Chitin and chitosan hydrogels

Handbook of Hydrocolloids: Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 849-888

  Muzzarelli, R A A ^a,b   Muzzarelli, C ^b  

^a Muzzarelli Consulting   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITÀ POLITECNICA DELLE MARCHE   (Italy)

Author keywords

Antimicrobial activity; Chitin; Chitosan; Cholesterol lowering; Drug delivery; Nutritional value; Polyelectrolytes

Indexed keywords

CHITOSAN; CHOLESTEROL; CROSSLINKING; DRUG DELIVERY; ENZYMES; GELS; HYDROGELS; MULTILAYERS; POLYELECTROLYTES; POLYMERS; SALTS; SILICON COMPOUNDS; SPOILAGE; TARGETED DRUG DELIVERY;

ANTI-MICROBIAL ACTIVITY; BIORESORBABLE HYDROGELS; CHOLESTEROL LOWERING; CROSS LINKING AGENTS; FRUIT AND VEGETABLES; GLYCIDOXYPROPYLTRIMETHOXYSILANE; NUTRITIONAL VALUE; POLYELECTROLYTE COMPLEXATION;

CHITIN;

EID: 84941276815     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1533/9781845695873.849     Document Type: Chapter

References (203)

1. Amidi M., Romeijn S.G., Verhoef J.C., Junginger H.E., Bungener L., Huckriede A., Crommelin D.J.A., Jiskoot W. N-Trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles loaded with influenza subunit antigen for intranasal vaccination: biological properties and immunogenicity in a mouse model. Vaccine 2007, 25(1):144-153.
2. An N.T., Dung P.L., Thien D.T., Dong N.T., Nhi T.T.Y. An improved method for synthesizing NN-dicarboxymethylchitosan. Carbohydrate Polymers 2008, 73:261-264.
3. Arguelles-Monal W., Goycoolea F.M., Peniche C., Higuera-Ciapara I. Rheological study of the chitosan glutaraldehyde chemical gel system. Polymeric Gels and Networks 1998, 6:429-440.
4. Artursson P., Karlsson J., Ocklind G., Schipper N. Studying transport processes in absorptive epithelia. Epithelial cell culture 1996, 111-133. Oxford University Press, Oxford. A. Shaw (Ed.).
5. Backwell L.R., D'Errico F. Evidence for termites foraging by Swartkrans early hominids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2001, 98:1358-1363.
6. Beri R.G., Walker J., Reese E.T., Rollings J. Characterization of chitosans via coupled size exclusion chromatography and multiple-angle laser light-scattering technique. Carbohydrate Research 1993, 238:11-26.
7. Bigucci F., Luppi B., Musenga A., Zecchi V., Cerchiara T. Chitosan salts coated with stearic acid as colon-specific delivery systems for vancomycin. Drug Delivery 2008, 15:289-293.
8. Bokura H., Kobayashi S. Chitosan decreases total cholesterol in women: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003, 57:721-725.
9. Borchard G., Lussen H., De Boer A., Verhoef J., Lehr C., Junginger H. The potential of mucoadhesive polymers in enhancing intestinal peptide drug absorption. III: effects of chitosan-glutamate and carbomer on epithelial tight junctions In vitro. Journal of Controlled Release 1996, 39:131-138.
10. Cerchiara T., Luppi B., Bigucci F., Zecchi V. Effect of chitosan on progesterone release from hydroxypropyl-beta-cyclodextrin complexes. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2003, 258:209-215.
11. Chao A.C. Preparation of porous chitosan/GPTMS hybrid membrane and its application in affinity sorption for tyrosinase purification with Agaricus bisporus. Journal of Membrane Science 2008, 311:306-318.
12. Chatterjee S., Chatterjee S., Chatterjee B.P., Guha A.K. Clarification of fruit juice with chitosan. Process Biochemistry 2004, 39:2229-2232.
13. Chen C., Lian W., Isai G. Antibacterial effects of N-sulfonated and N-sulfobenzoyl chitosan and application to oyster preservation. Journal of Food Protection 1998, 61:1124-1128.
14. Chen T.H., Embree H.D., Brown E.M., Taylor M.M., Payne G.F. Enzyme-catalyzed gel formation of gelatin and chitosan: potential for In situ applications. Biomaterials 2003, 24:2831-2841.
15. Cheng Y.X., Liu Y.J., Huang J.J., Xian Y.Z., Zhang Z.G., Jin L.T. Fabrication of tyrosinase biosensor based on multiwalled carbon nanotubes-chitosan composite and its application to rapid determination of coliforms. Electroanalysis 2008, 20:1463-1469.
16. Chi W.L., Qin C.Q., Zeng L.T., Li W., Wang W. Microbicidal activity of chitosan-N-2-hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2007, 103:3851-3856.
17. Choudhury R.P., Kumar A., Garg A.N. Analysis of Indian mint (Mentha spicata) for essential, trace and toxic elements and its antioxidant behaviour. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis 2006, 41:825-832.
