Online and offline performance gains following motor imagery practice: A comprehensive review of behavioral and neuroimaging studies

Frontiers in Human Neuroscience

Volumn 10, Issue , 2016, Pages

  Di Rienzo, Franck ^a   Debarnot, Ursula ^a,b   Daligault, Sébastien ^c   Saruco, Elodie ^a   Delpuech, Claude ^c   Doyon, Julien ^d   Collet, Christian ^a   Guillot, Aymeric ^a,e  

^a Univ Lyon University Jean Monnet Saint Etienne   (France)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA   (Switzerland)

^c CERMEP IMAGERIE DU VIVANT   (France)

^d CENTRE DE RECHERCHE   (Canada)

^e INSTITUT UNIVERSITAIRE DE FRANCE   (France)

Author keywords

Cerebral plasticity; Dynamic imagery; Mental processes; Motor consolidation; Motor learning; Movement imagery; Sleep

Indexed keywords

ATTENTION; BRAIN; CONTROLLED STUDY; HUMAN; HUMAN EXPERIMENT; IMAGERY; LEARNING; MEMORY; NEUROIMAGING; NORMAL HUMAN; PLASTICITY; SLEEP;

EID: 84978253719     PISSN: None     EISSN: 16625161     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2016.00315     Document Type: Review

References (163)

1. Afrouzeh, M., Sohrabi, E., Haghkhan, A., Rowshani, F., and Goharrokhi, S. (2015). Effectiveness of PETTLEP imager on performance of passing skill in volleyball. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fitness 55, 30-36.
2. Aftanas, L. I., and Golocheikine, S. A. (2001). Human anterior and frontal midline theta and lower alpha reflect emotionally positive state and internalized attention: high-resolution EEG investigation of meditation. Neurosci. Lett. 310, 57-60. doi: 10.1016/s0304-3940(01)02094-8
3. Ahn, M., and Jun, S. C. (2015). Performance variation in motor imagery braincomputer interface: a brief review. J. Neurosci. Methods 243, 103-110. doi: 10. 1016/j.jneumeth.2015.01.033
4. Albouy, G., Fogel, S., Pottiez, H., Nguyen, V. A., Ray, L., Lungu, O., et al. (2013a). Daytime sleep enhances consolidation of the spatial but not motoric representation of motor sequence memory. PLoS One 8, e52805. doi: 10. 1371/journal.pone.0052805
5. Albouy, G., King, B. R., Maquet, P., and Doyon, J. (2013b). Hippocampus and striatum: dynamics and interaction during acquisition and sleep-related motor sequence memory consolidation. Hippocampus 23, 985-1004. doi: 10. 1002/hipo.22183
6. Allami, N., Brovelli, A., Hamzaoui el, M., Regragui, F., Paulignan, Y., and Boussaoud, D. (2014). Neurophysiological correlates of visuo-motor learning through mental and physical practice. Neuropsychologia 55, 6-14. doi: 10. 1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.12.017
7. Allami, N., Paulignan, Y., Brovelli, A., and Boussaoud, D. (2008). Visuo-motor learning with combination of different rates of motor imagery and physical practice. Exp. Brain Res. 184, 105-113. doi: 10.1007/s00221-007-1086-x
8. Arora, S., Aggarwal, R., Sirimanna, P., Moran, A., Grantcharov, T., Kneebone, R., et al. (2011). Mental practice enhances surgical technical skills: a randomized controlled study. Ann. Surg. 253, 265-270. doi: 10.1097/SLA. 0b013e318207a789
9. Avanzino, L., Giannini, A., Tacchino, A., Pelosin, E., Ruggeri, P., and Bove, M. (2009). Motor imagery influences the execution of repetitive finger opposition movements. Neurosci Lett 466, 11-15. doi: 10.1016/j.neulet.2009.09.036
10. Avanzino, L., Gueugneau, N., Bisio, A., Ruggeri, P., Papaxanthis, C., and Bove, M. (2015). Motor cortical plasticity induced by motor learning through mental practice. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 9: 105. doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00105
11. Baeck, J. S., Kim, Y. T., Seo, J. H., Ryeom, H. K., Lee, J., Choi, S. M., et al. (2012). Brain activation patterns of motor imagery reflect plastic changes associated with intensive shooting training. Behav. Brain Res. 234, 26-32. doi: 10.1016/j. bbr.2012.06.001
12. Barakat, M., Doyon, J., Debas, K., Vandewalle, G., Morin, A., Poirier, G., et al. (2011). Fast and slow spindle involvement in the consolidation of a new motor sequence. Behav. Brain Res. 217, 117-121. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.10.019
13. Bassolino, M., Campanella, M., Bove, M., Pozzo, T., and Fadiga, L. (2014). Training the motor cortex by observing the actions of others during immobilization. Cereb. Cortex 24, 3268-3276. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bht190
14. Battaglia, C., D’Artibale, E., Fiorilli, G., Piazza, M., Tsopani, D., Giombini, A., et al. (2014). Use of video observation and motor imagery on jumping performance in national rhythmic gymnastics athletes. Hum. Mov. Sci. 38, 225-234. doi: 10. 1016/j.humov.2014.10.001
