Human gut microbiota: the links with dementia development

Protein and Cell

Volumn 8, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 90-102

  Alkasir, Rashad ^a   Li, Jing ^a   Li, Xudong ^b   Jin, Miao ^b   Zhu, Baoli ^a,c  

^a INSTITUTE OF MICROBIOLOGY   (China)

^b CHINA JAPAN FRIENDSHIP HOSPITAL   (China)

^c ZHEJIANG UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

alzheimer s disease; dementia; gut microbiota; inflammation; probiotics

Indexed keywords

4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; ACETYLCHOLINE; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ALANINE DERIVATIVE; BETA METHYLAMINO L ALANINE; CELECOXIB; DICLOFENAC; DOPAMINE; ENDOTOXIN; GRAPE SEED EXTRACT; HISTAMINE; IBUPROFEN; INDOLEPROPIONIC ACID; INDOMETACIN; INTERLEUKIN 6; INTERLEUKIN 8; KETOPROFEN; PIROXICAM; SEROTONIN DERIVATIVE; SHORT CHAIN FATTY ACID; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

AGING; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ANXIETY; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DEMENTIA; DEPRESSION; DIABETES MELLITUS; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; IMMUNOREGULATION; INTESTINE FLORA; LEARNING; MEMORY; MENTAL DEVELOPMENT; NERVE DEGENERATION; NERVE INJURY; NEUROTOXICITY; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; NORADRENALIN BRAIN LEVEL; OBESITY; PARKINSON DISEASE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; METABOLISM; MICROBIOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

ALZHEIMER DISEASE; GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOME; HUMANS;

EID: 84995745439     PISSN: 1674800X     EISSN: 16748018     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s13238-016-0338-6     Document Type: Review

References (123)