18. Crcarevska M.S., Dodov M.G., Goracinova K. Chitosan coated Ca-alginate microparticles loaded with budesonide for delivery to the inflamed colonic mucosa. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 2008, 68:565-578.
19. Crescenzi V., Imbriaco D., Velasquez C., Dentini M., Ciferri A. Novel types of polysaccharidic assemblies. Macromol Chem Phys 1995, 196:2873-2880.
20. Dahiya N., Tewari R., Hoondal G.S. Biotechnological aspects of chitinolytic enzymes. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 2006, 71:773-782.
21. Dalpozzo A., Vanini L., Fagnoni M., Guerrini M., Debenedittis A., Muzzarelli R.A.A. Preparation and characterization of poly(ethyleneglycol)-crosslinked reacetylated chitosans. Carbohydrate Polymers 2000, 42:201-206.
22. Davies L.L., Bartnicki-Garcia S. Chitosan synthesis by the tandem action of chitin synthetase and chitin deacetylase from Mucor rouxii. Biochemistry 1984, 23:1065-1073.
23. Deacon M.P., Davis S.S., White R.J., Nordman H., Carlstedt I., Errington N., Rowe A.J., Harding S.E. Are chitosan-mucin interactions specific to different regions of the stomach? Velocity ultracentrifugation offers a clue. Carbohydrate Polymers 1999, 38:235-238.
24. Debritto D., Assis O.B.G. A novel method for obtaining a quaternary salt of chitosan. Carbohydrate Polymers 2007, 69:305-310.
25. Defoliart G.R. Insects as human food. Crop Protection 1992, 11:395-399.
26. Defoliart G.R. Insects as food: why the western attitude is important. Annual Review of Entomology 1999, 44:21-50.
27. Delafuente M., Seijo B., Alonso M.J. Bioadhesive hyaluronan-chitosan nanoparticles can transport genes across the ocular mucosa and transfect ocular tissue. Gene Therapy 2008, 15:668-676.
28. Delafuente M., Seijo B., Alonso M.J. Novel hyaluronic acid-chitosan nanoparticles for ocular gene therapy. Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science 2008, 49:2016-2024.
29. Delatorre P.M., Enobakhare Y., Torrado G., Torrado S. Release of amoxicillin from polyionic complexes of chitosan and poly(acrylic acid). Study of polymer/polymer and polymer/drug interactions within the network structure. Biomaterials 2003, 24:1499-1506.
30. Deng L.D., Qi H.Y., Yao C.M., Feng M.H., Dong A.J. Investigation on the properties of methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)/chitosan graft co-polymers. Journal of Biomaterials Science - Polymer Edition 2007, 18:1575-1589.
31. Di Colo G., Zambito Y., Zaino C. Polymeric enhancers of mucosal epithelia permeability: Synthesis, transepithelial penetration-enhancing properties, mechanism of action, safety issues. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 2008, 97:1652-1680.
32. Dodane V., Amin Khan M., Merwin J. Effect of Caco-2 on epithelial permeability and structure. International Journal of Pharmacology 1999, 182:21-32.
33. Draczynski Z. Honeybee corpses as an available source of chitin. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2008, 109:1974-1981.
34. Edwards W., Bownes R., Leukes W.D., Jacobs E.P., Sanderson R., Rose P.D., Burton S.G. A capillary membrane bioreactor using immobilized polyphenol oxidase for the removal of phenols from industrial effluents. Enzyme and Microbial Technology 1999, 24:209-217.
35. Edwards W., Leukes W.D., Rose P.D., Burton S.G. Immobilization of poly-phenol oxidase on chitosan-coated polysulphone capillary membranes for improved phenolic effluent bioremediation. Enzyme and Microbial Technology 1999, 25:769-773.
36. Ehrlich H., Krautter M., Hanke T., Simon P., Knieb C., Heinemann S., Worch H. First evidence of the presence of chitin in skeletons of marine sponges. Part II. glass sponges (Hexactinellida: porifera). Journal of Experimental Zoology 2007, 308-B:473-483.
37. El Ghaouth A., Arul J., Asselin A., Benhamon N. Antifungal activity of chitosan on post harvest pathogens: induction of morphological and cytological variations on Rhizopur stolonifer. Mycology Research 1992, 96:769-779.
38. Enescu D., Olteanu C.E. Functionalized chitosan and its use in pharmaceutical biomedical and biotechnological research. Chemical Engineering Communications 2008, 195:1269-1291.
39. Fang J.Y., Chen J.P., Leu Y.L., Hu H.W. Temperature-sensitive hydrogels composed of chitosan and hyaluronic acid as injectable carriers for drug delivery. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 2008, 68:626-636.
40. Gades M.D., Stern J.S. Chitosan supplementation and fat absorption in men and women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2005, 105:72-77.
41. Gallaher D.D., Gallaher C.M., Mahrt G.J., Carr T.P., Hollingshead C.H., Hesslink R., Wise J. A glucomannan and chitosan fiber supplement decreases plasma cholesterol and increases cholesterol excretion in overweight normo-cholesterolemic humans. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2002, 21:428-433.
