Influence of interactions between genes and childhood trauma on refractoriness in psychiatric disorders

Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry

Volumn 70, Issue , 2016, Pages 162-169

  Kim, Ji Sun ^a,b   Lee, Seung Hwan ^a,b  

^a Clinical Emotion and Cognition Research Laboratory   (South Korea)

^b Inje University College of Medicine   (South Korea)

Author keywords

Childhood trauma; Gene; Gene environmental interaction; Psychiatric illness; Refractoriness

Indexed keywords

5,10 METHYLENETETRAHYDROFOLATE REDUCTASE (FADH2); ADENOSINE DEAMINASE; AMINE OXIDASE (FLAVIN CONTAINING) ISOENZYME A; BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; CALCIUM CALMODULIN DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE II; CATECHOL METHYLTRANSFERASE; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPOPHYSIS ADENYLATE CYCLASE ACTIVATING POLYPEPTIDE; HYPOPHYSIS ADENYLATE CYCLASE ACTIVATING POLYPEPTIDE RECEPTOR 1; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER; SYNTAXIN 1; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR 2;

ARTICLE; BIPOLAR DISORDER; CHILD ABUSE; CHILD HEALTH; CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE; CHILDHOOD TRAUMA; COGNITION; DEPRESSION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; GENE INTERACTION; GENETIC ASSOCIATION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENETIC RISK; GENETIC VARIATION; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL STRESS; PERSONAL EXPERIENCE; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PSYCHOSIS; PSYCHOTRAUMA; SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISM; SUICIDE; ANIMAL; COMPLICATION; DRUG RESISTANCE; GENETICS; MENTAL DISORDERS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; DRUG RESISTANCE; GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMANS; MENTAL DISORDERS; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 84958191374     PISSN: 02785846     EISSN: 18784216     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2016.01.013     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. Aas, M., Dazzan, P., Fisher, H.L., Morgan, C., Morgan, K., Reichenberg, A., et al. Childhood trauma and cognitive function in first-episode affective and non-affective psychosis. Schizophr. Res. 129 (2011), 12–19.
2. Aas, M., Djurovic, S., Athanasiu, L., Steen, N.E., Agartz, I., Lorentzen, S., et al. Serotonin transporter gene polymorphism, childhood trauma, and cognition in patients with psychotic disorders. Schizophr. Bull. 38 (2012), 15–22.
3. Aas, M., Haukvik, U.K., Djurovic, S., Bergmann, O., Athanasiu, L., Tesli, M.S., et al. BDNF val66met modulates the association between childhood trauma, cognitive and brain abnormalities in psychoses. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 46 (2013), 181–188.
4. Aas, M., Haukvik, U.K., Djurovic, S., Tesli, M., Athanasiu, L., Bjella, T., et al. Interplay between childhood trauma and BDNF val66met variants on blood BDNF mRNA levels and on hippocampus subfields volumes in schizophrenia spectrum and bipolar disorders. J. Psychiatr. Res. 59 (2014), 14–21.
5. Aguilera, M., Arias, B., Wichers, M., Barrantes-Vidal, N., Moya, J., Villa, H., et al. Early adversity and 5-HTT/BDNF genes: new evidence of gene–environment interactions on depressive symptoms in a general population. Psychol. Med. 39 (2009), 1425–1432.
6. Alemany, S., Arias, B., Aguilera, M., Villa, H., Moya, J., Ibanez, M.I., et al. Childhood abuse, the BDNF-Val66Met polymorphism and adult psychotic-like experiences. Br. J. Psychiatry 199 (2011), 38–42.
7. Almli, L.M., Mercer, K.B., Kerley, K., Feng, H., Bradley, B., Conneely, K.N., et al. ADCYAP1R1 genotype associates with post-traumatic stress symptoms in highly traumatized African-American females. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 162B (2013), 262–272.
8. Altar, C.A., Cai, N., Bliven, T., Juhasz, M., Conner, J.M., Acheson, A.L., et al. Anterograde transport of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its role in the brain. Nature 389 (1997), 856–860.
9. Alvarez, M.J., Roura, P., Oses, A., Foguet, Q., Sola, J., Arrufat, F.X., Prevalence and clinical impact of childhood trauma in patients with severe mental disorders. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 199 (2011), 156–161.
