Psychological constructs in driving automation: a consensus model and critical comment on construct proliferation

Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science

Volumn 17, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 284-303

  Heikoop, Daniël D ^a   de Winter, Joost C F ^b   van Arem, Bart ^c   Stanton, Neville A ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

^b DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Netherlands)

^c DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

construct proliferation; driver model; driving automation; Psychological constructs

Indexed keywords

EID: 84957843149     PISSN: 1463922X     EISSN: 1464536X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/1463922X.2015.1101507     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. E.C.Adam, 1993. “Fighter Cockpits of the Future.” Proceedings of the 12th DASC., AIAA/IEEE Digital Avionics Systems Conference, 318–323, St. Louis, MO, October 25–28. doi:10.1109/DASC.1993.283529
2. J.R.Anderson,, and C.Lebiere. 1998. The Atomic Components of Thought. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
3. K.M.Bach,, M.G.Jæger, M.B.Skov, and N.G.Thomassen. 2009. “Interacting With In-Vehicle Systems: Understanding, Measuring, and Evaluating Attention.” Proceedings of the 23rd British HCI Group Annual Conference on People and Computers: Celebrating People and Technology, 453–462, Churchill College Cambridge, UK, September 1–5.
4. V.A.Banks,, N.A.Stanton, and C.Harvey. 2014. “Sub-systems on the Road to Vehicle Automation: Hands and Feet Free but not ‘Mind’ Free Driving.” Safety Science 62: 505–514. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2013.10.014
5. K.E.Beede,, and S.J.Kass. 2006. “Engrossed in Conversation: The Impact of Cell Phones on Simulated Driving Performance.” Accident Analysis & Prevention 38: 415–421. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2005.10.015
6. T.Bellet,, B.Bailly-Asuni, P.Mayenobe, and A.Banet. 2009. “A Theoretical and Methodological Framework for Studying and Modelling Drivers' Mental Representations.” Safety Science 47: 1205–1221. doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2009.03.014
7. R.Bishop, 2005. “Intelligent Vehicle R&D: A Review and Contrast of Programs Worldwide and Emerging Trends.” Annales des Télécommunications 60 (3–4): 228–263.
8. E.R.Boer,, and M.Hoedemaeker. 1998. “Modeling Driver Behavior with Different Degrees of Automation: A Hierarchical Decision Framework of Interacting Mental Models.” Proceedings of the 17th European Annual Conference on Human Decision Making and Manual Control, 63–72, Valenciennes, December 14–16.
9. K.A.Brookhuis,, and D.de Waard. 2010. “Monitoring Drivers’ Mental Workload in Driving Simulators Using Physiological Measures.” Accident Analysis and Prevention 42: 898–903.
10. K.A.Brookhuis,, D.de Waard, and W.H.Jansen. 2001. “Behavioural Impacts of Advanced Driver Assistance Systems-an Overview.” European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research 1 (3): 245–253.
11. D.T.Campbell,, and D.W.Fiske. 1959. “Convergent and Discriminant Validation Using the Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix.” Psychological Bulletin 56: 81–105.
12. O.M.J.Carsten,, and L.Nilsson. 2001. “Safety Assessment of Driver Assistance Systems.” European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research 1 (3): 225–243.
13. C.Collet,, C.Petit, A.Priez, and A.Dittmar. 2005. “Stroop Color-Word Test, Arousal, Electrodermal Activity and Performance in a Critical Driving Situation.” Biological Psychology 69: 195–203.
14. C.Collet,, A.Guillot, and C.Petit. 2010. “Phoning while Driving II: A Review of Driving Conditions Influence.” Ergonomics 53 (5): 602–616. doi:10.1080/00140131003769092
15. J.F.Coughlin,, B.Reimer, and B.Mehler. 2009. Driver Wellness, Safety & the Development of an Awarecar. Cambridge, MA: MIT AgeLab.
16. L.J.Cronbach, 1957. “The Two Disciplines of Scientific Psychology.” American Psychologist 12: 671–684.
17. D.De Waard, 1996. “The Measurement of Drivers Mental Workload.” PhD diss., Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.
18. J.C.F.De Winter,, and R.Happee. 2012. “Modelling Driver Behaviour: A Rationale for Multivariate Statistics.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 13 (5): 528–545. doi:10.1080/1463922X.2010.546437
19. J.C.F.De Winter,, A.A.Zadpoor, and D.Dodou. 2014. “The Expansion of Google Scholar versus Web of Science: A Longitudinal Study.” Scientometrics 98 (2): 1547–1565. doi:10.1007/s11192-013-1089-2
20. S.Dekker,, and E.Hollnagel. 2004. “Human Factors and Folk Models.” Cognition, Technology & Work 6: 79–86. doi:10.1007/s10111-003-0136-9
21. P.A.Desmond,, P.A.Hancock, and J.L.Monette. 1998. “Fatigue and Automation-Induced Impairments in Simulated Driving Performance.” Transportation Research Record 1628: 8–14.