42. Gavini E., Rassu G., Muzzarelli C., Cossu M., Giunchedi P. Spray-dried microspheres based on methylpyrrolidinone chitosan as new carrier for nasal administration of metoclopramide. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 2008, 68:245-252.
43. Georgantelis D., Ambrosiadis I., Katikou P., Blekas G., Georgakis S.A. Effect of rosemary extract, chitosan and alpha-tocopherol on microbiological parameters and lipid oxidation of fresh pork sausages stored at 4°C. Meat Science 2007, 76:172-181.
44. Georgantelis D., Blekas G., Katikou P., Ambrosiadis I., Fletouris D.J. Effect of rosemary extract, chitosan and alpha-tocopherol on lipid oxidation and colour stability during frozen storage of beef burgers. Meat Science 2007, 75:256-264.
45. Gianfrancesco F., Musumeci S. The evolutionary conservation of the human chitotriosidase gene in rodents and primates. Cytogenetics and Genome Research 2004, 105:54-56.
46. Giunchedi P., Juliano C., Gavini E., Cossu M., Sorrenti M. Formulation and in vivo evaluation of chlorhexidine buccal tablets prepared using drug-loaded chitosan microspheres. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 2002, 53:233-239.
47. Goosen M.F.A. Applications of Chitin 1996, Technomic, Lancaster, PA.
48. Gray J.I., Gomaa E.A., Buckley D.J. Oxidative quality and shelf life of meats. Meat Science 1996, 43:S111-S123.
49. Harding S.E., Davies S.S., Deacon M., Fiebrig I. Biopolymer mucoadhesives. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Reviews 1999, 16:41-86.
50. Harrison T.A. The FDA regulation of labelling claims for nutraceuticals in the U.S. Agro-Food Industry Hi-Tech 2002, 13:8-11.
51. He P., Davis S.S., Illum L. Chitosan microspheres prepared by spray drying. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 1999, 187:53-65.
52. He W., Guo X.X., Zhang M. Transdermal permeation enhancement of N-trimethyl chitosan for testosterone. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2008, 356:82-87.
53. Hein S., Ng C.H., Stevens W.F., Wang K. Selection of a practical assay for the determination of the entire range of acetyl content in chitin and chitosan: UV spectrophotometry with phosphoric acid as solvent. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research, B-86 2008, 558-568.
54. Helander I.M. Chitosan disrupts the barrier properties of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. International Journal of Food Microbiology 2001, 71:235-244.
55. Helgason T., Weiss J., Mcclements D.J., Gislason J., Einarsson J.M., Thormodsson F.R., Kristbergsson K. Examination of the interaction of chitosan and oil-in-water emulsions under conditions simulating the digestive system using confocal microscopy. Journal of Aquatic Food Product Technology 2008, 17:216-233.
56. Hirano S., Horiuchi K. Chitin gels. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 1989, 11:253-255.
57. Huang Y.C., Yeh M.K., Chiang C.H. Formulation factors in preparing BTM-chitosan microspheres by spray drying method. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2002, 42:239-242.
58. Huang Y.C., Yeh M.K., Cheng S.N., Chiang C.H. The characteristics of betamethasone-loaded chitosan microparticles by spray-drying method. Journal of Microencapsulation 2003, 20:459-472.
59. Illum L. Nasal drug delivery. Journal of Controlled Release 2003, 87:187-198.
60. Illum L., Davies S.S. Chitosan as a delivery system for the transmucosal administration of drugs. Polysaccharides 2005, Marcel Dekker, New York. 2nd edition. S. Dumitriu (Ed.).
61. Illum L., Watts P., Fisher A.N., Hinchcliffe M., Norbury H., Jabbal-Gill I., Nankervis R., Davis S.S. Intranasal delivery of morphine. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapy 2002, 301:391-400.
62. Jain S.K., Jain A., Gupta Y., Ahirwar M. Design and development of hydrogel beads for targeted drug delivery to the colon. AAPS Pharmscitech 2007, 8(3):255-262.
63. Jang K.I., Lee H.G. Stability of chitosan nanoparticles for L-ascorbic acid during heat treatment in aqueous solution. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2008, 56:1936-1941.
64. Janvikul W., Uppanan P., Thavornyutikarn B., Prateepasen R., Swasdison S. Fibroblast interaction with carboxymethylchitosan-based hydrogels. Journal of Materials Science, Materials in Medicine 2007, 18:943-949.
65. Jiang H., Su W., Brant M., De Rosa M.E., Bunning T.J. Chitosan-based hydrogels: a new polymer based system with excellent laser-damage threshold properties. Journal of Polymer Science, B-37 1999, 769-778.
66. Jollè S.P., Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitin and Chitinases 1999, Birkhauser Verlag, Basel.
67. Jull A.B., Nimhurchu C., Bennett D.A., Dunshea-Mooij C.A.E., Rodgers A. Chitosan for overweight or obesity. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008, 3:5861-5918.