10. Anand, A., Koller, D.L., Lawson, W.B., Gershon, E.S., Nurnberger, J.I., Genetic and childhood trauma interaction effect on age of onset in bipolar disorder: An exploratory analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 179 (2015), 1–5.
11. Anda, R.F., Whitfield, C.L., Felitti, V.J., Chapman, D., Edwards, V.J., Dube, S.R., et al. Adverse childhood experiences, alcoholic parents, and later risk of alcoholism and depression. Psychiatr. Serv. 53 (2002), 1001–1009.
12. Andersen, S.L., Tomada, A., Vincow, E.S., Valente, E., Polcari, A., Teicher, M.H., Preliminary evidence for sensitive periods in the effect of childhood sexual abuse on regional brain development. J. Neuropsychiatr. Clin. Neurosci. 20 (2008), 292–301.
13. Barr, C.S., Newman, T.K., Becker, M.L., Parker, C.C., Champoux, M., Lesch, K.P., et al. The utility of the non-human primate; model for studying gene by environment interactions in behavioral research. Genes Brain Behav. 2 (2003), 336–340.
14. Baumann, C., Klauke, B., Weber, H., Domschke, K., Zwanzger, P., Pauli, P., et al. The interaction of early life experiences with COMT val158met affects anxiety sensitivity. Genes Brain Behav. 12 (2013), 821–829.
15. Beautrais, A.L., Joyce, P.R., Mulder, R.T., Fergusson, D.M., Deavoll, B.J., Nightingale, S.K., Prevalence and comorbidity of mental disorders in persons making serious suicide attempts: a case–control study. Am. J. Psychiatry 153 (1996), 1009–1014.
16. Berlim, M.T., Turecki, G., What is the meaning of treatment resistant/refractory major depression (TRD)? A systematic review of current randomized trials. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 17 (2007), 696–707.
17. Bernstein, D.P., Stein, J.A., Newcomb, M.D., Walker, E., Pogge, D., Ahluvalia, T., et al. Development and validation of a brief screening version of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. Child Abuse Negl. 27 (2003), 169–190.
18. Bet, P.M., Penninx, B.W., Bochdanovits, Z., Uitterlinden, A.G., Beekman, A.T., van Schoor, N.M., et al. Glucocorticoid receptor gene polymorphisms and childhood adversity are associated with depression: new evidence for a gene–environment interaction. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 150b (2009), 660–669.
19. Binder, E.B., Bradley, R.G., Liu, W., Epstein, M.P., Deveau, T.C., Mercer, K.B., et al. Association of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse with risk of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in adults. JAMA 299 (2008), 1291–1305.
20. Blaya, C., Salum, G.A., Moorjani, P., Seganfredo, A.C., Heldt, E., Leistner-Segal, S., et al. Panic disorder and serotonergic genes (SLC6A4, HTR1A and HTR2A): association and interaction with childhood trauma and parenting. Neurosci. Lett. 485 (2010), 11–15.
21. Brambilla, P., Soloff, P.H., Sala, M., Nicoletti, M.A., Keshavan, M.S., Soares, J.C., Anatomical MRI study of borderline personality disorder patients. Psychiatry Res. 131 (2004), 125–133.
22. Bremner, J.D., Traumatic stress: effects on the brain. Dialogues Clin. Neurosci. 8 (2006), 445–461.
23. Brietzke, E., Kauer Sant'anna, M., Jackowski, A., Grassi-Oliveira, R., Bucker, J., Zugman, A., et al. Impact of childhood stress on psychopathology. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. 34 (2012), 480–488.
24. Brown, G.W., Ban, M., Craig, T.K., Harris TO, Herbert, J., Uher, R., Serotonin transporter length polymorphism, childhood maltreatment, and chronic depression: a specific gene–environment interaction. Depress. Anxiety 30 (2013), 5–13.
25. Caspi, A., Sugden, K., Moffitt, T.E., Taylor, A., Craig, I.W., Harrington, H., et al. Influence of life stress on depression: moderation by a polymorphism in the 5-HTT gene. Science 301 (2003), 386–389.
26. Caspi, A., Hariri, A.R., Holmes, A., Uher, R., Moffitt, T.E., Genetic sensitivity to the environment: the case of the serotonin transporter gene and its implications for studying complex diseases and traits. Am. J. Psychiatry 167 (2010), 509–527.
27. Cloitre, M., Stolbach, B.C., Herman, J.L., van der Kolk, B., Pynoos, R., Wang, J., et al. A developmental approach to complex PTSD: childhood and adult cumulative trauma as predictors of symptom complexity. J. Trauma. Stress. 22 (2009), 399–408.