15. Berends, H., Wolkorte, R., Ijzerman, M., and van Putten, M. (2013). Differential cortical activation during observation and observation-and-imagination. Exp. Brain Res. 229, 337-345. doi: 10.1007/s00221-013-3571-8
16. Bezzola, L., Mérillat, S., and Jäncke, L. (2012). The effect of leisure activity golf practice on motor imagery: an fMRI study in middle adulthood. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6: 67. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00067
17. Bianco, G., Feurra, M., Fadiga, L., Rossi, A., and Rossi, S. (2012). Bi-hemispheric effects on corticospinal excitability induced by repeated sessions of imagery versus observation of actions. Restor. Neurol. Neurosci. 30, 481-489. doi: 10. 3233/RNN-2012-120241
18. Bisio, A., Avanzino, L., Ruggeri, P., and Bove, M. (2014). The tool as the last piece of the athlete’s gesture imagery puzzle. Neuroscience 265, 196-203. doi: 10. 1016/j.neuroscience.2014.01.050
19. Boschker, M. S., Bakker, F. C., and Rietberg, M. B. (2000). Retroactive interference effects of mentally imagined movement speed. J. Sports Sci. 18, 593-603. doi: 10. 1080/02640410050082305
20. Brashers-Krug, T., Shadmehr, R., and Bizzi, E. (1996). Consolidation in human motor memory. Nature 382, 252-255. doi: 10.1038/382252a0
21. Burianová, H., Marstaller, L., Sowman, P., Tesan, G., Rich, A. N., Williams, M., et al. (2013). Multimodal functional imaging of motor imagery using a novel paradigm. Neuroimage 71, 50-58. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013. 01.001
22. Callow, N., Roberts, R., and Fawkes, J. Z. (2006). Effects of dynamic and static imagery on vividness of imagery, skiing performance and confidence. J. Imagery Res. Sport Phys. Act. 1, 1-15. doi: 10.2202/1932-0191.1001
23. Cavanna, A. E., and Trimble, M. R. (2006). The precuneus: a review of its functional anatomy and behavioural correlates. Brain 129, 564-583. doi: 10. 1093/brain/awl004
24. Cebolla, A. M., Petieau, M., Cevallos, C., Leroy, A., Dan, B., and Cheron, G. (2015). Long-lasting cortical reorganization as the result of motor imagery of throwing a ball in a virtual tennis court. Front. Psychol. 6: 1869. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015. 01869
25. Chang, Y., Lee, J. J., Seo, J. H., Song, H. J., Kim, Y. T., Lee, H. J., et al. (2011). Neural correlates of motor imagery for elite archers.NMRBiomed. 24, 366-372. doi: 10.1002/nbm.1600
26. Collet, C., Di Rienzo, F., El Hoyek, N., and Guillot, A. (2013). Autonomic nervous system correlates in movement observation and motor imagery. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7: 415. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00415
27. Cornwall, M. W., Bruscato, M. P., and Barry, S. (1991). Effect of mental practice on isometric muscular strength. J. Orthop. Sports Phys. Ther. 13, 231-234. doi: 10. 2519/jospt.1991.13.5.231
28. Courtine, G., Papaxanthis, C., Gentili, R., and Pozzo, T. (2004). Gait-dependent motor memory facilitation in covert movement execution. Brain Res. Cogn. Brain Res. 22, 67-75. doi: 10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.07.008
29. Cumming, J., and Williams, S. E. (2013). Introducing the revised applied model of deliberate imagery use for sport, dance, exercise and rehabilitation. Mov. Sport Sci. 82, 69-81. doi: 10.1051/sm/2013098
30. Debarnot, U., Abichou, K., Kalenzaga, S., Sperduti, M., and Piolino, P. (2015). Variable motor imagery training induces sleep memory consolidation and transfer improvements. Neurobiol. Learn Mem. 119, 85-92. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm. 2014.12.010
31. Debarnot, U., Castellani, E., and Guillot, A. (2012a). Selective delayed gains following motor imagery of complex movements. Arch. Ital. Biol. 150, 238-250. doi: 10.4449/aib.v150i4.1394
32. Debarnot, U., Castellani, E., Guillot, A., Giannotti, V., Dimarco, M., and Sebastiani, L. (2012b). Declarative interference affects off-line processing of motor imagery learning during both sleep and wakefulness. Neurobiol. Learn Mem. 98, 361-367. doi: 10.1016/j.nlm.2012.10.009
33. Debarnot, U., Castellani, E., Valenza, G., Sebastiani, L., and Guillot, A. (2011). Daytime naps improve motor imagery learning. Cogn. Affect. Behav. Neurosci. 11, 541-550. doi: 10.3758/s13415-011-0052-z
34. Debarnot, U., Creveaux, T., Collet, C., Doyon, J., and Guillot, A. (2009a). Sleep contribution to motor memory consolidation: a motor imagery study. Sleep 32, 1559-1565.