22. P.A.Desmond,, and G.Matthews. 2009. “Individual Differences in Stress and Fatigue in Two Field Studies of Driving.” Transportation Research Part F 12: 265–276.
23. M.T.Dzindolet,, L.G.Pierce, H.P.Beck, L.A.Dawe, and B.W.Anderson. 2001. “Predicting Misuse and Disuse of Combat Identification Systems.” Military Psychology 13 (3): 147–164.
24. R.Elvik, 2006. “To what Extent can Theory Account for the Findings of Road Safety Evaluation Studies?” Accident Analysis & Prevention 36 (5): 841–849. doi:10.1016/j.aap.2003.08.003
25. M.R.Endsley, 1988. “Situation Awareness Global Assessment Technique (SAGAT).” Proceedings of the National Aerospace and Electronics Conference, 789–795. New York: IEEE.
26. M.R.Endsley, 1995. “Towards a Theory of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems.” Human Factors 37 (1): 32–64.
27. M.R.Endsley, 2000. “Theoretical Underpinnings of Situation Awareness: A Critical Review.” In Situation Awareness Analysis and Measurement, edited by M.R.Endsley and D.J.Garland, 1–24. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
28. M.R.Endsley, 2015. “Final Reflections: Situation Awareness Models and Measures.” Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making 9 (1): 101–111. doi:10.1177/1555343415573911
29. J.Engström,, and E.Hollnagel. 2007. “A General Conceptual Framework for Modelling Behavioural Effects of Driver Support Functions.” In Modelling Driver Behaviour in Automotive Environments: Critical Issues in Driver Interactions With Intelligent Transport Systems, edited by P.C.Cacciabue, 61–84. London: Springer.
30. L.R.Fabrigar,, D.T.Wegener, R.C.MacCallum, and E.J.Strahan. 1999. “Evaluating the Use of Exploratory Factor Analysis in Psychological Research.” Psychological Methods 4: 272–299.
31. F.O.Flemisch,, J.Kelsch, C.Löper, A.Schieben, J.Schindler, and M.Heesen. 2008. “Cooperative Control and Active Interfaces for Vehicle Assistance and Automation.” FISITA World Automotive Congress. Munich, September 14–19.
32. G.Funke,, G.Matthews, J.S.Warm, and A.K.Emo. 2007. “Vehicle Automation: A Remedy for Driver Stress?” Ergonomics 50 (8): 1302–1323. doi:10.1080/00140130701318830
33. J.-F.Gehanno,, L.Rollin, and S.Darmoni. 2013. “Is the Use of Google Scholar Enough to be Used Alone for Systematic Reviews.” BMC Medical Informatics and Decision Making 13 (7): 1–5. doi:10.1186/1472-6947-13-7
34. S.G.Hart,, and L.E.Staveland. 1988. “Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research.” Advances in Psychology 52: 139–183.
35. J.-M.Hoc,, F.Mars, I.Milleville-Pennel, É.Jolly, M.Netto, and J.-M.Blosseville. 2006. “Human-Machine Cooperation in Car Driving for Lateral Safety: Delegation and Mutual Control.” Le Travail Humain 69: 153–182. doi:10.3917/th.692.0153
36. J.-M.Hoc,, M.S.Young, and J.-M.Blosseville. 2009. “Cooperation Between Drivers and Automation: Implications for Safety.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 10 (2): 135–160. doi:10.1080/14639220802368856
37. A.H.Jamson,, N.Merat, O.M.J.Carsten, and F.C.H.Lai. 2013. “Behavioural Changes in Drivers Experiencing Highly-Automated Vehicle Control in Varying Traffic Conditions.” Transportation Research Part C 30: 116–125. doi:10.1016/j.trc.2013.02.008
38. P.N.Johnson-Laird, 1980. “Mental Models in Cognitive Science.” Cognitive Science 4: 71–115.
39. T.A.Kazi,, N.A.Stanton, G.H.Walker, and M.S.Young. 2007. “Designing Driving: Drivers’ Conceptual models and Level of Trust in Adaptive –Cruise –Control.” International Journal of Vehicle Design 45 (3): 339–360. doi:10.1504/IJVD.2007.014909
40. Y.-S.Kim,. 2001. “Effects of Driver, Vehicle, and Environment Characteristics on Collision Warning Systems Design.” Master's thesis, Linköping Institute of Technology.