28. Cloitre, M., Garvert, D.W., Brewin, C.R., Bryant, R.A., Maercker, A., Evidence for proposed ICD-11 PTSD and complex PTSD: a latent profile analysis. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 4, 2013.
29. Clow, A., Hucklebridge, F., Thorn, L., The cortisol awakening response in context. Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 93 (2010), 153–175.
30. Cohen, R.A., Grieve, S., Hoth, K.F., Paul, R.H., Sweet, L., Tate, D., et al. Early life stress and morphometry of the adult anterior cingulate cortex and caudate nuclei. Biol. Psychiatry 59 (2006), 975–982.
31. Cohen, R.A., Hitsman, B.L., Paul, R.H., McCaffery, J., Stroud, L., Sweet, L., et al. Early life stress and adult emotional experience: an international perspective. Int. J. Psychiatry Med. 36:1 (2006), 35–52.
32. Collip, D., Myin-Germeys, I., Wichers, M., Jacobs, N., Derom, C., Thiery, E., et al. FKBP5 as a possible moderator of the psychosis-inducing effects of childhood trauma. Br. J. Psychiatry 202 (2013), 261–268.
33. Cuesta, M.J., Zarzuela, A., Sánchez-Torres, A.M., Lorente-Omeñaca, R., Moreno-Izco, L., Sanjuán, J., et al. Familial liability to schizophrenia and mood disorders and cognitive impairment in psychosis. Psychiatry Res. 227:2–3 (2015), 258–264 (Jun 30).
34. Dillon, D.G., Holmes, A.J., Birk, J.L., Brooks, N., Lyons-Ruth, K., Pizzagalli, D.A., Childhood adversity is associated with left basal ganglia dysfunction during reward anticipation in adulthood. Biol. Psychiatry 66 (2009), 206–213.
35. Duncan, L.E., Keller, M.C., A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene–by–environment interaction research in psychiatry. Am. J. Psychiatry 168 (2011), 1041–1049.
36. Dvir, Y., Ford, J.D., Hill, M., Frazier, J.A., Childhood maltreatment, emotional dysregulation, and psychiatric comorbidities. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 22 (2014), 149–161.
37. Etain, B., Henry, C., Bellivier, F., Mathieu, F., Leboyer, M., Beyond genetics: childhood affective trauma in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord. 10 (2008), 867–876.
38. Etain, B., Lajnef, M., Bellivier, F., Mathieu, F., Raust, A., Cochet, B., et al. Clinical expression of bipolar disorder type I as a function of age and polarity at onset: convergent findings in samples from France and the United States. J. Clin. Psychiatry 73 (2012), e561–e566.
39. Felitti, V.J., Anda, R.F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D.F., Spitz, A.M., Edwards, V., et al. Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. Am. J. Prev. Med. 14 (1998), 245–258.
40. Fervaha, G., Foussias, G., Agid, O., Remington, G., Motivational and neurocognitive deficits are central to the prediction of longitudinal functional outcome in schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 130 (2014), 290–299.
41. Fisher, H.L., Cohen-Woods, S., Hosang, G.M., Korszun, A., Owen, M., Craddock, N., et al. Interaction between specific forms of childhood maltreatment and the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT) in recurrent depressive disorder. J. Affect. Disord. 145 (2013), 136–141.
42. Flashman, L.A., Green, M.F., Review of cognition and brain structure in schizophrenia: profiles, longitudinal course, and effects of treatment. Psychiatr. Clin. North Am. 27 (2004), 1–18 vii.
43. Freeman, D., Fowler, D., Routes to psychotic symptoms: trauma, anxiety and psychosis-like experiences. Psychiatry Res. 169 (2009), 107–112.
44. Galletly, C., Van Hooff, M., McFarlane, A., Psychotic symptoms in young adults exposed to childhood trauma–a 20 year follow-up study. Schizophr. Res. 127 (2011), 76–82.
45. Garno, J.L., Goldberg, J.F., Ramirez, P.M., Ritzler, B.A., Impact of childhood abuse on the clinical course of bipolar disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 186 (2005), 121–125.
46. Gatt, J.M., Nemeroff, C.B., Dobson-Stone, C., Paul, R.H., Bryant, R.A., Schofield, P.R., et al. Interactions between BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and early life stress predict brain and arousal pathways to syndromal depression and anxiety. Mol. Psychiatry 14 (2009), 681–695.