35. Debarnot, U., Creveaux, T., Collet, C., Gemignani, A., Massarelli, R., Doyon, J., et al. (2009b). Sleep-related improvements in motor learning following mental practice. Brain Cogn. 69, 398-405. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2008.08.029
36. Debarnot, U., Maley, L., Rossi, D. D., and Guillot, A. (2010). Motor interference does not impair the memory consolidation of imagined movements. Brain Cogn. 74, 52-57. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2010.06.004
37. Debarnot, U., Piolino, P., Baron, J. C., and Guillot, A. (2013). Mental rotation: effects of gender, training and sleep consolidation. PLoS One. 8: e60296. doi: 10. 1371/journal.pone.0060296
38. Debarnot, U., Sperduti, M., Di Rienzo, F., and Guillot, A. (2014). Experts bodies, experts minds: how physical and mental training shape the brain. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8: 280. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00280
39. Decety, J. (1993). Should motor imagery be used in physiotherapy? Recent advances in cognitive neurosciences. Physiother. Theory Pract. 9, 193-203. doi: 10.3109/09593989309036491
40. Decety, J., and Ingvar, D. H. (1990). Brain structures participating in mental simulation of motor behavior: a neuropsychological interpretation. Acta Psychol. (Amst) 73, 13-34. doi: 10.1016/0001-6918(90)90056-l
41. Demougeot, L., and Papaxanthis, C. (2011). Muscle fatigue affects mental simulation of action. J. Neurosci. 31, 10712-10720. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI. 6032-10.2011
42. Di Rienzo, F., Collet, C., Hoyek, N., and Guillot, A. (2014). Impact of neurologic deficits on motor imagery: a systematic review of clinical evaluations. Neuropsychol. Rev. 24, 116-147. doi: 10.1007/s11065-014-9257-6
43. Di Rienzo, F., Debarnot, U., Daligault, S., Saruco, S., Delpuech, C., Doyon, J., et al. (2016). "Long-term neuroplasticity of motor imagery networks: magnetoencephalographic insights in an Olympic medalist and an amateur athlete," in European Workshop of Imagery and Cognition (Paris, France), 6-8.
44. Doyon, J., and Benali, H. (2005). Reorganization and plasticity in the adult brain during learning of motor skills. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 15, 161-167. doi: 10. 1016/j.conb.2005.03.004
45. Doyon, J., and Ungerleider, L. G. (2002). "Functional anatomy of motor skill learning," in Neuropsychology of Memory, eds L. R. Squire and D. L. Schacter (New York, NY: The Guilford Press), 225-238.
46. Doyon, J., Korman, M., Morin, A., Dostie, V., Hadj Tahar, A., Benali, H., et al. (2009). Contribution of night and day sleep vs. simple passage of time to the consolidation of motor sequence and visuomotor adaptation learning. Exp. Brain Res. 195, 15-26. doi: 10.1007/s00221-009-1748-y
47. Driskell, J. E., Copper, C., and Moran, A. (1994). Does mental practice enhance performance? J. Appl. Psychol. 79, 481-492. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.79. 4.481
48. Einsiedel, T., Herzig, D., Grön, G., Mayer, J., Becker, C., and Gebhard, F. (2011). Mental practice has influence on limitation of motion and muscle atrophy following immobilisation of the radiocarpal joint-a prospective randomised experimental study. Z. Orthop. Unfall. 149, 288-295. doi: 10.1055/s-0030-1270918
49. Fell, J., Axmacher, N., and Haupt, S. (2010). From alpha to gamma: electrophysiological correlates of meditation-related states of consciousness. Med. Hypotheses 75, 218-224. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2010.02.025
50. Ferreira Dias Kanthack, T., Guillot, A., Ricardo Altimari, L., Nunez Nagy, S., Collet, C., and Di Rienzo, F. (2016). Selective efficacy of static and dynamic imagery in different states of physical fatigue. PLoS One. 11: e0149654. doi: 10. 1371/journal.pone.0149654
51. Feltz, D. L., and Landers, D. M. (1983). The effects of mental practice on motor skill learning and performance: a meta-analysis. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 5, 25-57.