1. Agostoni C, Axelsson I, Braegger C, Goulet O, Koletzko B, Michaelsen KF, Rigo J, Shamir R, Szajewska H, Turck D et al (2004) Probiotic bacteria in dietetic products for infants: a commentary by the ESPGHAN Committee on Nutrition. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 38:365–374
2. Aisen PS, Davis KL (1994) Inflammatory mechanisms in Alzheimer’s disease: implications for therapy. Am J Psychiatry 151:1105–1113
3. Akiyama H, Barger S, Barnum S, Bradt B, Bauer J, Cole GM, Cooper NR, Eikelenboom P, Emmerling M, Fiebich BL et al (2000) Inflammation and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging 21:383–421
4. Arosio B, Trabattoni D, Galimberti L, Bucciarelli P, Fasano F, Calabresi C, Cazzullo CL, Vergani C, Annoni G, Clerici M (2004) Interleukin-10 and interleukin-6 gene polymorphisms as risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging 25:1009–1015
5. Aura AM, O’Leary KA, Williamson G, Ojala M, Bailey M, Puupponen-Pimia R, Nuutila AM, Oksman-Caldentey KM, Poutanen K (2002) Quercetin derivatives are deconjugated and converted to hydroxyphenylacetic acids but not methylated by human fecal flora in vitro. J Agric Food Chem 50:1725–1730
6. Bachstetter AD, Van Eldik LJ, Schmitt FA, Neltner JH, Ighodaro ET, Webster SJ, Patel E, Abner EL, Kryscio RJ, Nelson PT (2015) Disease-related microglia heterogeneity in the hippocampus of Alzheimer’s disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and hippocampal sclerosis of aging. Acta Neuropathol Commun 3:015–0209
7. Balin BJ, Hudson AP (2014) Etiology and pathogenesis of late-onset Alzheimer’s disease. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 14:013–0417
8. Barrett E, Ross RP, O’Toole PW, Fitzgerald GF, Stanton C (2012) Gamma-Aminobutyric acid production by culturable bacteria from the human intestine. J Appl Microbiol 113:411–417
9. Bendheim PE, Poeggeler B, Neria E, Ziv V, Pappolla MA, Chain DG (2002) Development of indole-3-propionic acid (OXIGON) for Alzheimer’s disease. J Mol Neurosci 19:213–217
10. Berg RD (1998) Probiotics, prebiotics or ‘conbiotics’? Trends Microbiol 6:89–92
11. Biagi E, Nylund L, Candela M, Ostan R, Bucci L, Pini E, Nikkila J, Monti D, Satokari R, Franceschi C et al (2010) Through ageing, and beyond: gut microbiota and inflammatory status in seniors and centenarians. PLoS One 5:0010667
12. Bilsborough J, Viney JL (2004) Gastrointestinal dendritic cells play a role in immunity, tolerance, and disease. Gastroenterology 127:300–309
13. Bonaz BL, Bernstein CN (2013) Brain-gut interactions in inflammatory bowel disease. Gastroenterology 144:36–49
14. Borenstein AR, Copenhaver CI, Mortimer JA (2006) Early-life risk factors for Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 20:63–72
15. Borre YE, Moloney RD, Clarke G, Dinan TG, Cryan JF (2014a) The impact of microbiota on brain and behavior: mechanisms & therapeutic potential. Adv Exp Med Biol 817:373–403
16. Borre YE, O’Keeffe GW, Clarke G, Stanton C, Dinan TG, Cryan JF (2014b) Microbiota and neurodevelopmental windows: implications for brain disorders. Trends Mol Med 20:509–518
17. Bouhnik Y, Achour L, Paineau D, Riottot M, Attar A, Bornet F (2007) Four-week short chain fructo-oligosaccharides ingestion leads to increasing fecal bifidobacteria and cholesterol excretion in healthy elderly volunteers. Nutr J 6:42–43
18. Bradley WG, Mash DC (2009) Beyond Guam: the cyanobacteria/BMAA hypothesis of the cause of ALS and other neurodegenerative diseases. Amyotroph Lateral Scler 10(Suppl 2):7–20
19. Brenner SR (2013) Blue-green algae or cyanobacteria in the intestinal micro-flora may produce neurotoxins such as Beta-N-Methylamino-l-Alanine (BMAA) which may be related to development of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson-Dementia-Complex in humans and Equine Motor Neuron Disease in Horses. Med Hypotheses 80:103