47. Gratz, K.L., Bornovalova, M.A., Delany-Brumsey, A., Nick, B., Lejuez, C.W., A laboratory-based study of the relationship between childhood abuse and experiential avoidance among inner-city substance users: the role of emotional nonacceptance. Behav. Ther. 38 (2007), 256–268.
48. Hanson, J.L., Chung, M.K., Avants, B.B., Shirtcliff, E.A., Gee, J.C., Davidson, R.J., et al. Early stress is associated with alterations in the orbitofrontal cortex: a tensor-based morphometry investigation of brain structure and behavioral risk. J. Neurosci. 30 (2010), 7466–7472.
49. Hardeveld, F., Spijker, J., Vreeburg, S.A., Graaf, R.D., Hendriks, S.M., Licht, C.M., et al. Increased cortisol awakening response was associated with time to recurrence of major depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 50 (2014), 62–71.
50. Hardeveld, F., Spijker, J., Peyrot, W.J., de Graaf, R., Hendriks, S.M., Nolen, W.A., et al. Glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor polymorphisms and recurrence of major depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 55 (2015), 154–163.
51. Hariri, A.R., Mattay, V.S., Tessitore, A., Kolachana, B., Fera, F., Goldman, D., et al. Serotonin transporter genetic variation and the response of the human amygdala. Science 297 (2002), 400–403.
52. Hassan, A.N., De Luca, V., The effect of lifetime adversities on resistance to antipsychotic treatment in schizophrenia patients. Schizophr. Res. 161 (2015), 496–500.
53. Heim, C., Binder, E.B., Current research trends in early life stress and depression: review of human studies on sensitive periods, gene–environment interactions, and epigenetics. Exp. Neurol. 233 (2012), 102–111.
54. Heim, C., Nemeroff, C.B., The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: preclinical and clinical studies. Biol. Psychiatry 49:12 (2001), 1023–1039 (Jun 15).
55. Hemmings, S.M., Kinnear, C.J., Van der Merwe, L., Lochner, C., Corfield, V.A., Moolman-Smook, J.C., et al. Investigating the role of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) val66met variant in obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). World J. Biol. Psychiatry 9 (2008), 126–134.
56. Hornung, O.P., Heim, C.M., Gene–environment interactions and intermediate phenotypes: early trauma and depression. Front. Endocrinol., 5, 2014, 14.
57. Juruena, M.F., Early-life stress and HPA axis trigger recurrent adulthood depression. Epilepsy Behav. 38 (2014), 148–159.
58. Kane, J.M., Honigfeld, G., Singer, J., Meltzer, H., Clozapine in treatment-resistant schizophrenics. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 24 (1988), 62–67.
59. Karanovic, J., Svikovic, S., Pantovic, M., Durica, S., Brajuskovic, G., Damjanovic, A., et al. Joint effect of ADARB1 gene, HTR2C gene and stressful life events on suicide attempt risk in patients with major psychiatric disorders. World J. Biol. Psychiatry 16 (2015), 261–271.
60. Kauer-Sant'Anna, M., Tramontina, J., Andreazza, A.C., Cereser, K., da Costa, S., Santin, A., et al. Traumatic life events in bipolar disorder: impact on BDNF levels and psychopathology. Bipolar Disord. 9:Suppl. 1 (2007), 128–135.
61. Kaufman, J., Plotsky, P.M., Nemeroff, C.B., Charney, D.S., Effects of early adverse experiences on brain structure and function: clinical implications. Biol. Psychiatry 48 (2000), 778–790.
62. Kendler, K.S., Masterson, C.C., Davis, K.L., Psychiatric illness in first-degree relatives of patients with paranoid psychosis, schizophrenia and medical illness. Br. J. Psychiatry 147 (1985), 524–531 (Nov).
63. Kendler, K.S., Kessler, R.C., Walters, E.E., MacLean, C., Neale, M.C., Heath, A.C., et al. Stressful life events, genetic liability, and onset of an episode of major depression in women. Am. J. Psychiatry 152:6 (1995), 833–842 (Jun).
64. Kilcommons, A.M., Morrison, A.P., Relationships between trauma and psychosis: an exploration of cognitive and dissociative factors. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 112 (2005), 351–359.