52. Foerster, A., Rocha, S., Wiesiolek, C., Chagas, A. P., Machado, G., Silva, E., et al. (2013). Site-specific effects of mental practice combined with transcranial direct current stimulation on motor learning. Eur. J. Neurosci. 37, 786-794. doi: 10. 1111/ejn.12079
53. Fourkas, A. D., Bonavolontà, V., Avenanti, A., and Aglioti, S. M. (2008). Kinesthetic imagery and tool-specific modulation of corticospinal representations in expert tennis players. Cereb. Cortex 18, 2382-2390. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhn005
54. Frenkel, M. O., Herzig, D. S., Gebhard, F., Mayer, J., Becker, C., and Einsiedel, T. (2014). Mental practice maintains range of motion despite forearm immobilization: a pilot study in healthy persons. J. Rehabil. Med. 46, 225-232. doi: 10.2340/16501977-1263
55. Fusco, A., Iosa, M., Gallotta, M. C., Paolucci, S., Baldari, C., and Guidetti, L. (2014). Different performances in static and dynamic imagery and real locomotion. An exploratory trial. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8: 760. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00760
56. Gandevia, S. C., Wilson, L. R., Inglis, J. T., and Burke, D. (1997). Mental rehearsal of motor tasks recruits alpha-motoneurones but fails to recruit human fusimotor neurones selectively. J. Physiol. 505, 259-266. doi: 10.1111/j. 1469-7793.1997.259bc.x
57. Gao, Q., Duan, X., and Chen, H. (2011). Evaluation of effective connectivity of motor areas during motor imagery and execution using conditional Granger causality. Neuroimage 54, 1280-1288. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.08.071
58. Ge, R., Zhang, H., Yao, L., and Long, Z. (2015). Motor imagery learning induced changes in functional connectivity of the default mode network. IEEE Trans. Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 23, 138-148. doi: 10.1109/TNSRE.2014.23 32353
59. Gemignani, A., Di Stefano, M., Sebastiani, L., Ghelarducci, B., Jeannerod, M., Guazzelli, M., et al. (2004). Influence of mental motor imagery on the execution of a finger-to-thumb opposition task. Arch. Ital. Biol. 142, 1-9.
60. Giron, E. C., McIsaac, T., and Nilsen, D. (2012). Effects of kinesthetic versus visual imagery practice on two technical dance movements: a pilot study. J. Dance Med. Sci. 16, 36-38.
61. Gould, D., and Damarjian, N. (1996). "Imagery training for peak performance," in Exploring Sport and Exercise Psychology, eds J. L. Van Raalte and B. W. Brewer (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association), 20-50.
62. Guillot, A., and Collet, C. (2008). Construction of the motor imagery integrative model in Sport: a review and theoretical investigation of motor imagery use. Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 1, 31-44. doi: 10.1080/175098407018 23139
63. Guillot, A., Desliens, S., Rouyer, C., and Rogowski, I. (2013a). Motor imagery and tennis serve performance: the external focus efficacy. J. Sports Sci. Med. 12, 332-338.
64. Guillot, A., Moschberger, K., and Collet, C. (2013b). Coupling movement with imagery as a new perspective for motor imagery practice. Behav. Brain Funct. 9, 8. doi: 10.1186/1744-9081-9-8
65. Guillot, A., Di Rienzo, F., Macintyre, T., Moran, A., and Collet, C. (2012a). Imagining is not doing but involves specific motor commands: a review of experimental data related to motor inhibition. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 6, 247. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00247
66. Guillot, A., Hoyek, N., Louis, M., and Collet, C. (2012b). Understanding the timing of motor imagery: recent findings and future directions. Int. Rev. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 5, 3-22. doi: 10.1080/1750984x.2011.623787
67. Guillot, A., Di Rienzo, F., Pialoux, V., Simon, G., Skinner, S., and Rogowski, I. (2015). Implementation of motor imagery during specific aerobic training session in young tennis players. PLoS One. 10: e0143331. doi: 10.1371/journal. pone.0143331
68. Guillot, A., Lebon, F., and Collet, C. (2010). "Electromyographic activity during motor imagery," in The Neurophysiological Foundations of Mental and Motor Imagery, eds A. Guillot and C. Collet (New York, NY: Oxford University Press), 83-93.
69. Hall, C. R., Mack, D. E., Paivio, A., and Hausenblas, H. A. (1998). Imagery use by athletes: development of the sport imagery uqestionnaire. Int. J. Sport Psychol. 29, 73-89.
