The jingle and jangle of emotion assessment: Imprecise measurement, Casual scale usage, and Conceptual fuzziness in emotion research

Emotion

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2017, Pages 267-295

  Weidman, Aaron C ^a   Steckler, Conor M ^a   Tracy, Jessica L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Affect; Emotion; Measurement; Mood; Self report

Indexed keywords

EMOTION ASSESSMENT; EMPIRICISM; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MOOD; PSYCINFO; QUANTITATIVE STUDY; RELIABILITY; SCIENTIST; SELF REPORT; TAXONOMY; AFFECT; EMOTION; PERSONALITY; REPRODUCIBILITY; RESEARCH;

AFFECT; EMOTIONS; HUMANS; PERSONALITY; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; RESEARCH; SELF REPORT;

EID: 84987909434     PISSN: 15283542     EISSN: 19311516     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/emo0000226     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. Adelson, J. (1969). Personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 20, 217- 252. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.20.020169.001245.
2. Amodio, D. M., Devine, P. G., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2007). A dynamic model of guilt: Implications for motivation and self-regulation in the context of prejudice. Psychological Science, 18, 524-530. http://dx.doi .org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01933.x.
3. Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., & de Vries, R. E. (2014). The HEXACO Honesty- Humility, Agreeableness, and Emotionality factors: A review of research and theory. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18, 139-152. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868314523838.
4. Barger, B., Nabi, R., & Hong, L. Y. (2010). Standard back-translation procedures may not capture proper emotion concepts: A case study of Chinese disgust terms. Emotion, 10, 703-711. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0021453.
5. Barrett, L. F. (2006). Are emotions natural kinds? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 28-58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916. .2006.00003.x.
6. Barrett, L. F. (2014). The conceptual-act theory: A précis. Emotion Review, 6, 292-297. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073914534479.
7. Barrett, L. F., & Russell, J. A. (1998). Independence and bipolarity in the structure of current affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 967-984. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.4.967.
8. Bartlett, M. Y., & DeSteno, D. (2006). Gratitude and prosocial behavior: Helping when it costs you. Psychological Science, 17, 319-325. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01705.x.
9. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., & Brown, G. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Harcourt, Brace, & Co.
10. Burisch, M. (1984). Approaches to personality inventory construction: A comparison of merits. American Psychologist, 39, 214-227. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.39.3.214.
11. Burisch, M. (1997). Test length and validity revisited. European Journal of Personality, 11, 303-315. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099- 0984(199711)11:4303::AID-PER292>3.0.CO;2-#.
12. Burns, J. W. (2006). Arousal of negative emotions and symptom-specific reactivity in chronic low back pain patients. Emotion, 6, 309-319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.2.309
13. Buss, A. H., & Durkee, A. (1957). An inventory for assessing different kinds of hostility. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 21, 343-349. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0046900.
14. Busseri, M. A., & Sadava, S. W. (2011). A review of the tripartite structure of subjective well-being: Implications for conceptualization, operationalization, analysis, and synthesis. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 290-314. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868310391271.
15. Carver, C. S., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2009). Anger is an approach-related affect: Evidence and implications. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 183- 204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0013965.
16. Cavanaugh, L. A., Cutright, K. M., Luce, M. F., & Bettman, J. R. (2011). Hope, pride, and processing during optimal and nonoptimal times of day. Emotion, 11, 38-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022016.
17. Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7, 309-319. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.7.3.309.
18. Cohen, T. R., Wolf, S. T., Panter, A. T., & Insko, C. A. (2011). Introducing the GASP scale: A new measure of guilt and shame proneness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 947-966. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/a0022641.
19. Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). NEO-PI-R professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
20. Cottrell, C. A., & Neuberg, S. L. (2005). Different emotional reactions to different groups: A sociofunctional threat-based approach to "prejudice". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 770-789. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.5.770.
21. Credé, M., Harms, P., Niehorster, S., & Gaye-Valentine, A. (2012). An evaluation of the consequences of using short measures of the Big Five personality traits. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 874-888. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027403.
22. Cronbach, L. J., & Meehl, P. E. (1955). Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 281-302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ h0040957.
23. Crusius, J., & Mussweiler, T. (2012). When people want what others have: The impulsive side of envious desire. Emotion, 12, 142-153. http://dx .doi.org/10.1037/a0023523
24. Cryder, C. E., Lerner, J. S., Gross, J. J., & Dahl, R. E. (2008). Misery is not miserly: Sad and self-focused individuals spend more. Psychological Science, 19, 525-530. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008 .02118.x.