65. Klauke, B., Deckert, J., Reif, A., Pauli, P., Zwanzger, P., Baumann, C., et al. Serotonin transporter gene and childhood trauma–a G × E effect on anxiety sensitivity. Depress. Anxiety 28 (2011), 1048–1057.
66. Krause, E.D., Mendelson, T., Lynch, T.R., Childhood emotional invalidation and adult psychological distress: the mediating role of emotional inhibition. Child Abuse Negl. 27 (2003), 199–213.
67. Lee, V., Hoaken, P.N., Cognition, emotion, and neurobiological development: mediating the relation between maltreatment and aggression. Child Maltreat. 12 (2007), 281–298.
68. Leverich, G.S., Post, R.M., Keck, P.E. Jr., Altshuler, L.L., Frye, M.A., Kupka, R.W., et al. The poor prognosis of childhood-onset bipolar disorder. J. Pediatr. 150 (2007), 485–490.
69. Liberzon, I., King, A.P., Ressler, K.J., Almli, L.M., Zhang, P., Ma, S.T., et al. Interaction of the ADRB2 gene polymorphism with childhood trauma in predicting adult symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. JAMA Psychiatry 71 (2014), 1174–1182.
70. Liu, R.T., Early life stressors and genetic influences on the development of bipolar disorder: the roles of childhood abuse and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Child Abuse Negl. 34 (2010), 516–522.
71. Lok, A., Bockting, C.L., Koeter, M.W., Snieder, H., Assies, J., Mocking, R.J., et al. Interaction between the MTHFR C677T polymorphism and traumatic childhood events predicts depression. Transcult. Psychiatry, 3, 2013, e288.
72. Lopizzo, N., Bocchio Chiavetto, L., Cattane, N., Plazzotta, G., Tarazi, F.I., Pariante, C.M., et al. Gene–environment interaction in major depression: focus on experience-dependent biological systems. Front. Psychiatry, 6, 2015, 68.
73. Lyddon, R., Dwork, A.J., Keddache, M., Siever, L.J., Dracheva, S., Serotonin 2c receptor RNA editing in major depression and suicide. World J. Biol. Psychiatry 14 (2013), 590–601.
74. Maercker, A., Brewin, C.R., Bryant, R.A., Cloitre, M., van Ommeren, M., Jones, L.M., et al. Diagnosis and classification of disorders specifically associated with stress: proposals for ICD-11. World Psychiatry 12 (2013), 198–206.
75. Mamo, D.C., Managing suicidality in schizophrenia. Can. J. Psychiatr. 52 (2007), 59s–70s.
76. Mehta, D., Klengel, T., Conneely, K.N., Smith, A.K., Altmann, A., Pace, T.W., et al. Childhood maltreatment is associated with distinct genomic and epigenetic profiles in posttraumatic stress disorder. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 110 (2013), 8302–8307.
77. Mello, A.F., Mello, M.F., Carpenter, L.L., Price, L.H., Update on stress and depression: the role of the hypothalamic–pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Rev. Bras. Psiquiatr. 25 (2003), 231–238.
78. Miller, S., Hallmayer, J., Wang, P.W., Hill, S.J., Johnson, S.L., Ketter, T.A., Brain-derived neurotrophic factor val66met genotype and early life stress effects upon bipolar course. J. Psychiatr. Res. 47 (2013), 252–258.
79. Musazzi, L., Mallei, A., Tardito, D., Gruber, S.H., El Khoury, A., Racagni, G., et al. Early-life stress and antidepressant treatment involve synaptic signaling and erk kinases in a gene–environment model of depression. J. Psychiatr. Res. 44 (2010), 511–520.
80. Nanni, V., Uher, R., Danese, A., Childhood maltreatment predicts unfavorable course of illness and treatment outcome in depression: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry 169 (2012), 141–151.
81. Nishikura, K., Functions and regulation of RNA editing by ADAR deaminases. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 79 (2010), 321–349.
82. Oliveira, J., Etain, B., Lajnef, M., Hamdani, N., Bennabi, M., Bengoufa, D., et al. Combined effect of TLR2 gene polymorphism and early life stress on the age at onset of bipolar disorders. PLoS One, 10, 2015, e0119702.
83. Oquendo, M.A., Malone, K.M., Mann, J.J., Suicide: risk factors and prevention in refractory major depression. Depress. Anxiety 5 (1997), 202–211.