70. Hanrahan, C. (1995). Creating dance images: basic principles for teachers. J. Phys. Educ. Recreation Dance 66, 33-40. doi: 10.1080/07303084.1995.10607021
71. Hardwick, R. M., Rottschy, C., Miall, R. C., and Eickhoff, S. B. (2013). A quantitative meta-analysis and review of motor learning in the human brain. Neuroimage 67, 283-297. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.11.020
72. Herholz, S. C., Coffey, E. B., Pantev, C., and Zatorre, R. J. (2015). Dissociation of neural networks for predisposition and for training-related plasticity in auditory-motor learning. Cereb. Cortex 26, 3125-3134. doi: 10. 1093/cercor/bhv138
73. Hétu, S., Grégoire, M., Saimpont, A., Coll, M.-P., Eugène, F., Michon, P.-E., et al. (2013). The neural network of motor imagery: an ALE meta-analysis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 37, 930-949. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.017
74. Holmes, P. S., and Collins, D. J. (2001). The PETTLEP approach to motor imagery: a functional equivalence model for sport psychologists. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 13, 60-83. doi: 10.1080/104132001753155958
75. Ingram, T. G., Kraeutner, S. N., Solomon, J. P., Westwood, D. A., and Boe, S. G. (2016). Skill acquisition via motor imagery relies on both motor and perceptual learning. Behav. Neurosci. 130, 252-260. doi: 10.1037/bne0000126
76. Ioffe, M. E. (2004). Brain mechanisms for the formation of new movements during learning: the evolution of classical concepts. Neurosci. Behav. Physiol. 34, 5-18. doi: 10.1023/b: neab.0000003241.12053.47
77. Jackson, P. L., Lafleur, M. F., Malouin, F., Richards, C., and Doyon, J. (2001). Potential role of mental practice using motor imagery in neurologic rehabilitation. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 82, 1133-1141. doi: 10.1053/apmr. 2001.24286
78. Jackson, P. L., Lafleur, M. F., Malouin, F., Richards, C. L., and Doyon, J. (2003). Functional cerebral reorganization following motor sequence learning through mental practice with motor imagery. Neuroimage 20, 1171-1180. doi: 10. 1016/s1053-8119(03)00369-0
79. Jeannerod, M. (1994). The representing brain: neural correlates of motor intention and imagery. Behav. Brain Sci. 17, 187-202. doi: 10.1017/s0140525x000 34026
80. Jeannerod, M. (1995). Mental imagery in the motor context. Neuropsychologia 33, 1419-1432. doi: 10.1016/0028-3932(95)00073-c
81. Jeannerod, M. (2001). Neural simulation of action: a unifying mechanism for motor cognition. Neuroimage 14, S103-S109. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.0832
82. Jeannerod, M., and Decety, J. (1995). Mental motor imagery: a window into the representational stages of action. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 5, 727-732. doi: 10. 1016/0959-4388(95)80099-9
83. Kanthack, T. F. D., Guillot, A., Papaxanthis, C., Guizard, T., Collet, C., and Di Rienzo, F. (2016). "Neurophysiological investigation of the facilitatory effects of motor imagery pratice during stretching performance," in European Workshop of Imagery and Cognition (Paris, France), 6-8.
84. Karni, A., Meyer, G., Rey-Hipolito, C., Jezzard, P., Adams, M. M., Turner, R., et al. (1998). The acquisition of skilled motor performance: fast and slow experiencedriven changes in primary motor cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 95, 861-868. doi: 10.1073/pnas.95.3.861
85. Kohl, R. M., and Roenker, D. L. (1983). Mechanism involvement during skill imagery. J. Mot. Behav. 15, 179-190. doi: 10.1080/00222895.1983.107 35295
86. Korman, M., Doyon, J., Doljansky, J., Carrier, J., Dagan, Y., and Karni, A. (2007). Daytime sleep condenses the time course of motor memory consolidation. Nat. Neurosci. 10, 1206-1213. doi: 10.1038/nn1959
87. Kosslyn, S. M., Thompson, W. L., and Ganis, G. (2006). The Case for Mental Imagery. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
88. Kraeutner, S., Gionfriddo, A., Bardouille, T., and Boe, S. (2014). Motor imagerybased brain activity parallels that of motor execution: evidence from magnetic source imaging of cortical oscillations. Brain Res. 1588, 81-91. doi: 10.1016/j. brainres.2014.09.001
89. Kraeutner, S. N., Keeler, L. T., and Boe, S. G. (2015). Motor imagery-based skill acquisition disrupted following rTMS of the inferior parietal lobule. Exp. Brain Res. 234, 397-407. doi: 10.1007/s00221-015-4472-9
90. Kraeutner, S. N., MacKenzie, L. A., Westwood, D. A., and Boe, S. G. (2016). Characterizing skill acquisition through motor imagery with no prior physical practice. J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Percept. Perform. 42, 257-265. doi: 10. 1037/xhp0000148
91. Krakauer, J. W., and Shadmehr, R. (2006). Consolidation of motor memory. Trends Neurosci. 29, 58-64. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2005.10.003
92. Kuriyama, K., Stickgold, R., and Walker, M. P. (2004). Sleep-dependent learning and motor-skill complexity. Learn. Mem. 11, 705-713. doi: 10.1101/lm. 76304
93. Lacourse, M. G., Turner, J. A., Randolph-Orr, E., Schandler, S. L., and Cohen, M. J. (2004). Cerebral and cerebellar sensorimotor plasticity following motor imagery-based mental practice of a sequential movement. J. Rehabil. Res. Dev. 41, 505-524. doi: 10.1682/jrrd.2004.04.0505
94. Lafleur, M. F., Jackson, P. L., Malouin, F., Richards, C. L., Evans, A. C., and Doyon, J. (2002). Motor learning produces parallel dynamic functional changes during the execution and imagination of sequential foot movements. Neuroimage 16, 142-157. doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.1048
95. Lorey, B., Bischoff, M., Pilgramm, S., Stark, R., Munzert, J., and Zentgraf, K. (2009). The embodied nature of motor imagery: the influence of posture and perspective. Exp. Brain Res. 194, 233-243. doi: 10.1007/s00221-008-1693-1
96. Lotze, M., and Halsband, U. (2006). Motor imagery. J. Physiol. Paris 99, 386-395. doi: 10.1016/j.jphysparis.2006.03.012
97. Louis, M., Guillot, A., Maton, S., Doyon, J., and Collet, C. (2008). Effect of imagined movement speed on subsequent motor performance. J. Mot. Behav. 40, 117-132. doi: 10.3200/JMBR.40.2.117-132
98. MacIntyre, M., and Moran, A. (2010). "Meta-imagery processes among elite sports performers," in The Neurophysiological Foundations of Mental and Motor Imagery, eds A. Guillot and C. Collet. (Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press), 227-244.