25. Cumming, G. (2014). The new statistics: Why and how. Psychological Science, 25, 7-29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797613504966.
26. Cuthbert, B. N., Lang, P. J., Strauss, C., Drobes, D., Patrick, C. J., & Bradley, M. M. (2003). The psychophysiology of anxiety disorder: Fear memory imagery. Psychophysiology, 40, 407-422. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1111/1469-8986.00043
27. Damasio, A. R., Grabowski, T. J., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Ponto, L. L. B., Parvizi, J., & Hichwa, R. D. (2000). Subcortical and cortical brain activity during the feeling of self-generated emotions. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 1049-1056. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/79871.
28. Darwin, C. (1872). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. New York, NY: Appleton & Co.
29. DeSteno, D., Bartlett, M. Y., Baumann, J., Williams, L. A., & Dickens, L. (2010). Gratitude as moral sentiment: Emotion-guided cooperation in economic exchange. Emotion, 10, 289-293. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0017883.
30. DeYoung, C. G., Quilty, L. C., & Peterson, J. B. (2007). Between facets and domains: 10.aspects of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 880-896. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514 .93.5.880.
31. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95, 542- 575. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542.
32. Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being. The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American Psychologist, 55, 34-43. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.34.
33. Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The satisfaction with life scale. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71- 75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4901_13.
34. Diener, E., Ng, W., Harter, J., & Arora, R. (2010). Wealth and happiness across the world: Material prosperity predicts life evaluation, whereas psychosocial prosperity predicts positive feeling. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 52-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018066.
35. Dunn, E. W., & Norton, M. I. (2013). Happy money: The science of smarter spending. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
36. Eich, E. (2014). Business not as usual. Psychological Science, 25, 3-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797613512465.
37. Ekman, P. (1992). An argument for basic emotions. Cognition and Emotion, 6, 169-200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699939208411068.
38. Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124- 129. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0030377.
39. Ekman, P., Friesen, W. V., O'Sullivan, M., Chan, A., Diacoyanni- Tarlatzis, I., Heider, K. Tzavaras, A. (1987). Universals and cultural differences in the judgments of facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 712-717. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0022-3514.53.4.712.
40. Ellsworth, P. C., & Smith, C. A. (1988). From appraisal to emotion: Differences among unpleasant feelings. Motivation and Emotion, 12, 271-302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00993115.
41. Epstein, S. (1983). Aggregation and beyond: Some basic issues on the prediction of behavior. Journal of Personality, 51, 360-392. http://dx .doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1983.tb00338.x.
42. Fehr, B., & Russell, J. A. (1991). The concept of love viewed from a prototype perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 425-438. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.3.425.
43. Fehr, B., & Sprecher, S. (2009). Prototype analysis of the concept of compassionate love. Personal Relationships, 16, 343-364. http://dx.doi .org/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2009.01227.x.
44. Fischer, A. H., & Roseman, I. J. (2007). Beat them or ban them: The characteristics and social functions of anger and contempt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 103-115. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0022-3514.93.1.103.
45. Fisher, H. E., Aron, A., & Brown, L. L. (2006). Romantic love: A mammalian brain system for mate choice. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences, 361, 2173- 2186. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1938.
46. Ford, B. Q., Tamir, M., Brunyé, T. T., Shirer, W. R., Mahoney, C. R., & Taylor, H. A. (2010). Keeping your eyes on the prize: Anger and visual attention to threats and rewards. Psychological Science, 21, 1098-1105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797610375450.
47. Funder, D. C., Levine, J. M., Mackie, D. M., Morf, C. C., Sansone, C., Vazire, S., & West, S. G. (2014). Improving the dependability of research in personality and social psychology: Recommendations for research and educational practice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18, 3-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868313507536.
48. Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: An evolutionary analysis and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 351-374. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018807.
49. Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4, 26-42. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.26.
50. Goldberg, L. R., & Kilkowski, J. M. (1985). The prediction of semantic consistency in self-descriptions: Characteristics of persons and of terms that affect the consistency of responses to synonym and antonym pairs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 82-98. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/0022-3514.48.1.82.
51. Goldin, P. R., & Gross, J. J. (2010). Effects of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on emotion regulation in social anxiety disorder. Emotion, 10, 83-91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018441.