41. S.G.Klauer,, D.R.Dingus, T.A.Neale, J.Sudweeks, and D.J.Ramsey. 2006. The Impact of Driver Inattention on Near-Crash/Crash Risk: An Analysis Using the 100-car Naturalistic Study Data (Report No. DOT HS 810 594). Washington, DC: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.
42. K.Landau, 2002. “Usability Criteria for Intelligent Driver Assistance Systems.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 3 (4): 330–345. doi:10.1080/14639220210137748
43. H.Le,, F.L.Schmidt, J.K.Harter, and K.J.Lauver. 2010. “The Problem of Empirical Redundancy of Constructs in Organizational Research: An Empirical Investigation.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 112: 112–125. doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.02.003
44. J.Lee,, and K.See. 2004. “Trust in Automation: Designing for Appropriate Reliance.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 46 (1): 55–80.
45. R.Ma,, and D.B.Kaber. 2005. “Situation Awareness and Workload in Driving While Using Adaptive Cruise Control and a Cell Phone.” International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics 35: 939–953. doi:10.1016/j.ergon.2005.04.002
46. N.H.Mackworth, 1948. “The Breakdown of Vigilance During Prolonged Visual Search.” Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 1 (1): 6–21. doi:10.1080/17470214808416738
47. M.H.Martens,, and G.D.Jenssen. 2012. “Behavioural Adaptation and Acceptance.” In Handbook of Intelligent Vehicles, edited by A.Eskandarian, 117–138. London: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-0-85729-085-4_6
48. G.Matthews, 2002. “Towards a Transactional Ergonomics for Driver Stress and Fatigue.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 3 (2): 195–211. doi:10.1080/14639220210124120
49. G.Matthews,, S.E.Campbell, P.A.Desmond, J.Huggins, S.Falconer, and L.A.Joyner. 1999. “Assessment of Task-Induced State Change: Stress, Fatigue and Workload Components.” In Automation Technology and Human Performance: Current Research and Trends, edited by M.Scerbo and M.Mouloua. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
50. J.H.McCracken,, and T.B.Aldrich. 1984. Analyses of Selected LHX Mission Functions: Implications for Operator Workload and System Automation Goals (Report No. ASI 479-024-84(B)). Fort Rucker, AL: Anacapa Sciences.
51. N.Merat,, A.H.Jamson, F.C.H.Lai, and O.M.J.Carsten. 2012. “Highly Automated Driving, Secondary Task Performance and Driver State.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 54: 762–771. doi:10.1177/0018720812442087
52. R.K.Merton, 1968. “The Matthew Effect in Science.” Science 159 (3810): 56–63.
53. J.A.Michon, 1985. “A Critical View of Driver Behavior Models: What Do We Know, What Should We Do?” In Human Behavior and Traffic Safety, edited by L.Evans and R.Schwing, 485–520. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
54. J.A.Michon,, ed. 1993. Generic Intelligent Driver Support. London: Taylor & Francis.
55. R.Molloy,, and R.Parasuraman. 1996. “Monitoring an Automated System for a Single Failure: Vigilance and Task Complexity Effects.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 38 (2): 311–322.
56. B.M.Muir, 1994. “Trust in Automation: Part I. Theoretical Issues in the Study of Trust and Human Intervention in Automated Systems.” Ergonomics 37 (11): 1905–1922. doi:10.1080/00140139408964957
57. J.Navarro,, F.Mars, and M.S.Young. 2011. “Lateral Control Assistance in Car Driving: Classification, Review and Future Prospects.” IET Intelligent Transport Systems 5 (3): 207–220. doi:10.1049/iet-its.2010.0087
58. D.A.Norman, 1983. “Some Observations on Mental Models.” In Mental Models, edited by D.Gentner and A.L.Stevens, 7–14. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
59. D.A.Norman, 1990. “The Problem with Automation: Inappropriate Feedback and Interaction, Not Over-Automation.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. B, Biological Sciences 327 (1241): 585–593.
60. R.Parasuraman,, and D.H.Manzey. 2010. “Complacency and Bias in Human Use of Automation: An Attentional Integration.” Human Factors 52 (3): 381–410. doi:10.1177/0018720810376055
61. R.Parasuraman,, and V.Riley. 1997. “Humans and Automation: Use, Misuse, Disuse, Abuse.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 39 (2): 230–253.
62. R.Parasuraman,, T.B.Sheridan, and C.D.Wickens. 2000. “A Model for Types and Levels of Human Interaction with Automation.” IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Part A: Systems and Humans 30 (2): 286–297.