20. Cacquevel M, Lebeurrier N, Cheenne S, Vivien D (2004) Cytokines in neuroinflammation and Alzheimer’s disease. Curr Drug Targets 5:529–534
21. Cash HL, Whitham CV, Behrendt CL, Hooper LV (2006) Symbiotic bacteria direct expression of an intestinal bactericidal lectin. Science 313:1126–1130
22. Casper D, Yaparpalvi U, Rempel N, Werner P (2000) Ibuprofen protects dopaminergic neurons against glutamate toxicity in vitro. Neurosci Lett 289:201–204
23. Chen H, Liu S, Ji L, Wu T, Ma F, Ji Y, Zhou Y, Zheng M, Zhang M, Huang G (2015) Associations between Alzheimer’s disease and blood homocysteine, vitamin B12, and folate: a case-control study. Curr Alzheimer Res 12:88–94
24. Chermesh I, Eliakim R (2006) Probiotics and the gastrointestinal tract: where are we in 2005? World J Gastroenterol 12:853–857
25. Clemente JC, Ursell LK, Parfrey LW, Knight R (2012) The impact of the gut microbiota on human health: an integrative view. Cell 148:1258–1270
26. Collins SM, Surette M, Bercik P (2012) The interplay between the intestinal microbiota and the brain. Nat Rev Microbiol 10:735–742
27. Cueva C, Sanchez-Patan F, Monagas M, Walton GE, Gibson GR, Martin-Alvarez PJ, Bartolome B, Moreno-Arribas MV (2013) In vitro fermentation of grape seed flavan-3-ol fractions by human faecal microbiota: changes in microbial groups and phenolic metabolites. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 83:792–805
28. de Bruijn RFAG, Ikram MA (2014) Cardiovascular risk factors and future risk of Alzheimer’s disease. BMC Medicine 12:130
29. de la Monte SM (2014) Type 3 diabetes is sporadic Alzheimers disease: mini-review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 24:1954–1960
30. de La Serre CB, Ellis CL, Lee J, Hartman AL, Rutledge JC, Raybould HE (2010) Propensity to high-fat diet-induced obesity in rats is associated with changes in the gut microbiota and gut inflammation. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 299:G440–G448
31. de la Torre JC (2004) Is Alzheimer’s disease a neurodegenerative or a vascular disorder? Data, dogma, and dialectics. Lancet Neurol 3:184–190
32. DiBaise JK, Zhang H, Crowell MD, Krajmalnik-Brown R, Decker GA, Rittmann BE (2008) Gut microbiota and its possible relationship with obesity. Mayo Clin Proc 83:460–469
33. Dinan TG, Cryan JF (2013) Melancholic microbes: a link between gut microbiota and depression? Neurogastroenterol Motil 25:713–719
34. Dumas ME, Barton RH, Toye A, Cloarec O, Blancher C, Rothwell A, Fearnside J, Tatoud R, Blanc V, Lindon JC et al (2006) Metabolic profiling reveals a contribution of gut microbiota to fatty liver phenotype in insulin-resistant mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103:12511–12516
35. Engelborghs S, De Brabander M, De Cree J, D’Hooge R, Geerts H, Verhaegen H, De Deyn PP (1999) Unchanged levels of interleukins, neopterin, interferon-gamma and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in cerebrospinal fluid of patients with dementia of the Alzheimer type. Neurochem Int 34:523–530
36. Everard A, Belzer C, Geurts L, Ouwerkerk JP, Druart C, Bindels LB, Guiot Y, Derrien M, Muccioli GG, Delzenne NM et al (2013) Cross-talk between Akkermansia muciniphila and intestinal epithelium controls diet-induced obesity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:9066–9071
37. Ferri CP, Prince M, Brayne C, Brodaty H, Fratiglioni L, Ganguli M, Hall K, Hasegawa K, Hendrie H, Huang Y et al (2005) Global prevalence of dementia: a Delphi consensus study. The Lancet 366:2112–2117
38. Flex A, Pola R, Serricchio M, Gaetani E, Proia AS, Di Giorgio A, Papaleo P, Bernabei R, Pola P (2004) Polymorphisms of the macrophage inhibitory factor and C-reactive protein genes in subjects with Alzheimer’s dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 18:261–264
39. Floch MH (2005) Use of diet and probiotic therapy in the irritable bowel syndrome: analysis of the literature. J Clin Gastroenterol 39:243–246