52. Gonzaga, G. C., Turner, R. A., Keltner, D., Campos, B., & Altemus, M. (2006). Romantic love and sexual desire in close relationships. Emotion, 6, 163-179. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.6.2.163
53. Gosling, S. D., Rentfrow, P. J., & Swann, W. B., Jr. (2003). A very brief measure of the Big Five personality domains. Journal of Research in Personality, 37, 504 -528. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(03). 00046-1
54. Gulliksen, H. (1950). Theory of mental tests. New York, NY: Wiley. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/13240-000.
55. Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16, 701-713. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7.
56. Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 1-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022- 5193(64)90038-4
57. Harmon-Jones, C., Bastian, B., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2016). Detecting transient emotional responses with improved self-report measures and instructions. Emotion. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/emo0000216.
58. Harmon-Jones, E., Harmon-Jones, C., Abramson, L., & Peterson, C. K. (2009). PANAS positive activation is associated with anger. Emotion, 9, 183-196. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0014959.
59. Heider, K. G. (1991). Landscapes of emotion. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527715.
60. Heise, D. R. (1969). Separating reliability and stability in test-retest correlation. American Sociological Review, 34, 93-101. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.2307/2092790.
61. Hepper, E. G., Ritchie, T. D., Sedikides, C., & Wildschut, T. (2012). Odyssey's end: Lay conceptions of nostalgia reflect its original Homeric meaning. Emotion, 12, 102-119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0025167.
62. Hettema, J. M., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J. M., Neale, M. C., & Kendler, K. S. (2005). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for anxiety disorders in men and women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 182-189. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.2.182.
63. Hodson, G., & Costello, K. (2007). Interpersonal disgust, ideological orientations, and dehumanization as predictors of intergroup attitudes. Psychological Science, 18, 691-698. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 9280.2007.01962.x.
64. Horberg, E. J., Oveis, C., Keltner, D., & Cohen, A. B. (2009). Disgust and the moralization of purity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 963-976. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0017423.
65. Hupka, R. B., Lenton, A. P., & Hutchison, K. A. (1999). Universal development of emotion categories in natural language. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 247-278. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0022-3514.77.2.247.
66. Hutcherson, C. A., & Gross, J. J. (2011). The moral emotions: A socialfunctionalist account of anger, disgust, and contempt. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 719-737. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/a0022408.
67. Inbar, Y., Pizarro, D. A., & Bloom, P. (2012). Disgusting smells cause decreased liking of gay men. Emotion, 12, 23-27. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/a0023984.
68. Inzlicht, M., & Tritt, S. (2014, February). Where's the passion? The relative neglect of emotion process variables in social psychology. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology. Austin, TX.
69. Isaacowitz, D. M., & Choi, Y. (2011). The malleability of age-related positive gaze preferences: Training to change gaze and mood. Emotion, 11, 90-100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0021551.
70. Izard, C. E. (1971). The face of emotion. New York, NY: Appleton- Century-Crofts.
71. Izard, C. E. (2010). The many meanings/aspects of emotion: Definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. Emotion Review, 2, 363-370. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661.
72. Jakobs, E., Manstead, A. S. R., & Fischer, A. H. (2001). Social context effects on facial activity in a negative emotional setting. Emotion, 1, 51-69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.1.1.51.
73. James, W. (1890). What is an emotion? Mind, 9, 188-205.
74. John, L. K., Loewenstein, G., & Prelec, D. (2012). Measuring the prevalence of questionable research practices with incentives for truth telling. Psychological Science, 23, 524 -532. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0956797611430953.
75. John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big-Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (Vol. 2, pp. 102-138). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
76. Johnson, D. R. (2009). Emotional attention set-shifting and its relationship to anxiety and emotion regulation. Emotion, 9, 681-690. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/a0017095.
77. Joshi, P. K., Esko, T., Mattsson, H., Eklund, N., Gandin, I., Nutile, T.Wilson, J. F. (2015). Directional dominance on stature and cognition in diverse human populations. Nature, 523, 459-462.
78. Kahneman, D. (1999). Objective happiness. In D. Kahneman, E. Deiner, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Well-being: Foundations of hedonic psychology (pp. 3-25). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
79. Kahneman, D., & Deaton, A. (2010). High income improves evaluation of life but not emotional well-being. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 16489-16493. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1011492107.