84. Park, S., Nam, Y.Y., Sim, Y., Hong, J.P., Interactions between the apolipoprotein E epsilon4 allele status and adverse childhood experiences on depressive symptoms in older adults. Eur. J. Psychotraumatol., 6, 2015, 25178.
85. Parlar, M., Frewen, P., Nazarov, A., Oremus, C., MacQueen, G., Lanius, R., et al. Alterations in empathic responding among women with posttraumatic stress disorder associated with childhood trauma. Brain Behav. 4 (2014), 381–389.
86. Pearlman, Laurie Anne, Saakvitne, Karen W., Trauma and the Therapist. 1995, Norton, New York.
87. Perlis, R.H., Dennehy, E.B., Miklowitz, D.J., Delbello, M.P., Ostacher, M., Calabrese, J.R., et al. Retrospective age at onset of bipolar disorder and outcome during two-year follow-up: results from the STEP-BD study. Bipolar Disord. 11 (2009), 391–400.
88. Perroud, N., Courtet, P., Vincze, I., Jaussent, I., Jollant, F., Bellivier, F., et al. Interaction between BDNF Val66Met and childhood trauma on adult's violent suicide attempt. Genes Brain Behav. 7 (2008), 314–322.
89. Post, R.M., Leverich, G.S., Kupka, R.W., Keck, P.E. Jr., McElroy, S.L., Altshuler, L.L., et al. Early-onset bipolar disorder and treatment delay are risk factors for poor outcome in adulthood. J. Clin. Psychiatry 71 (2010), 864–872.
90. Pregelj, P., Nedic, G., Paska, A.V., Zupanc, T., Nikolac, M., Balazic, J., et al. The association between brain-derived neurotrophic factor polymorphism (BDNF Val66Met) and suicide. J. Affect. Disord. 128 (2011), 287–290.
91. Pruessner, J.C., Wolf, O.T., Hellhammer, D.H., Buske-Kirschbaum, A., von Auer, K., Jobst, S., et al. Free cortisol levels after awakening: a reliable biological marker for the assessment of adrenocortical activity. Life Sci. 61 (1997), 2539–2549.
92. Pu, M., Zhang, Z., Xu, Z., Shi, Y., Geng, L., Yuan, Y., et al. Influence of genetic polymorphisms in the glutamatergic and GABAergic systems and their interactions with environmental stressors on antidepressant response. Pharmacogenomics 14 (2013), 277–288.
93. Ressler, K.J., Mercer, K.B., Bradley, B., Jovanovic, T., Mahan, A., Kerley, K., et al. Post-traumatic stress disorder is associated with PACAP and the PAC1 receptor. Nature 470 (2011), 492–497.
94. Savitz, J., van der Merwe, L., Stein, D.J., Solms, M., Ramesar, R., Genotype and childhood sexual trauma moderate neurocognitive performance: a possible role for brain-derived neurotrophic factor and apolipoprotein E variants. Biol. Psychiatry 62 (2007), 391–399.
95. Schenkel, L.S., Spaulding, W.D., DiLillo, D., Silverstein, S.M., Histories of childhood maltreatment in schizophrenia: relationships with premorbid functioning, symptomatology, and cognitive deficits. Schizophr. Res. 76 (2005), 273–286.
96. Schoedl, A.F., Costa, M.C., Mari, J.J., Mello, M.F., Tyrka, A.R., Carpenter, L.L., et al. The clinical correlates of reported childhood sexual abuse: an association between age at trauma onset and severity of depression and PTSD in adults. J. Child Sex. Abus. 19:2 (2010), 156–170 (Mar).
97. Scott, K.M., Smith, D.R., Ellis, P.M., Prospectively ascertained child maltreatment and its association with DSM-IV mental disorders in young adults. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 67 (2010), 712–719.
98. Shannon, C., Douse, K., McCusker, C., Feeney, L., Barrett, S., Mulholland, C., The association between childhood trauma and memory functioning in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 37 (2011), 531–537.
99. Sher, L., The concept of post-traumatic mood disorder and its implications for adolescent suicidal behavior. Minerva Pediatr. 60 (2008), 1393–1399.
100. Shih, R.A., Belmonte, P.L., Zandi, P.P., A review of the evidence from family, twin and adoption studies for a genetic contribution to adult psychiatric disorders. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 16 (2004), 260–283.
101. Shipman, K., Zeman, J., Penza, S., Champion, K., Emotion management skills in sexually maltreated and nonmaltreated girls: a developmental psychopathology perspective. Dev. Psychopathol. 12 (2000), 47–62.