40. Forsythe P, Bienenstock J, Kunze WA (2014) Vagal pathways for microbiome-brain-gut axis communication. Adv Exp Med Biol 817:115–133
41. Franceschi C (2007) Inflammaging as a major characteristic of old people: can it be prevented or cured? Nutr Rev 65:173–176
42. Fratiglioni, L.R. (2001). Epidemiology of dementia. In: Handbook of Neuropsychology (Elsevier Science B.V.) 2nd 6.
43. Galland L (2014) The gut microbiome and the brain. J Med Food 17:1261–1272
44. Gatz M, Mortimer JA, Fratiglioni L, Johansson B, Berg S, Reynolds CA, Pedersen NL (2006) Potentially modifiable risk factors for dementia in identical twins. Alzheimers Dement 2:110–117
45. Gibson GR, Probert HM, Loo JV, Rastall RA, Roberfroid MB (2004) Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: updating the concept of prebiotics. Nutr Res Rev 17:259–275
46. Gonzalez-Navajas JM, Bellot P, Frances R, Zapater P, Munoz C, Garcia-Pagan JC, Pascual S, Perez-Mateo M, Bosch J, Such J (2008) Presence of bacterial-DNA in cirrhosis identifies a subgroup of patients with marked inflammatory response not related to endotoxin. J Hepatol 48:61–67
47. Gordin B, Gorbach S (1992) Probiotics for humans. In: Fuller R (ed) The scientific basis. Chapman and Hall, London, pp 223–245
48. Grenham S, Clarke G, Cryan JF, Dinan TG (2011) Brain-gut-microbe communication in health and disease. Front Physiol 2:345–348
49. Guigoz Y, Rochat F, Perruisseau-Carrier G, Rochat I, Schiffrin EJ (2002) Effects of oligosaccharide on the faecal flora and non-specific immune system in elderly people. Nutr Res 22:13–25
50. Haass C, Schlossmacher MG, Hung AY, Vigo-Pelfrey C, Mellon A, Ostaszewski BL, Lieberburg I, Koo EH, Schenk D, Teplow DB et al (1992) Amyloid beta-peptide is produced by cultured cells during normal metabolism. Nature 359:322–325
51. Hamilton-Miller JMT (2004) Probiotics and prebiotics in the elderly. Postgrad Med J 80:447–451
52. Harach T, Marungruang N, Dutilleul N, Cheatham V, Mc Coy K.D, Neher JJ, Jucker M, Fåk F, Lasser T, and Bolmont T (2015) Reduction of Alzheimer’s disease beta-amyloid pathology in the absence of gut microbiota. Cornell University Library, arXiv:1509.02273.
53. Hawkes CH, Del Tredici K, Braak H (2007) Parkinson’s disease: a dual-hit hypothesis. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 33:599–614
54. Hazen SL, Smith JD (2012) An antiatherosclerotic signaling cascade involving intestinal microbiota, microRNA-10b, and ABCA1/ABCG1-mediated reverse cholesterol transport. Circ Res 111:948–950
55. Hill JM, Lukiw W (2015) Microbial-generated amyloids and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Front Aging Neurosci 7:32–36
56. Hill JM, Clement C, Pogue AI, Bhattacharjee S, Zhao Y, Lukiw WJ (2014) Pathogenic microbes, the microbiome, and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Front Aging Neurosci 6:127–128
57. Hoban AE, Stilling RM, Ryan FJ, Shanahan F, Dinan TG, Claesson MJ, Clarke G, Cryan JF (2016) Regulation of prefrontal cortex myelination by the microbiota. Transl Psychiatry 5:42
58. Holmes C, Cunningham C, Zotova E, Woolford J, Dean C, Kerr S, Culliford D, Perry VH (2009) Systemic inflammation and disease progression in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 73:768–774
59. Holmqvist S, Chutna O, Bousset L, Aldrin-Kirk P, Li W, Bjorklund T, Wang ZY, Roybon L, Melki R, Li JY (2014) Direct evidence of Parkinson pathology spread from the gastrointestinal tract to the brain in rats. Acta Neuropathol 128:805–820
60. Hooper LV, Wong MH, Thelin A, Hansson L, Falk PG, Gordon JI (2001) Molecular analysis of commensal host-microbial relationships in the intestine. Science 291:881–884
61. Hsiao EY, McBride SW, Hsien S, Sharon G, Hyde ER, McCue T, Codelli JA, Chow J, Reisman SE, Petrosino JF et al (2013) Microbiota modulate behavioral and physiological abnormalities associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. Cell 155:1451–1463