80. Kashy, D. A., Donnellan, M. B., Ackerman, R. A., & Russell, D. W. (2009). Reporting and interpreting research in PSPB: Practices, principles, and pragmatics. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 1131-1142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167208331253.
81. Keller, L. F., Arcese, P., Smith, J. N., Hochachka, W. M., & Stearns, S. C. (1994). Selection against inbred song sparrows during a natural population bottleneck. Nature, 372, 356 -357. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ 372356a0.
82. Kelley, T. L. (1927). Interpretation of educational measurements. New York, NY: World Book Company.
83. Keltner, D. (1995). Signs of appeasement: Evidence for the distinct displays of embarrassment, amusement, and shame. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 441-454. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022- 3514.68.3.441.
84. Kerr, N. L. (1998). HARKing: Hypothesizing after the results are known. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 196-217. http://dx.doi .org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0203_4.
85. Ketelaar, T., & Au, W. T. (2003). The effects of feelings of guilt on the behaviour of uncooperative individuals in repeated social bargaining games: An affect-as-information interpretation of the role of emotion in social interaction. Cognition and Emotion, 17, 429-453. http://dx.doi .org/10.1080/02699930143000662.
86. Klimstra, T. A., Frijns, T., Keijsers, L., Denissen, J. J. A., Raaijmakers, Q. A. W., van Aken, M. A. W. Meeus, W. H. J. (2011). Come rain or come shine: Individual differences in how weather affects mood. Emotion, 11, 1495-1499. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024649.
87. Konstabel, K., Lönnqvist, J., Walkowitz, G., Konstabel, K., & Verkasalo, M. (2012). The 'Short Five' (S5): Measuring personality traits using comprehensive single-items. European Journal of Personality, 26, 13- 29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.813
88. Kragel, P. A., & LaBar, K. S. (2014). Advancing emotion theory with multivariate pattern classification. Emotion Review, 6, 160-174. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073913512519.
89. Labouvie-Vief, G., Lumley, M. A., Jain, E., & Heinze, H. (2003). Age and gender differences in cardiac reactivity and subjective emotion responses to emotional autobiographical memories. Emotion, 3, 115-126. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.3.2.115.
90. Lambert, N. M., Graham, S. M., & Fincham, F. D. (2009). A prototype analysis of gratitude: Varieties of gratitude experiences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 35, 1193-1207. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0146167209338071.
91. Larsen, R. J. (2000). Toward a science of mood regulation. Psychological Inquiry, 11, 129-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1103_01.
92. Leach, C. W., & Cidam, A. (2015). When is shame linked to constructive approach orientation? A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 983-1002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000037.
93. Lelieveld, G. J., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2012). Why anger and disappointment affect other's bargaining behavior differently: The moderating role of power and the mediating role of reciprocal and complementary emotions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1209 -1221. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0146167212446938.
94. Lerner, J. S., Gonzalez, R. M., Small, D. A., & Fischhoff, B. (2003). Effects of fear and anger on perceived risks of terrorism: A national field experiment. Psychological Science, 14, 144-150. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1111/1467-9280.01433.
95. Lerner, J. S., Small, D. A., & Loewenstein, G. (2004). Heart strings and purse strings: Carryover effects of emotions on economic decisions. Psychological Science, 15, 337-341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0956- 7976.2004.00679.x.
96. Levy, K. N., & Kelly, K. M. (2010). Sex differences in jealousy: A contribution from attachment theory. Psychological Science, 21, 168- 173. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797609357708.
97. Lindquist, K. A. (2013). Emotions emerge from more basic psychological ingredients: A modern psychological constructionist model. Emotion Review, 5, 356-368. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073913489750.
98. Lishner, D. A., Batson, C. D., & Huss, E. (2011). Tenderness and sympathy: Distinct empathic emotions elicited by different forms of need. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 614-625. http://dx.doi .org/10.1177/0146167211403157.
99. Loevinger, J. (1954). The attenuation paradox in test theory. Psychological Bulletin, 51, 493-504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0058543.
100. Loevinger, J. (1957). Objective tests as instruments for psychological theory. Psychological Reports, 3, 635-694. http://dx.doi.org/10.2466/ pr0.1957.3.3.635.
101. Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. (1999). A measure of subjective happiness: Preliminary reliability and construct validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137-155. http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1006824100041.
102. Marschall, D., Sanftner, J., & Tangney, J. P. (1994). The state shame and guilt scale. Fairfax, VA: George Mason University.