99. Macuga, K. L., and Frey, S. H. (2012). Neural representations involved in observed, imagined and imitated actions are dissociable and hierarchically organized. Neuroimage 59, 2798-2807. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011. 09.083
100. Manochio, J. P., Lattari, E., Portugal, E. M., Monteiro-Junior, R. S., Paes, F., Budde, H., et al. (2015). From mind to body: is mental practice effective on strength gains? A meta analysis. CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets 14, 1145-1151. doi: 10.2174/1871527315666151111125847
101. May, A. (2011). Experience-dependent structural plasticity in the adult human brain. Trends Cogn. Sci. 15, 475-482. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2011. 08.002
102. Mayer-Kress, G., Newell, K. M., and Liu, Y. T. (2009). Nonlinear dynamics of motor learning. Nonlinear Dynamics Psychol. Life Sci. 13, 3-26.
103. Mizuguchi, N., Nakata, H., Hayashi, T., Sakamoto, M., Muraoka, T., Uchida, Y., et al. (2013). Brain activity during motor imagery of an action with an object: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Neurosci. Res. 76, 150-155. doi: 10.1016/j.neures.2013.03.012
104. Mokienko, O. A., Chernikova, L. A., Frolov, A. A., and Bobrov, P. D. (2013). Motor imagery and its practical application. Zh. Vyssh. Nerv. Deiat. Im. I P Pavlova 63, 195-204.
105. Morin, A., Doyon, J., Dostie, V., Barakat, M., Hadj Tahar, A., Korman, M., et al. (2008). Motor sequence learning increases sleep spindles and fast frequencies in post-training sleep. Sleep 31, 1149-1156.
106. Morris, T., Spittle, M., and Watt, A. P. (2005). Imagery in Sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
107. Munzert, J., Lorey, B., and Zentgraf, K. (2009). Cognitive motor processes: the role of motor imagery in the study of motor representations. Brain Res. Rev. 60, 306-326. doi: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.12.024
108. Murphy, S., Nordin, S. M., and Cumming, J. (2008). "Imagery in sport, exercise and dance," in Advances in Sport Psychology, ed. T. Horn (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics), 306-315.
109. Nedelko, V., Hassa, T., Hamzei, F., Schoenfeld, M. A., and Dettmers, C. (2012). Action imagery combined with action observation activates more corticomotor regions than action observation alone. J. Neurol. Phys. Ther. 36, 182-188. doi: 10.1097/NPT.0b013e318272cad1
110. Nettersheim, A., Hallschmid, M., Born, J., and Diekelmann, S. (2015). The role of sleep in motor sequence consolidation: stabilization rather than enhancement. J. Neurosci. 35, 6696-6702. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1236-14.2015
111. Neuper, C., Wörtz, M., and Pfurtscheller, G. (2006). ERD/ERS patterns reflecting sensorimotor activation and deactivation. Prog. Brain Res. 159, 211-222. doi: 10.1016/s0079-6123(06)59014-4
112. Nishida, M., and Walker, M. P. (2007). Daytime naps, motor memory consolidation and regionally specific sleep spindles. PLoS One. 2: e341. doi: 10. 1371/journal.pone.0000341
113. Nordin, S. M., and Cumming, J. (2007). Where, when and how: a quantitative account of dance imagery. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 78, 390-395. doi: 10. 1080/02701367.2007.10599437
114. Nyberg, L., Eriksson, J., Larsson, A., and Marklund, P. (2006). Learning by doing versus learning by thinking: an fMRI study of motor and mental training. Neuropsychologia 44, 711-717. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.08.006
115. O, J., and Hall, C. (2009). A quantitative analysis of athletes’ voluntary use of slow motion, real time and fast motion images. J. Appl. Sport Psychol. 21, 15-30. doi: 10.1080/10413200802541892
116. O, J., and Munroe-Chandler, K. J. (2008). The effects of image speed on the performance of a soccer task. Sport Psychol. 22, 1-17.
117. Ogiso, T., Kobayashi, K., and Sugishita, M. (2000). The precuneus in motor imagery: a magnetoencephalographic study. Neuroreport 11, 1345-1349. doi: 10.1097/00001756-200004270-00039
118. Olshansky, M. P., Bar, R. J., Fogarty, M., and DeSouza, J. F. (2015). Supplementary motor area and primary auditory cortex activation in an expert break-dancer during the kinesthetic motor imagery of dance to music. Neurocase 21, 607-617. doi: 10.1080/13554794.2014.960428
119. Olsson, C. J., Jonsson, B., Larsson, A., and Nyberg, L. (2008a). Motor representations and practice affect brain systems underlying imagery: an FMRI study of internal imagery in novices and active high jumpers. Open Neuroimag. J. 2, 5-13. doi: 10.2174/1874440000802010005
120. Olsson, C. J., Jonsson, B., and Nyberg, L. (2008b). Internal imagery training in active high jumpers. Scand. J. Psychol. 49, 133-140. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9450. 2008.00625.x
121. Olsson, C. J., Jonsson, B., and Nyberg, L. (2008c). Learning by doing and learning by thinking: an FMRI study of combining motor and mental training. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2: 5. doi: 10.3389/neuro.09.005.2008
122. Paivio, A. (1985). Cognitive and motivational functions of imagery in human performance. Can. J. Appl. Sport Sci. 10, 22S-28S.