62. Hugenholtz P, Tyson GW (2008) Microbiology: metagenomics. Nature 455:481–483
63. Imbimbo BP, Solfrizzi V, Panza F (2010) Are NSAIDs useful to treat Alzheimer’s disease or mild cognitive impairment? Front Aging Neurosci 21:567–574
64. in t’ Veld BA, Ruitenberg A, Hofman A, Launer LJ, Van Duijn CM, Stijnen T, Breteler MM, Stricker BH (2001) Nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease. New Engl J Med 345:515–521
65. Iqbal K, Alonso Adel C, Chen S, Chohan MO, El-Akkad E, Gong CX, Khatoon S, Li B, Liu F, Rahman A et al (2005) Tau pathology in Alzheimer disease and other tauopathies. Biochim Biophys Acta 3:2–3
66. Irizarry MC, Hyman BT (2001) Alzheimer’s disease. In: Batchelor T, Cudkowicz ME (eds) Principles of neuroepidemiology, vol 46. Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, pp 69–98
67. Itzhaki RF (2014) Herpes simplex virus type 1 and Alzheimer’s disease: increasing evidence for a major role of the virus. Front Aging Neurosci 6:56–59
68. Jagust W (2001) Untangling vascular dementia. Lancet 358:2097–2098
69. Jellet JJ, Forrest TP, Macdonald IA, Marrie TJ, Holdeman LV (1980) Production of indole-3-propanoic acid and 3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid by Clostridium sporogenes: a convenient thin-layer chromatography detection system. Can J Microbiol 26:448–453
70. Kawashima K, Misawa H, Moriwaki Y, Fujii YX, Fujii T, Horiuchi Y, Yamada T, Imanaka T, Kamekura M (2007) Ubiquitous expression of acetylcholine and its biological functions in life forms without nervous systems. Life Sci 80:2206–2209
71. Kleessen B, Sykura B, Zunft HJ, Blaut M (1997) Effects of inulin and lactose on fecal microflora, microbial activity, and bowel habit in elderly constipated persons. Am J Clin Nutr 65:1397–1402
72. Kumar DK, Choi SH, Washicosky KJ, Eimer WA, Tucker S, Ghofrani J, Lefkowitz A, McColl G, Goldstein LE, Tanzi RE, et al (2016) Amyloid-beta peptide protects against microbial infection in mouse and worm models of Alzheimer’s disease. Sci Transl Med 8: 340ra372.
73. Lakhan SE, Caro M, and Hadzimichalis N (2013) NMDA receptor activity in neuropsychiatric disorders. Frontiers in Psychiatry 4.
74. Landete JM, De las Rivas B, Marcobal A, Munoz R (2008) Updated molecular knowledge about histamine biosynthesis by bacteria. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 48:697–714
75. LeBlanc JG, Milani C, de Giori GS, Sesma F, van Sinderen D, Ventura M (2013) Bacteria as vitamin suppliers to their host: a gut microbiota perspective. Curr Opin Biotechnol 24:160–168
76. Lee YK, Menezes JS, Umesaki Y, Mazmanian SK (2011) Proinflammatory T-cell responses to gut microbiota promote experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1:4615–4622
77. Levi M, Keller TT, van Gorp E, ten Cate H (2003) Infection and inflammation and the coagulation system. Cardiovasc Res 60:26–39
78. Lim C, Hammond CJ, Hingley ST, Balin BJ (2014) Chlamydia pneumoniae infection of monocytes in vitro stimulates innate and adaptive immune responses relevant to those in Alzheimer’s disease. J Neuroinflammation 11:014–0217
79. Little CS, Joyce TA, Hammond CJ, Matta H, Cahn D, Appelt DM, Balin BJ (2014) Detection of bacterial antigens and Alzheimer’s disease-like pathology in the central nervous system of BALB/c mice following intranasal infection with a laboratory isolate of Chlamydia pneumoniae. Front Aging Neurosci 6:304
80. Lopez MA, Saada EA, Hill KL (2015) Insect stage-specific adenylate cyclases regulate social motility in African trypanosomes. Eukaryot Cell 14:104–112
81. Macpherson AJ, Harris NL (2004) Interactions between commensal intestinal bacteria and the immune system. Nat Rev Immunol 4:478–485
82. Macpherson AJ, Uhr T (2004) Induction of protective IgA by intestinal dendritic cells carrying commensal bacteria. Science 303:1662–1665
83. Marquardt P, Spitznagel G (1959) Bakterielle acetylcholine bildung in kunstlichen Nahrboden. Arzneimittelforschung 9:456–465