103. Mauss, I. B., & Robinson, M. D. (2009). Measures of emotion: A review. Cognition and Emotion, 23, 209 -237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/ 02699930802204677.
104. McAdams, D. P. (1997). A conceptual history of personality psychology. In R. Hogan, J. Johnson, & S. Briggs (Eds.), Handbook of personality psychology (pp. 3-39). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/B978-012134645-4/50002-0.
105. McClelland, D. C. (1987). Human motivation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
106. McCrae, R. R., Kurtz, J. E., Yamagata, S., & Terracciano, A. (2011). Internal consistency, retest reliability, and their implications for personality scale validity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15, 28-50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1088868310366253.
107. McCullough, M. E., Emmons, R. A., & Tsang, J. A. (2002). The grateful disposition: A conceptual and empirical topography. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 112-127. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0022-3514.82.1.112.
108. McGregor, H. A., & Elliot, A. J. (2005). The shame of failure: Examining the link between fear of failure and shame. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 218 -231. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0146167204271420.
109. McNair, D., Lorr, M., & Dropplemen, L. (1971). Edits manual: Profile of mood states. San Diego, CA: Educational and Industrial Testing Services.
110. Mischel, W. (1968). Personality and assessment. New York, NY: Wiley.
111. Modiglianai, A. (1968). Embarrassment and embarrassability. Sociometry, 31, 313-326. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2786616.
112. Morris, L. W., Davis, M. A., & Hutchings, C. H. (1981). Cognitive and emotional components of anxiety: Literature review and a revised Worry-Emotionality Scale. Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 541-555.
113. Most, S. B., Laurenceau, J. P., Graber, E., Belcher, A., & Smith, C. V. (2010). Blind jealousy? Romantic insecurity increases emotion-induced failures of visual perception. Emotion, 10, 250-256. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/a0019007.
114. Nabi, R. L. (2002). The theoretical versus the lay meaning of disgust: Implications for emotion research. Cognition and Emotion, 16, 695-703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000437.
115. Nelissen, R. M. A., Leliveld, M. C., van Dijk, E., & Zeelenberg, M. (2011). Fear and guilt in proposers: Using emotions to explain offers in ultimatum bargaining. European Journal of Social Psychology, 41, 78-85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.735.
116. Öhman, A. (2008). Fear and anxiety: Overlaps and dissociations. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 709-729). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
117. Panksepp, J. (2007). Neurologizing the psychology of affects: How appraisal-based constructivism and basic emotion theory can coexist. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 281-296. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00045.x.
118. Parker Tapias, M., Glaser, J., Keltner, D., Vasquez, K., & Wickens, T. (2007). Emotions and prejudice: Specific emotions toward outgroups. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10, 27-39. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1177/1368430207071338.
119. Pashler, H., & Harris, C. R. (2012). Is the replicability crisis overblown? Three arguments examined. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 531-536. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691612463401.
120. Paulhus, D. L., Robins, R. W., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Tracy, J. L. (2004). Two replicable suppressor situations in personality research. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 303-328. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/ s15327906mbr3902_7.
121. Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M. (2002). The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 556 -563. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566 (02)00505-6.
122. Paunonen, S. V. (1998). Hierarchical organization of personality and prediction of behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 538-556. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.2.538.
123. Paunonen, S. V., & Ashton, M. C. (2013). On the prediction of academic performance with personality traits: A replication study. Journal of Research in Personality, 47, 778-781. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp .2013.08.003.
124. Perkins, A. M., Inchley-Mort, S. L., Pickering, A. D., Corr, P. J., & Burgess, A. P. (2012). A facial expression for anxiety. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102, 910-924. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/a0026825.
125. Poldrack, R. A. (2010). Mapping mental function to brain structure: How can cognitive neuroimaging succeed? Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 753-761. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1745691610388777.
126. Pronin, E., Jacobs, E., & Wegner, D. M. (2008). Psychological effects of thought acceleration. Emotion, 8, 597-612. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ a0013268.
127. Quartana, P. J., & Burns, J. W. (2007). Painful consequences of anger suppression. Emotion, 7, 400-414. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542 .7.2.400.
128. Rammstedt, B., & John, O. P. (2007). Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 203-212. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/j.jrp.2006.02.001.
129. Reise, S. P., Waller, N. G., & Comrey, A. L. (2000). Factor analysis and scale revision. Psychological Assessment, 12, 287-297. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/1040-3590.12.3.287.