68. Kanatt S.R., Chander R., Sharma A. Antioxidant potential of mint (Mentha spicata L.) in radiation processed lamb meat. Food Chemistry 2007, 100:451-458.
69. Kanatt S.R., Chander R., Sharma A. Chitosan glucose complex: a novel food preservative. Food Chemistry 2008, 106:521-528.
70. Kas H.S. Chitosan: properties, preparations and application to microparticulate systems. Journal of Microencapsulation 1997, 14:689-711.
71. Kasaai M.R. Calculation of Mark-Houwink-Sakurada equation viscometric constants for chitosan in any solvent-temperature system using experimental reported viscometric constants data. Carbohydrate Polymers 2007, 68:477-488.
72. Kashyap N., Viswanad B., Sharma G., Bhardwaj V., Ramarao P., Kumar M.N.V.R. Design and evaluation of biodegradable, biosensitive In situ gelling system for pulsatile delivery of insulin. Biomaterials 2007, 28:2051-2060.
73. Khalid M.N., Ho L., Agnely F., Grossiord J.L., Couarraze G. Swelling properties and mechanical characterization of a semi-interpenetrating chitosan/polyethylene oxide network: comparison with a chitosan reference gel. STP Pharma Science 1999, 9:359-364.
74. Kim M., Han J. Evaluation of physico-chemical characteristics and micro-structure of tofu containing high viscosity chitosan. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2002, 37:277-283.
75. Kjartansson G.T., Zivanovic S., Kristbergsson K., Weiss J. Sonication-assisted extraction of chitin from North Atlantic shrimps (Pandalus borealis). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2006, 54:5894-5902.
76. Kofuji K., Shibata K., Murata Y., Miyamoto E., Kawashima S. Preparation and drug retention of biodegradable chitosan gel beads. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 1999, 47:1494-1496.
77. Kotze A., Luessen H., Deboer A., Verhoef J., Junginger H. Chitosan for enhanced intestinal permeability: prospects for derivatives soluble in neutral and basic environments. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Science 1998, 7:145-151.
78. Kreger D.R. Observations on cell walls of yeasts and some other fungi by x-ray diffraction and solubility tests. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1954, 13:1-9.
79. Kubota N., Kikuchi Y. Macromolecular complexes of chitosan. Polysaccharides Structural Diversity and Functional Versatility 1999, 595-628. Marcel Dekker, New York. S. Dumitriu (Ed.).
80. Kumar G., Smith P.J., Payne G.F. Enzymatic grafting of a natural product onto chitosan to confer water solubility under basic conditions. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 1999, 63:154-165.
81. Kumar M.N.V.R., Muzzarelli R.A.A., Muzzarelli C., Sashiwa H., Domb A.J. Chitosan chemistry and pharmaceutical perspectives. Chemical Reviews 2004, 104:6017-6084.
82. Kurita K. Chitin and chitosan: functional biopolymers from marine crustaceans. Marine Biotechnology 2006, 8:203-226.
83. Lapasin R., Stefancic S., Delben F. Rheological properties of emulsions containing soluble chitosan. Agro-food Industry High-Tech 1996, 7:12-17.
84. Lavall R.L., Assis O.B.G., Campana S.P. Beta-chitin from the pens of Loligo sp: extraction and characterization. Bioresource Technology 2007, 98:2465-2472.
85. Learoyd T.P., Burrows J.L., French E., Seville P.C. Chitosan-based spray-dried respirable powders for sustained delivery of terbutaline sulfate. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 2008, 68:224-234.
86. Lee J.K., Kim S.U., Kim J.H. Modification of chitosan to improve its hypo-cholesterolemic capacity. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 1999, 63:833-839.
87. Leonhardt S.E.S., Ondruschka B., Ondruschka J. Comment on aspects of chitosan preparation. Chemical Engineering and Technology 2008, 31:917-921.
88. Lin Y.W., Chen Q., Luo H.B. Preparation and characterization of N-(2-carboxybenzyl) chitosan as a potential pH-sensitive hydrogel for drug delivery. Carbohydrate Research 2007, 342:87-95.
89. Liu Y., Yu Z.L., Zhang Y.M., Guo D.S., Liu Y.P. Supramolecular architectures of beta-cyclodextrin-modified chitosan and pyrene derivatives mediated by carbon nanotubes and their DNA condensation. Journal of the American Chemical Society 2008, 130:10431-10439.
90. Ma G.P., Yang D.Z., Zhou Y.S., Xiao M., Kennedy J.F., Nie J. Preparation and characterization of water-soluble N-alkylated chitosan. Carbohydrate Polymers 2008, 74:121-126.
91. Maezaki Y., Keisuke T., Nakagawa Y., Kawai Y., Akimoto M., Tsugita T., Takekawa W., Terada A., Hara H., Mitsuoka T. Hypocholesterolemic effect of chitosan in adult males. Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochem 1993, 57:1439-1444.
92. Malaguarnera L. Chitotriosidase: the yin and yang. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 2006, 63:3018-3029.