84. Martins IJ, Hone E, Foster JK, Sunram-Lea SI, Gnjec A, Fuller SJ, Nolan D, Gandy SE, Martins RN (2006) Apolipoprotein E, cholesterol metabolism, diabetes, and the convergence of risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease and cardiovascular disease. Mol Psychiatry 11:721–736
85. Masters CL, Simms G, Weinman NA, Multhaup G, McDonald BL, Beyreuther K (1985) Amyloid plaque core protein in Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 82:4245–4249
86. Mulak A, Bonaz B (2015) Brain-gut-microbiota axis in Parkinson’s disease. World J Gastroenterol 21:10609–10620
87. Nursing-Standard (2016) Evidence suggests rosacea may be linked to Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease. Nursing Standard 30(39):14
88. O’Hara AM, Shanahan F (2006) The gut flora as a forgotten organ. EMBO Rep 7:688–693
89. Otte JM, Rosenberg IM, Podolsky DK (2003) Intestinal myofibroblasts in innate immune responses of the intestine. Gastroenterology 124:1866–1878
90. Özogul F (2011) Effects of specific lactic acid bacteria species on biogenic amine production by foodborne pathogen. Int J Food Sci Technol 46:478–484
91. Palmer C, Bik EM, DiGiulio DB, Relman DA, Brown PO (2007) Development of the human infant intestinal microbiota. PLoS Biol 5:26
92. Park SA (2011) A common pathogenic mechanism linking type-2 diabetes and Alzheimer’s disease: evidence from animal models. J Clin Neurol 7:10–18
93. Parodi A, Paolino S, Greco A, Drago F, Mansi C, Rebora A, Parodi A, Savarino V (2008) Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in rosacea: clinical effectiveness of its eradication. Clin Gastroenter Hepatol 6:759–764
94. Pasinetti GM, Wang J, Marambaud P, Ferruzzi M, Gregor P, Knable LA, Ho L (2011) Neuroprotective and metabolic effects of resveratrol: therapeutic implications for Huntington’s disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. Exp Neurol 232:1–6
95. Philpott DJ, Girardin SE, Sansonetti PJ (2001) Innate immune responses of epithelial cells following infection with bacterial pathogens. Curr Opin Immunol 13:410–416
96. Pignatelli M, Aparicio G, Blanquer I, Hernandez V, Moya A, Tamames J (2008) Metagenomics reveals our incomplete knowledge of global diversity. Bioinformatics 24:2124–2125
97. Potgieter M, Bester J, Kell DB, Pretorius E (2015) The dormant blood microbiome in chronic, inflammatory diseases. FEMS Microbiol Rev 39:567–591
98. Rabot S, Membrez M, Bruneau A, Gerard P, Harach T, Moser M, Raymond F, Mansourian R, Chou CJ (2010) Germ-free C57BL/6J mice are resistant to high-fat-diet-induced insulin resistance and have altered cholesterol metabolism. Faseb J 24:4948–4959
99. Rajilic-Stojanovic M, Biagi E, Heilig HG, Kajander K, Kekkonen RA, Tims S, de Vos WM (2011) Global and deep molecular analysis of microbiota signatures in fecal samples from patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 141:1792–1801
100. Rani V, Deshmukh R, Jaswal P, Bariwal J (2016) Alzheimer’s disease: Is this a brain specific diabetic condition? Physiol Behav 1:876–879
101. Russell WR, Hoyles L, Flint HJ, Dumas ME (2013) Colonic bacterial metabolites and human health. Curr Opin Microbiol 16:246–254
102. Santa-Maria I, Diaz-Ruiz C, Ksiezak-Reding H, Chen A, Ho L, Wang J, Pasinetti GM (2012) GSPE interferes with tau aggregation in vivo: implication for treating tauopathy. Neurobiol Aging 33:2072–2081
103. Scheperjans F, Aho V, Pereira PA, Koskinen K, Paulin L, Pekkonen E, Haapaniemi E, Kaakkola S, Eerola-Rautio J, Pohja M et al (2015) Gut microbiota are related to Parkinson’s disease and clinical phenotype. Mov Disord 30:350–358
104. Schwartz K, Boles BR (2013) Microbial amyloids–functions and interactions within the host. Curr Opin Microbiol 16:93–99
105. Shishov VA, Kirovskaia TA, Kudrin VS, Oleskin AV (2009) Amine neuromediators, their precursors, and oxidation products in the culture of Escherichia coli K-12. Prikl Biokhim Mikrobiol 45:550–554