130. Robins, R. W., Hendin, H. M., & Trzesniewski, K. H. (2001). Measuring global self-esteem: Construct validation of a single-item measure and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 151-161. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167201272002.
131. Romney, A. K., Moore, C. C., & Rusch, C. D. (1997). Cultural universals: Measuring the semantic structure of emotion terms in English and Japanese. PNAS Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 94, 5489-5494. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/ pnas.94.10.5489.
132. Roseman, I. J. (2011). Emotional behaviors, emotivational goals, emotion strategies: Multiple levels of organization integrate variable and consistent responses. Emotion Review, 3, 434-443. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1754073911410744.
133. Rottenberg, J., Kasch, K. L., Gross, J. J., & Gotlib, I. H. (2002). Sadness and amusement reactivity differentially predict concurrent and prospective functioning in major depressive disorder. Emotion, 2, 135-146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.2.2.135.
134. Rudd, M., Vohs, K. D., & Aaker, J. (2012). Awe expands people's perception of time, alters decision making, and enhances well-being. Psychological Science, 23, 1130 -1136. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0956797612438731.
135. Russell, J. A. (1980). A circumplex model of affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 1161-1178. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ h0077714
136. Russell, J. A. (1991a). Culture and the categorization of emotions. Psychological Bulletin, 110, 426-450. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909 .110.3.426.
137. Russell, J. A. (1991b). In defense of a prototype approach to emotion concepts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 37-47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.1.37.
138. Russell, J. A. (2014). Four perspectives on the psychology of emotion: An introduction. Emotion Review, 6, 291. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 1754073914534558.
139. Russell, J. A., & Fehr, B. (1994). Fuzzy concepts in a fuzzy hierarchy: Varieties of anger. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 186-205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.2.186.
140. Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 1069-1081. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6. .1069
141. Sbarra, D. A., & Ferrer, E. (2006). The structure and process of emotional experience following nonmarital relationship dissolution: Dynamic factor analyses of love, anger, and sadness. Emotion, 6, 224-238.
142. Schimmack, U., Schupp, J., & Wagner, G. G. (2008). The influence of environment and personality on the affective and cognitive component of subjective well-being. Social Indicators Research, 89, 41-60. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9230-3.
143. Schmidt, F. L., & Hunter, J. E. (1996). Measurement error in psychological research: Lessons from 26. research scenarios. Psychological Methods, 1, 199-223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.199.
144. Schnall, S., Haidt, J., Clore, G. L., & Jordan, A. H. (2008). Disgust as embodied moral judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 1096-1109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0146167208317771.
145. Schnall, S., Roper, J., & Fessler, D. M. (2010). Elevation leads to altruistic behavior. Psychological Science, 21, 315-320. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1177/0956797609359882.
146. Sharpsteen, D. J. (1993). Romantic jealousy as an emotion concept: A prototype analysis. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10, 69-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0265407593101005.
147. Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O'Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1061-1086. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061.
148. Sherman, G. D., Haidt, J., & Clore, G. L. (2012). The faintest speck of dirt: Disgust enhances the detection of impurity. Psychological Science, 23, 1506-1514. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797612445318
149. Shi, Y., Chung, J. M., Cheng, J. T., Tracy, J. L., Robins, R. W., Chen, X., & Zheng, Y. (2015). Cross-cultural evidence for the two-facet structure of pride. Journal of Research in Personality, 55, 61-74. http://dx.doi .org/10.1016/j.jrp.2015.01.004.
150. Shiota, M. N., Keltner, D., & John, O. P. (2006). Positive emotion dispositions differentially associated with big five personality and attachment style. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1, 61-71. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1080/17439760500510833.
151. Shiota, M. N., Neufeld, S. L., Danvers, A. F., Osborne, E. A., Sng, O., & Yee, C. I. (2014). Positive emotion differentiation: A functional ap-proach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 8, 104-117. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12092.
152. Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22, 1359-1366. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0956797611417632.
153. Simonsohn, U., Nelson, L. D., & Simmons, J. P. (2014). P-curve: A key to the file-drawer. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 143, 534-547. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0033242.
154. Smith, R. H., Parrott, W. G., Diener, E. F., Hoyle, R. H., & Kim, S. H. (1999). Dispositional envy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1007-1020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/01461672992511008.
155. Smith, R. H., Powell, C. A. J., Combs, D. J. Y., & Schurtz, D. R. (2009). Exploring the when and why of schadenfreude. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 530-546. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751- 9004.2009.00181.x.