63. J.Piao,, and M.McDonald. 2008. “Advanced Driver Assistance Systems from Autonomous to Cooperative Approach.” Transport Reviews: A Transnational Transdisciplinary Journal 28 (5): 659–684. doi:10.1080/01441640801987825
64. K.J.Preacher,, G.Zhang, C.Kim, and G.Mels. 2013. “Choosing the Optimal Number of Factors in Exploratory Factor Analysis: A Model Selection Perspective.” Multivariate Behavioral Research 48: 28–56. doi:10.1080/00273171.2012.710386
65. R.W.Proctor,, and T.Van Zandt. 2011. Human Factors in Simple and Complex Systems. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
66. T.A.Ranney, 1994. “Models of Driving Behavior: A Review of their Evolution.” Accident Analysis & Prevention 26 (6): 733–750.
67. N.Rauch,, A.Kaussner, H.-P.Krüger, S.Boverie, and F.O.Flemisch. 2009. “The Importance of Driver State Assessment within Highly Automated Vehicles.” Proceedings of the ITS – 16th World Congress and Exhibition on Intelligent Transport Systems and Services, Stockholm, Sweden.
68. V.Riley, 1989. “A General Model of Mixed-Initiative Human-Machine Systems.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 33rd Annual Meeting, 124–128, Denver, CO, October 16–20. doi:10.1177/154193128903300227
69. C.M.Rudin-Brown, 2010. “‘Intelligent’ In-Vehicle Intelligent Transport Systems: Limiting Behavioural Adaptation through Adaptive Design.” IET Intelligent Transport Systems 4 (4): 252–261. doi:10.1049/iet-its.2009.0151
70. M.Saffarian,, J.C.F.De Winter, and R.Happee. 2012. “Automated Driving: Human-Factors Issues and Design Solutions.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 56th Annual Meeting, 2296–2300, Boston, MA, October 22–26. doi:10.1177/1071181312561483
71. D.D.Salvucci, 2006. “Modeling Driver Behavior in a Cognitive Architecture.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 48 (2): 362–280.
72. J.Sanchez, 2009. “Conceptual Model of Human-Automation Interaction.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 53rd AnnualMeeting, 1403–1407, San Antonio, TX, October 19–23.
73. N.B.Sarter,, D.D.Woods, and C.E.Billings. 1997. “Automation Surprises.” In Handbook of Human Factors & Ergonomics, edited by G.Salvendy, 1926–1943. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Wiley.
74. D.J.Saxby,, G.Matthews, E.M.Hitchcock, and J.S.Warm. 2007. “Development of Active and Passive Fatigue Manipulations using a Driving Simulator.” Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 51st Annual Meeting, 1237–1241, Baltimore, MD, October 1–5.
75. A.Schieben,, D.Damböck, J.Kelsch, H.Rausch, and F.O.Flemisch. 2008. “Haptisches Feedback im Spektrum von Fahrerassistenz und Automation.” Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Active Safety through Driver Assistance Garching, April 7–8.
76. F.Schmidt, 2010. “Detecting and Correcting the Lies that Data Tell.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 5 (3): 233–242. doi:10.1177/1745691610369339
77. H.Selye, 1973. “The Evolution of the Stress Concept.” American Scientist 61 (6): 692–699.
78. S.Z.Shariff,, S.A.D.Bejaimal, J.M.Sontrop, A.V.Iansavichus, R.B.Haynes, M.A.Weir, and A.X.Garg. 2013. “Retrieving Clinical Evidence: A Comparison of PubMed and Google Scholar for Quick Clinical Searches.” Journal of Medical Internet Research 15 (8), e164.
79. J.Shen,, J.Barbera, and C.M.Shapiro. 2006. “Distinguishing Sleepiness and Fatigue: Focus on Definition and Measurement.” Sleep Medicine Reviews 10: 63–76. doi:10.1016:j.smrv.2005.05.004
80. T.B.Sheridan, 2004. “Driver Distraction from a Control Theory Perspective.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 46 (4): 587–599.
81. J.Singh, 1991. “Redundancy in Constructs: Problem, Assessment, and an Illustrative Example.” Journal of Business Research 22: 255–280.
82. E.-M.Skottke,, G.Debus, L.Wang, and L.Huestegge. 2014. “Carryover Effects of Highly Automated Convoy Driving on Subsequent Manual Driving Performance.” Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 56 (7): 1272–1283.
83. L.M.Stanley, 2006. “Haptic and Auditory Interfaces as a Collision Avoidance Technique during Roadway Departures and Driver Perception of These Modalities.” PhD diss., Montana State University-Bozeman.