123. Paivio, A., and Clark, J. M. (1991). "Static versus dynamic imagery," in Imagery and Cognition, eds C. Cornoldi and M. A. McDaniel (New York, NY: Springer), 221-245.
124. Pascual-Leone, A., Nguyet, D., Cohen, L. G., Brasil-Neto, J. P., Cammarota, A., and Hallett, M. (1995). Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills. J. Neurophysiol. 74, 1037-1045.
125. Pfurtscheller, G. (1992). Event-related synchronization (ERS): an electrophysiological correlate of cortical areas at rest. Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 83, 62-69. doi: 10.1016/0013-4694(92)90133-3
126. Rao, A., Tait, I., and Alijani, A. (2015). Systematic review and meta-analysis of the role of mental training in the acquisition of technical skills in surgery. Am. J. Surg. 210, 545-553. doi: 10.1016/j.amjsurg.2015.01.028
127. Rickard, T. C., Cai, D. J., Rieth, C. A., Jones, J., and Ard, M. C. (2008). Sleep does not enhance motor sequence learning. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cognit. 34, 834-842. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.834
128. Rozand, V., Lebon, F., Stapley, P. J., Papaxanthis, C., and Lepers, R. (2015). A prolonged motor imagery session alter imagined and actual movement durations: potential implications for neurorehabilitation. Behav. Brain Res. 297, 67-75. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2015.09.036
129. Sacco, K., Cauda, F., Cerliani, L., Mate, D., Duca, S., and Geminiani, G. C. (2006). Motor imagery of walking following training in locomotor attention. The effect of "the tango lesson". Neuroimage 32, 1441-1449. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage. 2006.05.018
130. Sacco, K., Cauda, F., D’Agata, F., Mate, D., Duca, S., and Geminiani, G. (2009). Reorganization and enhanced functional connectivity of motor areas in repetitive ankle movements after training in locomotor attention. Brain Res. 1297, 124-134. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.08.049
131. Sackett, R. S. (1934). The influence of symbolic rehearsal upon the retention of a maze habit. J. Gen. Psychol. 10, 376-395. doi: 10.1080/00221309.1934.9917742
132. Sackett, R. S. (1935). The relationship between amount of symbolic rehearsal and retention of a maze habit. J. Gen. Psychol. 13, 113-130. doi: 10.1080/00221309. 1935.9917869
133. Saimpont, A., Mercier, C., Malouin, F., Guillot, A., Collet, C., Doyon, J., et al. (2015). Anodal tDCS enhances the effects of motor imagery training in a finger tapping task. Eur. J. Neurosci. 43, 113-119. doi: 10.1111/ejn.13122
134. Salmon, D. P., and Butters, N. (1995). Neurobiology of skill and habit learning. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 5, 184-190. doi: 10.1016/0959-4388(95) 80025-5
135. Sanders, C. W., Sadoski, M., Bramson, R., Wiprud, R., and Van Walsum, K. (2004). Comparing the effects of physical practice and mental imagery rehearsal on learning basic surgical skills by medical students. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 191, 1811-1814. doi: 10.1016/j.ajog.2004.07.075
136. Sanes, J. N. (2003). Neocortical mechanisms in motor learning. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 13, 225-231. doi: 10.1016/s0959-4388(03)00046-1
137. Sauvage, C., De Greef, N., Manto, M., Jissendi, P., Nioche, C., and Habas, C. (2015). Reorganization of large-scale cognitive networks during automation of imagination of a complex sequential movement. J. Neuroradiol. 42, 115-125. doi: 10.1016/j.neurad.2014.04.001
138. Schuster, C., Hilfiker, R., Amft, O., Scheidhauer, A., Andrews, B., Butler, J., et al. (2011). Best practice for motor imagery: a systematic literature review on motor imagery training elements in five different disciplines. BMC Med. 9: 75. doi: 10. 1186/1741-7015-9-75
139. Stephan, K. M., and Frackowiak, R. S. (1996). Motor imagery-anatomical representation and electrophysiological characteristics. Neurochem. Res. 21, 1105-1116. doi: 10.1007/bf02532421
140. Stickgold, R., and Walker, M. P. (2005). Memory consolidation and reconsolidation: what is the role of sleep? Trends Neurosci. 28, 408-415. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2005.06.004
141. Stickgold, R., and Walker, M. P. (2007). Sleep-dependent memory consolidation and reconsolidation. Sleep Med. 8, 331-343. doi: 10.1016/j.sleep.2007.03.011
142. Stinear, C. M. (2010). "Corticospinal facilitation during motor imagery," in The Neurophysiological Foundations of Mental and Motor Imagery, eds A. Guillot and C. Collet (New York, NY: Oxford University Press), 47-61.