156. Spielberger, C. D., Gorssuch, R. L., Lushene, P. R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory. Mountain View, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
157. Storbeck, J., & Clore, G. L. (2008). The affective regulation of cognitive priming. Emotion, 8, 208-215. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.8.2 .208.
158. Strauman, T. J. (2002). Self-regulation and depression. Self and Identity, 1, 151-157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/152988602317319339.
159. Strauss, M. E., & Smith, G. T. (2009). Construct validity: Advances in theory and methodology. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 1-25.
160. Sweetman, J., Spears, R., Livingstone, A. G., & Manstead, A. S. R. (2013). Admiration regulates social hierarchy: Antecedents, dispositions, and effects on intergroup behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 534-542. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.10.007.
161. Tangney, J. P., & Dearing, R. L. (2002). Shame and guilt. New York, NY: Guilford Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412950664.n388.
162. Tangney, J. P., Dearing, R. L., Wagner, P. E., & Gramzow, R. (2000). The test of self-conscious affect-3 (TOSCA-3). Fairfax, VA: George Mason University.
163. Thorndike, E. L. (1904). An introduction to the theory of mental and social measurements. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/13283-000.
164. Tignor, S. M., & Colvin, C. R. (2016). The interpersonal adaptiveness of dispositional guilt and shame: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Personality. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12244
165. Tracy, J. L. (2014). Author reply: Incompatible conclusions or different levels of analysis. Emotion Review, 6, 330-331. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1177/1754073914534504.
166. Tracy, J. L., & Randles, D. (2011). Four models of basic emotions: A review of Ekman & Cordaro, Izard, Levenson, and Panksepp & Watt. Emotion Review, 3, 397-405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410747.
167. Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2007). The psychological structure of pride: A tale of two facets. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 506-525. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.3.506.
168. Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2008). The nonverbal expression of pride: Evidence for cross-cultural recognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 516-530. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514. .94.3.516
169. Valdesolo, P., & Desteno, D. (2011). Synchrony and the social tuning of compassion. Emotion, 11, 262-266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0021302
170. Walker, D. L., Toufexis, D. J., & Davis, M. (2003). Role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis versus the amygdala in fear, stress, and anxiety. European Journal of Pharmacology, 463, 199-216. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1016/S0014-2999(03)01282-2.
171. Wanous, J. P., & Hudy, M. J. (2001). Single-item reliability: A replication and extension. Organizational Research Methods, 4, 361-375. http://dx .doi.org/10.1177/109442810144003.
172. Watson, D. (2005). Rethinking the mood and anxiety disorders: A quantitative hierarchical model for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 522-536. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.522.
173. Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063.
174. Watson, D., & Tellegen, A. (1985). Toward a consensual structure of mood. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 219-235. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ 0033-2909.98.2.219.
175. Weidman, A. C., & Dunn, E. W. (2016). The unsung benefits of material things: Material purchases provide more frequent momentary happiness than experiential purchases. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 7, 390-399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1948550615619761.
176. Williams, L. A., & DeSteno, D. (2008). Pride and perseverance: The motivational role of pride. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 1007-1017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1007.
177. Williams, L. A., & DeSteno, D. (2009). Pride: Adaptive social emotion or seventh sin? Psychological Science, 20, 284-288. http://dx.doi.org/10 .1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02292.x.
178. Winter, D. G., John, O. P., Stewart, A. J., Klohnen, E. C., & Duncan, L. E. (1998). Traits and motives: Toward an integration of two traditions in personality research. Psychological Review, 105, 230-250. http://dx.doi .org/10.1037/0033-295X.105.2.230.
179. Wood, D., Nye, C. D., & Saucier, G. (2010). Identification and measurement of a more comprehensive set of person-descriptive trait markers from the English lexicon. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 258-272. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.02.003
180. Woods, S. A., & Hampson, S. E. (2005). Measuring the Big Five with single items using a bipolar response scale. European Journal of Personality, 19, 373-390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/per.542.
181. Yarkoni, T. (2010). The abbreviation of personality, or how to measure 200. personality scales with 200. items. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 180-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2010.01.002.
182. Zhou, X., Sedikides, C., Wildschut, T., & Gao, D. G. (2008). Counteracting loneliness: On the restorative function of nostalgia. Psychological Science, 19, 1023-1029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008 .02194.x.