84. N.A.Stanton,, A.Dunoyer, and A.Leatherland. 2011. “Detection of New In-Path Targets by Drivers using Stop & Go Adaptive Cruise Control.” Applied Ergonomics 42: 592–601. doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2010.08.016
85. N.A.Stanton,, and P.Marsden. 1996. “From Fly-by-Wire to Drive-by-Wire: Safety Implications of Automation in Vehicles.” Safety Science 24 (1): 35–49. doi:10.1016/S0925-7535(96)00067-7
86. N.A.Stanton,, P.M.Salmon, G.H.Walker, and D.P.Jenkins. 2010. “Is Situation Awareness All in the Mind?” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 11 (1–2): 29–40. doi:10.1080/14639220903009938
87. N.A.Stanton,, G.H.Walker, M.S.Young, T.A.Kazi, and P.M.Salmon. 2007. “Changing Drivers’ Minds: The Evaluation of an Advanced Driver Coaching System.” Ergonomics 50 (8): 1209–1234. doi:10.1080/00140130701322592
88. N.A.Stanton,, and M.S.Young. 1998. “Vehicle Automation and Driving Performance.” Ergonomics 41 (7): 1014–1028. doi:10.1080/001401398186568
89. N.A.Stanton,, and M.S.Young. 2000. “A Proposed Psychological Model of Driving Automation.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 1 (4): 315–331. doi:10.1080/14639220052399131
90. N.A.Stanton,, and M.S.Young. 2005. “Driver Behaviour with Adaptive Cruise Control.” Ergonomics 48 (10): 1294–1313. doi:10.1080/00140130500252990
91. J.R.Treat,, N.S.Tumbas, S.T.McDonald, D.Shinar, R.D.Hume, R.E.Mayer, R.L.Stansifer, and N.J.Castellan. 1977. “Tri-Level Study of the Causes of Traffic Accidents: An Overview of Final Results.” Report No. DOT HS-805 099, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN.
92. T.Vaa, 2007. “Modelling Driver Behaviour on Basis of Emotions and Feelings: Intelligent Transport Systems and Behavioural Adaptations.” In Modelling Driver Behaviour in Automotive Environments: Critical Issues in Driver Interactions With Intelligent Transport Systems, edited by C.Cacciabue, 208–234. London: Springer.
93. A.Vahidi,, and A.Eskandarian. 2003. “Research Advances in Intelligent Collision Avoidance and Adaptive Cruise Control.” IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems 4 (3): 143–153. doi:10.1109/TITS.2003.821292
94. C.Van Driel, 2007. “Driver Support in Congestion: An Assessment of User Needs and Impacts on Driver and Traffic Flow.” PhD diss., Universiteit Twente.
95. J.S.Warm,, G.Matthews, and V.S.Finomore. 2008. “Vigilance, Workload and Stress.” In Performance under Stress, edited by P.A. Hancock and J.L. Szalma, 225–241. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
96. W.A.Wheeler,, and T.J.Trigs. 1996. “A Task Analytical View of Simulator Based Training for Drivers.” Proceedings of the Road Safety Research and Enforcement Conference ‘Effective Partnerships’, Coogee Beach, NSW, Australia, November 4-5, 217–221.
97. C.D.Wickens,, J.D.Lee, Y.Liu, and S.E.Gordon-Becker. 2004. An Introduction to Human Factors Engineering. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
98. G.J.S.Wilde, 1998. “Risk Homeostasis Theory: an Overview.” Injury Prevention 4: 89–91.
99. M.S.Young,, K.A.Brookhuis, C.D.Wickens, and P.A.Hancock. 2014. “State of Science: Mental Workload in Ergonomics.” Ergonomics 58 (1): 1–17. doi:10.1080/00140139.956151
100. M.S.Young,, and N.A.Stanton. 1997. “Automotive Automation: Investigating the Impact on Drivers' Mental Workload.” International Journal of Cognitive Ergonomics 1 (4): 325–336.
101. M.S.Young,, and N.A.Stanton. 2002. “Malleable Attentional Resources Theory: A New Explanation for the Effects of Mental Underload on Performance.” Human Factors: The Journal of Human Factors and Ergonomics Society 44 (3): 365–375.
102. M.S.Young,, and N.A.Stanton. 2007. “Miles Away: Determining the Extent of Secondary Task Interference on Simulated Driving.” Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science 8 (3): 233–253. doi:10.1080/14639220601129228
103. M.S.Young,, N.A.Stanton, and D.Harris. 2007. “Driving Automation: Learning from Aviation about Design Philosophies.” International Journal of Vehicle Design 45 (3): 323–338.