93. Mano J.F., Silva G.A., Azevedo H.S., Malafaya P.B., Sousa R.A., Silva S.S., Boesel L.F., Oliveira J.M., Santos T.C., Marques A.P., Neves N.M., Reis R.L. Natural origin biodegradable systems in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine: present status and some moving trends. Journal of the Royal Society Interface 2007, 4:999-1030.
94. Marino M., Bersani C., Comi G. Impedance measurements to study the antimicrobial activity of essential oils from Lamiaceae and Compositae. International Journal of Food Microbiology 2001, 67:187-195.
95. Metso S., Ylitalo R., Nikkila M., Wuolijoki E., Ylitalo P., Lehtimaki T. The effect of long-term microcrystalline chitosan therapy on plasma lipids and glucose concentrations in subjects with increased plasma total cholesterol: a randomised placebo-controlled double-blind crossover trial in healthy men and women. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2003, 59:741-746.
96. Mi F.L., Shyu S.S., Kuan C.Y., Lee S.T., Lu K.T., Jang S.F. Chitosan-polyelectrolyte complexation for the preparation of gel beads and controlled release of anticancer drug. I. Effect of phosphorous polyelectrolyte complex and enzymatic hydrolysis of polymer. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 1999, 74:1868-1879.
97. Mladenovska K., Cruaud O., Richomme P., Belamie E., Raicki R.S., Venier-Julienne M.C., Popovski E., Benoit J.P., Goracinova K. 5-ASA loaded chitosan-Ca-alginate microparticles: preparation and physicochemical characterization. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2007, 345:59-69.
98. Moreira M.R., Ponce A.G., Del Valle C.E., Roura S.I. Inhibitory parameters of essential oils to reduce a foodborne pathogen. Lebensmittel 2005, 38:565-570.
99. Morimoto M., Saimoto H., Shigemasa Y. Control of functions of chitin and chitosan by chemical modification. Trends in Glycoscience and Glycotechnology 2002, 14:205-222.
100. Motwani S.K., Chopra S., Talegaonkar S., Kohl K., Ahmad F.J., Khar R.K. Chitosan-sodium alginate nanoparticles as submicroscopic reservoirs for ocular delivery: formulation optimisation and In vitro characterisation. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 2008, 68:513-525.
101. Mourya V.K., Inamdar N.N. Chitosan-modifications and applications: opportunities galore. Reactive and Functional Polymers 2008, 68:1013-1051.
102. Mukherjee M. Human digestive and metabolic lipases. Journal of Molecular Catalysis, B-22 2003, 369-376.
103. Murata Y., Toniwa S., Miyamoto E., Kawashima S. Preparation of alginate gel beads containing chitosan nicotinic acid salt and the functions. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 1999, 48:40-52.
104. Murata Y., Kojima N., Kawashima S. Functions of a chitosan-orotic acid salt in the gastrointestinal tract. Biology and Pharmacology Bulletin 2003, 26:687-690.
105. Murata Y., Nagaki K., Kofuji K., Sanae F., Kontani H., Kawashima S. Adsorption of bile acid by chitosan salts prepared with cinnamic acid and analogue compounds. Journal of Biomaterials Science - Polymer Edition 2006, 17:781-789.
106. Musumeci M., Malaguarnera L., Simpore J., Barone R., Whalen M., Musumeci S. Chitotriosidase activity in colostrum from African and Caucasian women. Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine 2005, 43:198-201.
107. Muzzarelli C., Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitosan, a dietary supplement and a food technology commodity. Functional Food Carbohydrates 2006, Taylor and Francis, Orlando, FL. C.G. Biliaderis, M.S. Izydorczyk (Eds.).
108. Muzzarelli C., Tosi G., Francescangeli O., Muzzarelli R.A.A. Alkaline chitosan solutions. Carbohydrate Research 2003, 338:2247-2255.
109. Muzzarelli C., Stanic V., Gobbi L., Tosi G., Muzzarelli R.A.A. Spray-drying of solutions containing chitosan together with polyuronans, and characterization of the microspheres. Carbohydrate Polymers 2004, 57:73-82.
110. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitin 1977, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
111. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitin. The Polysaccharides 1985, vol. 3. Academic Press, New York. G.O. Aspinall (Ed.).
112. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitin. Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology 1985, vol. 3. John Wiley, New York. J.I. Kroschwitz (Ed.).
113. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Carboxymethylated chitins and chitosans. Carbohydrate Polymers 1988, 8(1):1-21.
114. Chitin Enzymology 1993, Vol. 1. Atec, Grottammare, Italy. R.A.A. Muzzarelli (Ed.).
115. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitin chemistry. The Polymeric Materials Encyclopedia 1996, 312-314. CRC Press, Inc, Boca Raton, FL. J.C. Salamone (Ed.).
116. Chitin Enzymology 1996, Vol. 2. Atec, Grottammare, Italy. R.A.A. Muzzarelli (Ed.).
117. Chitosan per os: from Dietary Supplement to Drug Carrier 2000, Atec, Grottammare, Italy. R.A.A. Muzzarelli (Ed.).
118. Chitin Enzymology 2001 2001, Vol. 3. Atec, Grottammare, Italy. R.A.A. Muzzarelli (Ed.).
119. Muzzarelli R.A.A. First semester report. First semester report. European Commission Project 'Chitosanperos' 2005, Unpublished.
120. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitin chemistry and biochemistry. Binomium Chitin-Chitinase: Emerging Issues 2009, Nova Science, Hauppauge. NY, 2005. M. Paoletti, S. Musumeci (Eds.).
121. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitin nanostructures in living organisms. Chitin in the Fossil Record 2009, Springer, New York. S.N. Gupta, D. Briggs (Eds.).
122. Muzzarelli R.A.A. Genipin-crosslinked chitosan hydrogels as a biomedical and pharmaceutical aids. Carbohydrate Polymers 2009, 10.1016/j.carbpol.2009.01.016.
123. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Ilari P. Chitosans carrying the methoxyphenyl function typical of lignin. Carbohydrate Polymers 1994, 23:155-160.
124. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Rocchetti R. The determination of the degree of acetylation of chitosan by first-derivative ultraviolet spectrophotometry. Carbohydrate Polymers 1985, 5:461-472.
125. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Zattoni A. Glutamate glucan and aminogluconate glucan: new chelating polyampholytes obtained from chitosan. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 1986, 8:137-142.
126. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Barontini G., Rocchetti R. Immobilization of enzymes on chitosan columns: alpha-chymotrypsin and acid phosphatase. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 1976, 18:1445-1454.
127. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Tanfani F., Emanuelli M., Mariotti S. N-Carboxybenzyl chitosans. novel chelating polyampholytes. Carbohydrate Polymers 1982, 2:145-157.
128. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Tanfani F., Emanuelli M., Bolognini L. Aspartate glucan, glycine glucan and serine glucan for the collection of cobalt and copper from solutions and brines. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 1985, 27:1115-1121.
129. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Jeuniaux C., Gooday G.W. Chitin in Nature and Technology 1986, Plenum, New York.
130. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Ilari P., Xia W., Pinotti M., Tomasetti M. Tyrosinase-mediated quinone tanning of chitinous materials. Carbohydrate Polymers 1994, 24:294-300.
131. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Muzzarelli C., Cosani A., Terbojevich M. 6-Oxychitins, novel hyaluronan-like regiospecifically carboxylated chitins. Carbohydrate Polymers 1999, 39:361-367.
132. Muzzarelli R.A.A., Orlandini F., Pacetti D., Boselli E., Frega N.G., Tosi G., Muzzarelli C. Chitosan taurocholate capacity to bind lipids and to undergo enzymatic hydrolysis: An In vitro model. Carbohydrate Polymers 2006, 66:363-371.
133. Nagahama H., Higuchi T., Jayakumar R., Furuike T., Tamura H. XRD studies of beta-chitin from squid pen with calcium solvent. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 2008, 42:309-313.
134. Nimhurchu C., Dunshea-Mooij C.A.E., Bennett D., Rodgers A. Chitosan for overweight or obesity. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2005, 3:1136-1183.
135. Nimhurchu C., Dunshea-Mooij C., Bennett D., Rodgers A. Effect of chitosan on weight loss in overweight and obese individuals: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Obesity Reviews 2005, 6:35-42.
136. Nimhurchu C., Poppitt S.D., Mcgill A.T., Leahy F.E., Bennett D.A., Lin R.B., Ormrod D., Ward L., Strik C., Rodgers A. The effect of the dietary supplement, Chitosan, on body weight: a randomised controlled trial in 250 overweight and obese adults. International Journal of Obesity 2004, 28:1149-1156.
137. Nissen L.R., Byrne D.V., Bertelsen G., Skibsted L.H. The antioxidative activity of plant extracts in cooked pork patties as evaluated by descriptive sensory profiling and chemical analysis. Meat Science 2004, 68:485-495.
138. No H.K., Park N.Y., Lee S.H., Hwang H.J., Meyers S.P. Antibacterial activities of chitosans and chitosan oligomers with different molecular weights on spoilage bacteria isolated from tofu. Journal of Food Science 2002, 67:1511-1514.
139. Nunthanid J., Huanbutta K., Luangtanaanan M., Sriamornsak P., Limmatvapirat S., Puttipipatkhachorn S. Development of time-, pH- and enzyme controlled colonic drug delivery using spray-dried chitosan acetate and hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 2008, 68:253-259.
140. Oh J.K., Drumright R., Siegwart D.J., Matyjaszewski K. The development of microgels/nanogels for drug delivery applications. Progress in Polymer Science 2008, 33:448-477.
141. Pan Y., Li Y.J., Zhao H.Y., Zheng J.M., Xu H., Wei G., Hao J.S., Cui F.D. Bioadhesive polysaccharide in protein delivery system: chitosan nanoparticles improve the intestinal absorption of insulin in vivo. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2002, 249:139-147.
142. Paoletti M.G. Ecological Implications of Minilivestock - Potential of Insects, Rodents, Frogs and Snails 2005, Science Publishers, Inc, Enfield, NH.