102. Shipman, K., Schneider, R., Sims, C., Emotion socialization in maltreating and nonmaltreating mother–child dyads: implications for children's adjustment. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 34 (2005), 590–596.
103. Silberberg, G., Lundin, D., Navon, R., Ohman, M., Deregulation of the A-to-I RNA editing mechanism in psychiatric disorders. Hum. Mol. Genet. 21 (2012), 311–321.
104. Souery, D., Amsterdam, J., de Montigny, C., Lecrubier, Y., Montgomery, S., Lipp, O., et al. Treatment resistant depression: methodological overview and operational criteria. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol. 9 (1999), 83–91.
105. Stein, M.B., Schork, N.J., Gelernter, J., Gene–by–environment (serotonin transporter and childhood maltreatment) interaction for anxiety sensitivity, an intermediate phenotype for anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 33 (2008), 312–319.
106. Teicher, M.H., Samson, J.A., Childhood maltreatment and psychopathology: A case for ecophenotypic variants as clinically and neurobiologically distinct subtypes. Am. J. Psychiatry 170 (2013), 1114–1133.
107. Tomoda, A., Suzuki, H., Rabi, K., Sheu, Y.S., Polcari, A., Teicher, M.H., Reduced prefrontal cortical gray matter volume in young adults exposed to harsh corporal punishment. NeuroImage 47:Suppl. 2 (2009), T66–T71.
108. Torgalsboen, A.K., Mohn, C., Rishovd, Rund B., Neurocognitive predictors of remission of symptoms and social and role functioning in the early course of first-episode schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 216 (2014), 1–5.
109. Uddin, M., Chang, S.C., Zhang, C., Ressler, K., Mercer, K.B., Galea, S., et al. Adcyap1r1 genotype, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression among women exposed to childhood maltreatment. Depress. Anxiety 30 (2013), 251–258.
110. Uher, R., Gene–environment interactions in severe mental illness. Front. Psychiatry, 5, 2014, 48.
111. Uher, R., Caspi, A., Houts, R., Sugden, K., Williams, B., Poulton, R., et al. Serotonin transporter gene moderates childhood maltreatment's effects on persistent but not single-episode depression: replications and implications for resolving inconsistent results. J. Affect. Disord. 135 (2011), 56–65.
112. van der Kolk, B.A., Roth, S., Pelcovitz, D., Sunday, S., Spinazzola, J., Disorders of extreme stress: the empirical foundation of a complex adaptation to trauma. J. Trauma. Stress. 18 (2005), 389–399.
113. van Os, J., Kapur, S., Psychosis: from diagnosis to syndrome. Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd., 154, 2010, A1874.
114. Varese, F., Smeets, F., Drukker, M., Lieverse, R., Lataster, T., Viechtbauer, W., et al. Childhood adversities increase the risk of psychosis: a meta-analysis of patient-control, prospective- and cross-sectional cohort studies. Schizophr. Bull. 38 (2012), 661–671.
115. Veer, I.M., Oei, N.Y., van Buchem, M.A., Spinhoven, P., Elzinga, B.M., Rombouts, S.A., Evidence for smaller right amygdala volumes in posttraumatic stress disorder following childhood trauma. Psychiatry Res. 233 (2015), 436–442.
116. Weber, K., Rockstroh, B., Borgelt, J., Awiszus, B., Popov, T., Hoffmann, K., et al. Stress load during childhood affects psychopathology in psychiatric patients. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 2008, 63 (Jul 23).
117. Weissman, M.M., Gershon, E.S., Kidd, K.K., Prusoff, B.A., Leckman, J.F., Dibble, E., et al. Psychiatric disorders in the relatives of probands with affective disorders. The Yale University—National Institute of Mental Health Collaborative Study. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 41:1 (1984), 13–21 (Jan).
118. Xie, P., Kranzler, H.R., Poling, J., Stein, M.B., Anton, R.F., Farrer, L.A., et al. Interaction of FKBP5 with childhood adversity on risk for post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 35 (2010), 1684–1692.
119. Xu, Z., Zhang, Z., Shi, Y., Pu, M., Yuan, Y., Zhang, X., et al. Influence and interaction of genetic polymorphisms in the serotonin system and life stress on antidepressant drug response. J. Psychopharmacol. 26 (2012), 349–359.