106. Silva M, Jacobus NV, Deneke C, Gorbach SL (1987) Antimicrobial substance from a human Lactobacillus strain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 31:1231–1233
107. Swann JR, Want EJ, Geier FM, Spagou K, Wilson ID, Sidaway JE, Nicholson JK, Holmes E (2011) Systemic gut microbial modulation of bile acid metabolism in host tissue compartments. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1:4523–4530
108. Tan ZS, Beiser AS, Vasan RS, Roubenoff R, Dinarello CA, Harris TB, Benjamin EJ, Au R, Kiel DP, Wolf PA et al (2007) Inflammatory markers and the risk of Alzheimer disease: the Framingham Study. Neurology 68:1902–1908
109. Thibault H, Aubert-Jacquin C, Goulet O (2004) Effects of long-term consumption of a fermented infant formula (with Bifidobacterium breve c50 and Streptococcus thermophilus 065) on acute diarrhea in healthy infants. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 39:147–152
110. Thomas CM, Hong T, van Pijkeren JP, Hemarajata P, Trinh DV, Hu W, Britton RA, Kalkum M, Versalovic J (2012) Histamine derived from probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri suppresses TNF via modulation of PKA and ERK signaling. PLoS One 7:e31951
111. Tran L, Greenwood-Van Meerveld B (2013) Age-associated remodeling of the intestinal epithelial barrier. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 68:1045–1056
112. Tremaroli V, Backhed F (2012) Functional interactions between the gut microbiota and host metabolism. Nature 489:242–249
113. Tsavkelova EA, Botvinko IV, Kudrin VS, Oleskin AV (2000) Detection of neurotransmitter amines in microorganisms with the use of high-performance liquid chromatography. Dokl Biochem 372:115–117
114. von Bernhardi R, Eugenin-von Bernhardi L, Eugenin J (2015) Microglial cell dysregulation in brain aging and neurodegeneration. Front Aging Neurosci 7:231–238
115. Vulevic J, Drakoularakou A, Yaqoob P, Tzortzis G, Gibson GR (2008) Modulation of the fecal microflora profile and immune function by a novel trans-galactooligosaccharide mixture (B-GOS) in healthy elderly volunteers. Am J Clin Nutr 88:1438–1446
116. Wall R, Cryan JF, Ross RP, Fitzgerald GF, Dinan TG, Stanton C (2014) Bacterial neuroactive compounds produced by psychobiotics. Adv Exp Med Biol 817:221–239
117. Wang X, Quinn PJ (2010) Endotoxins: lipopolysaccharides of gram-negative bacteria. Subcell Biochem 53:3–25
118. Wang J, Ho L, Zhao W, Ono K, Rosensweig C, Chen L, Humala N, Teplow DB, Pasinetti GM (2008) Grape-derived polyphenolics prevent Abeta oligomerization and attenuate cognitive deterioration in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. J Neurosci 28:6388–6392
119. Wang Z, Klipfell E, Bennett BJ, Koeth R, Levison BS, Dugar B, Feldstein AE, Britt EB, Fu X, Chung YM et al (2011) Gut flora metabolism of phosphatidylcholine promotes cardiovascular disease. Nature 472:57–63
120. Wang D, Ho L, Faith J, Ono K, Janle EM, Lachcik PJ, Cooper BR, Jannasch AH, D’Arcy BR, Williams BA et al (2015) Role of intestinal microbiota in the generation of polyphenol-derived phenolic acid mediated attenuation of Alzheimer’s disease beta-amyloid oligomerization. Mol Nutr Food Res 59:1025–1040
121. Yaffe K, Lindquist K, Penninx BW, Simonsick EM, Pahor M, Kritchevsky S, Launer L, Kuller L, Rubin S, Harris T (2003) Inflammatory markers and cognition in well-functioning African-American and white elders. Neurology 61:76–80
122. Yano JM, Yu K, Donaldson GP, Shastri GG, Ann P, Ma L, Nagler CR, Ismagilov RF, Mazmanian SK, Hsiao EY (2015) Indigenous bacteria from the gut microbiota regulate host serotonin biosynthesis. Cell 161:264–276
123. Zuliani G, Ranzini M, Guerra G, Rossi L, Munari MR, Zurlo A, Volpato S, Atti AR, Ble A, Fellin R (2007) Plasma cytokines profile in older subjects with late onset Alzheimer’s disease or vascular dementia. J Psychiatr Res 41:686–693