143. Paoletti M.G., Norberto L., Damini R., Musumeci S. Human gastric juice contains chitinase that can degrade chitin. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 2007, 51:244-251.
144. Park Y., Lee Y., Lee J., Seol C., Lee S. Controlled release of platelet-derived growth factor-BB from chondroitin sulfate-chitosan sponge for guided bone regeneration. Journal of Controlled Release 2000, 67:385-394.
145. Piras I., Melis A., Ghiani M.E., Falchi A., Luiselli D., Moral P., Varesi L., Calo C.M., Vona G. Human CHIT1 gene distribution: new data from Mediterranean and European populations. Journal of Human Genetics 2007, 52:110-116.
146. Pittler M.H., Ernst E. Dietary supplements for body-weight reduction: a systematic review. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2004, 79:529-536.
147. Qin C.Q., Wang W., Peng H.E., Hu R., Li W. Preparation and properties of reduced chitooligomers. Carbohydrate Polymers 2008, 72:701-706.
148. Qu X., Wirsen A., Albertsson A.C. Structural change and swelling mechanism of pH-sensitive hydrogels based on chitosan and D,L-lactic acid. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 1999, 74:3186-3192.
149. Qu X., Wirsen A., Albertsson A.C. Synthesis and characterization of pH-sensitive hydrogels based on chitosan and D,L-lactic acid. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 1999, 74:3193-3202.
150. Ramanathan S., Block L. The use of chitosan gels as matrices for electrically modulated drug delivery. Journal of Controlled Release 2001, 70:109-123.
151. Ranaldi G., Marigliano I., Vespignani I., Perozzi G., Sambuy Y. The effect of chitosan and other polycations on tight junction permeability in the human intestinal Caco-2 cell line. Journal of Nutrition Biochemistry 2002, 13:157-167.
152. Rao D.H., Gowda L.R. Abundant class III acidic chitinase homologue in tamarind (Tamarindus indica) seed serves as the major storage protein. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2008, 56:2175-2182.
153. Rege P.R., Shukla D.J., Block L.H. Chitosans as tableting excipients for modified release delivery systems. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 1999, 181:49-60.
154. Rege P.R., Garmise R.J., Block L.H. Spray-dried chitosans - Part II: in vitro drug release from tablets made of spray-dried chitosans. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2003, 252:53-59.
155. Renkema G.H., Boot R.G., Muijsers A.O., Donker-Koopman W.E., Aerts J.M.F.G. Purification and characterization of human chitotriosidase, a novel member of the chitinase family of proteins. Journal of Biological Chemistry 1995, 270:2198-2202.
156. Renkema G.H., Boot R.G., Au F.L., Donker-Koopman W.E., Strijland A., Muijsers A.O., Hrebicek M., Aerts J.M.F.G. Chitotriosidase, a chitinase, and the 39-kDa human cartilage glycoprotein, a chitin-binding lectin, are homologues of family 18 glycosyl hydrolases secreted by human macrophages. European Journal of Biochemistry 1998, 251:504-509.
157. Rhee K.S. Natural antioxidants for meat products. Warmed-over Flavour of Meat 1987, 267-289. Academic Press, Orlando, FL. A.J. St. Angelo, M.E. Bailey (Eds.).
158. Rinaudo M. Characterization and properties of some polysaccharides used as biomaterials. Macromolecular Symposia 2006, 245:549-557.
159. Rinaudo M. Chitin and chitosan: properties and applications. Progress in Polymer Science 2006, 31:603-632.
160. Roller S., Covill N. The antifungal properties of chitosan in laboratory media and apple juice. International Journal of Food Microbiology 1999, 47:67-77.
161. Rudrapatnam N.T., Farooqahmed S.K. Chitin - the undisputed biomolecule of great potential. Critical Review in Food Science and Nutrition 2003, 43:61-87.
162. Ruel-Gariepy E., Leroux J.C. Chitosan: a natural polycation with multiple applications. Polysaccharides for Drug Delivery and Pharmaceutical Applications 2006, 934:243-259. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
163. Sadeghi A.M.M., Dorkoosh F.A., Avadi M.R., Saadat P., Rafiee-Tehrani M., Junginger H.E. Preparation characterization and antibacterial activities of chitosan N -trimethyl chitosan and N-diethylmethyl chitosan nanoparticles loaded with insulin using both the ionotropic gelation and polyelectrolyte complexation methods. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2008, 355:299-306.
164. Sajomsang W., Tantayanon S., Tangpasuthadol V., Daly W.H. Synthesis of methylated chitosan containing aromatic moieties: chemo selectivity and effect on molecular weight. Carbohydrate Polymers 2008, 72:740-750.
165. Sakiyama T., Takata H., Kikuchi M., Nakanishi K. Polyelectrolyte complex gel with high pH-sensitivity prepared from dextran sulfate and chitosan. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 1999, 73:2227-2233.
166. Sakkinen M., Marvola J., Kanerva H., Lindevall K., Ahonen A., Marvola M. Are chitosan formulations mucoadhesive in the human small intestine? An evaluation based on gamma scintigraphy. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2006, 307:285-291.