143. Stoykov, M. E., and Madhavan, S. (2015). Motor priming in neurorehabilitation. J. Neurol. Phys. Ther. 39, 33-42. doi: 10.1097/NPT.0000000000000065
144. Taube, W., Lorch, M., Zeiter, S., and Keller, M. (2014). Non-physical practice improves task performance in an unstable, perturbed environment: motor imagery and observational balance training. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8: 972. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00972
145. Taube, W., Mouthon, M., Leukel, C., Hoogewoud, H. M., Annoni, J. M., and Keller, M. (2015). Brain activity during observation and motor imagery of different balance tasks: an fMRI study. Cortex 64, 102-114. doi: 10.1016/j. cortex.2014.09.022
146. van der Meulen, M., Allali, G., Rieger, S. W., Assal, F., and Vuilleumier, P. (2014). The influence of individual motor imagery ability on cerebral recruitment during gait imagery. Hum. Brain Mapp. 35, 455-470. doi: 10.1002/hbm.22192
147. Van Der Werf, Y. D., Van Der Helm, E., Schoonheim, M. M., Ridderikhoff, A., and Van Someren, E. J. W. (2009). Learning by observation requires an early sleep window. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A 106, 18926-18930. doi: 10.1073/pnas. 0901320106
148. Van Gyn, G. H., Wenger, H. A., and Gaul, C. A. (1990). Imagery as a method of enhancing transfer from training to performance. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 12, 366-375.
149. Vergeer, I., and Roberts, J. (2006). Movement and stretching imagery during flexibility training. J. Sports Sci. 24, 197-208. doi: 10.1080/02640410500 131811
150. Villiger, M., Estevez, N., Hepp-Reymond, M. C., Kiper, D., Kollias, S. S., Eng, K., et al. (2013). Enhanced activation of motor execution networks using action observation combined with imagination of lower limb movements. PLoS One. 8: e72403. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072403
151. Vogt, S., Di Rienzo, F., Collet, C., Collins, A., and Guillot, A. (2013). Multiple roles of motor imagery during action observation. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7: 807. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00807
152. Volz, M. S., Suarez-Contreras, V., Portilla, A. L., and Fregni, F. (2015). Mental imagery-induced attention modulates pain perception and cortical excitability. BMC Neurosci. 16: 15. doi: 10.1186/s12868-015-0146-6
153. Wang, Z., Wang, S., Shi, F. Y., Guan, Y., Wu, Y., Zhang, L. L., et al. (2014). The effect of motor imagery with specific implement in expert badminton player. Neuroscience 275, 102-112. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.06.004
154. Warner, L., and McNeill, M. E. (1988). Mental imagery and its potential for physical therapy. Phys. Ther. 68, 516-521.
155. Wei, G., and Luo, J. (2010). Sport expert’s motor imagery: functional imaging of professional motor skills and simple motor skills. Brain Res. 1341, 52-62. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.08.014
156. Weinberg, R. (2008). Does imagery work? Effects on performance and mental skills. J. Imagery Res. Sport Phys. Act. 3, 1-21. doi: 10.2202/1932-0191.1025
157. Williams, S. E., Cooley, S. J., and Cumming, J. (2013). Layered stimulus response training improves motor imagery ability and movement execution. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 35, 60-71.
158. Wohldmann, E. L., Healy, A. F., and Bourne, L. E. (2008). A mental practice superiority effect: less retroactive interference and more transfer than physical practice. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 34, 823-833. doi: 10.1037/0278-7393.34.4.823
159. Wolf, S., Brölz, E., Keune, P. M., Wesa, B., Hautzinger, M., Birbaumer, N., et al. (2015). Motor skill failure or flow-experience? Functional brain asymmetry and brain connectivity in elite and amateur table tennis players. Biol. Psychol. 105, 95-105. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.01.007
160. Yelle, L. E. (1979). The learning curve: historical review and comprehensive survey. Decision Sciences 10, 302-328. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-5915.1979.tb00026.x
161. Zhang, H., Long, Z., Ge, R., Xu, L., Jin, Z., Yao, L., et al. (2014). Motor imagery learning modulates functional connectivity of multiple brain systems in resting state. PLoS One. 9: e85489. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085489
162. Zhang, H., Xu, L., Wang, S., Xie, B., Guo, J., Long, Z., et al. (2011). Behavioral improvements and brain functional alterations by motor imagery training. Brain Res. 1407, 38-46. doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.06.038
163. Zhang, H., Xu, L., Zhang, R., Hui, M., Long, Z., Zhao, X., et al. (2012). Parallel alterations of functional connectivity during execution and imagination after motor imagery learning. PLoS One. 7: e36052. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone. 0036052