterial activity of Indian spices against common food borne pathogens. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 42 (8): 910–915.
98. T. Sugimoto, M. Minamisawa, K. Takano, Y. Sasamura, and O. Tsuruta. (1977). Detection of ochratoxin A, citrinin and sterigmatocystin from stored rice by natural occurrence of Penicillum viridicatum and Aspergillus versicolor. J. Food Hygen. Soc. Japan 18: 176–181.
99. B.M. Sundaram, R. Krishnamurthy, and S. Subramanian. (1988). Aflatoxin-producing fungi in stored paddy. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. (Plant Sci.) 98 (4): 291–297.
100. M. J. Sweeney, and A. D. Dobson. (1999). Molecular biology of mycotoxin biosynthesis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 175 (2): 149–163.
101. H. K. Taligoola, M. A. Ismail, and S. K. Chebon. (2004). Mycobiota associated with rice grains marketed in Uganda. J. Biol. Sci. 4 (3): 271–278.
102. K. Tanaka, Y. Sago, Y. Zheng, H. Nakagawa, and M. Kushiro. (2007). Mycotoxins in rice. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 119: 59–66.
103. O. D. Teniola, P. A. Addo, I. M. Brost, P. Farber, K. D. Jany, J. F. Alberts, W. H. Vanzyl, P. S. Steyn, and W. H. Holzapfel. (2005). Degradation of AFB1 by cell free extracts of Rhodococcus erythropolis and Mycobacterium fluoranthenivorans sp. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 105: 111–117.
104. 1 contamination of parboiled rice samples collected from different states of India: a multi-centre study. Food Addit. Contam. 23 (4): 411–414.
105. T. S. Y. Trung, J. D. Bailly, A. Querin, P. L. E. Bars, and P. Guerre. (2001). Fungal contamination of rice from South Vietnam, mycotoxinogensis of selected strains and residued in rice. Revue. Med. Vet. 152 (7): 555–560.
106. P. G. Tulpule, V. Nagarajan, and R. V. Bhat. (1982). Environmental causes of food contamination. Environment India series. New Delhi: Department of Environment.
107. S. Udagawa. (1976). Distribution of mycotoxin-producing fungi in foods and soil from New Guinea and Southeast Asia. Proc. Japanese Assoc. Mycotoxicol. 2: 10–15.
108. D. A. Vaughan, I. K. Kunwar, J. B. Sinclair, and R. L. Bernard. (1988). Routes of entry of Alternaria sp. into soybean seed coats. Seed Sci. Technol. 16: 725–731.
109. S. Waghray, C. S. Reddy, and A. P. K. Reddy. (1988). Seed mycoflora and aflatoxin production in rice. Indian Phytopath. 41: 492–494.