167. Sebranek J.G., Sewalt V.J.H., Robbins K.L., Houser T.A. Comparison of a natural rosemary extract and BHA/BHT for relative antioxidant effectiveness in pork sausage. Meat Science 2005, 69:289-296.
168. Shahidi F., Arachchi J.K.V., Jeon Y.J. Food applications of chitin and chitosans. Trends in Food Science and Technology 1999, 10:37-51.
169. Shao L.H., Kumar G., Lenhart J.L., Smith P.J., Payne G.F. Enzymatic modification of the synthetic polymer polyhydroxystyrene. Enzyme and Microbial Technology 1999, 25:660-668.
170. Shaw J.A., Macey D.J., Brooker L.R. Radula synthesis by three species of iron mineralizing molluscs: production rate and elemental demand. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 2008, 88:597-601.
171. Sun J., Chen J., Yang L.M., Wang S., Li Z.J., Wu H.F. Synthesis and characterization of a pH-sensitive hydrogel made of pyruvic-acid-modified chitosan. Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition 2007, 18:35-44.
172. Sun Y., Wan A.J. Preparation of nanoparticles composed of chitosan and its derivatives as delivery systems for macromolecules. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2007, 105:552-561.
173. Taira T., Toma N., Ishihara M. Purification, characterization and antifungal activity of chitinases from pineapple (Ananas comosus) leaf. Bioscience Biotechnology and Biochemistry 2004, 69:189-196.
174. Tajik H., Moradi M., Rohani S.M.R., Erfani A.M., Jalali F.S.S. Preparation of chitosan from brine shrimp (Artemia urmiana) cyst shells and effects of different chemical processing sequences on the physicochemical and functional properties of the product. Molecules 2008, 13:1263-1274.
175. Terbojevich M., Muzzarelli R.A.A. Chitosan. Handbook of Hydrocolloids 2000, 367-378. Woodhead, Cambridge. G. Phillips, P. Williams (Eds.).
176. Terbojevich M., Cosani A., Conio G., Marsano E., Bianchi E. Chitosan: chain rigidity and mesophase formation. Carbohydrate Research 1991, 209:251-260.
177. Terbojevich M., Cosani A., Focher B., Naggi A., Torri G. Chitosans from Euphausia superba. 1: Solution properties. Carbohydrate Polymers 1992, 18:34-42.
178. Terbojevich M., Cosani A., Focher B., Marsano E. High-performance gel-permeation chromatography of chitosan samples. Carbohydrate Research 1993, 250:301-314.
179. Thongngam T., Mcclements D.J. Influence of pH, ionic strength and temperature on self-association and interactions of sodium dodecyl sulfate in the absence and presence of chitosan. Langmuir 2005, 21:79-86.
180. Thongngam T., Mcclements D.J. Isothermal titration calorimetry study of the interaction between chitosan and bile salt (sodium taurocholate). Food Hydrocolloids 2005, 19:813-819.
181. Tipsrisukond N., Fernando L.N., Clarke A.D. Antioxidant effects of essential oil and oleoresin of black pepper from supercritical carbon dioxide extractions in ground pork. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 1998, 46:4329-4333.
182. Truong N.H., Park S.M., Nishizawa Y., Watanabe T., Sasaki T., Itoh Y. Structure, heterologous expression, and properties of rice (Oryza sativa L.) family 19 chitinases. Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 2003, 67:1063-1070.
183. Tsuchida E., Abe K. Interactions between macromolecules in solution and inter-macromolecular complexes. Advances in Polymer Science 1982, 45:83-213.
184. Tsukita S., Furuse M., Itoh M. Multifunctional strands in tight junctions. Nature Reviews 2001, 2:285-293.
185. Vantomme S.R., Storm G., Hennink W.E. In situ gelling hydrogels for pharmaceutical and biomedical applications. International Journal of Pharmaceutics 2008, 355:1-18.
186. Varghese S., Elisseeff J.H. Hydrogels for musculoskeletal tissue engineering. Polymers for Regenerative Medicine 2006, 2006:95-144.
187. Ventura C.A., Tommasini S., Crupi E., Giannone I., Cardile V., Musumeci T., Puglisi G. Chitosan microspheres for intrapulmonary administration of moxi-floxacin: interaction with biomembrane models and in vitro permeation studies. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 2008, 68:235-244.
188. Vinsova J., Vavrikova E. Recent advances in drugs and pro-drugs design of chitosan. Current Pharmaceutical Design 2008, 14:1311-1326.
189. Vodna L., Bubenikova S., Bakos D. Chitosan based hydrogel microspheres as drug carriers. Macromolecular Bioscience 2007, 7:629-634.
190. Wang W.P., Du Y.M., Qiu Y.L., Wang X.Y., Hu Y., Yang J.H., Cai J., Kennedy J.F. A new green technology for direct production of low molecular weight chitosan. Carbohydrate Polymers 2008, 74:127-132.
191. Woodgate D.E., Conquer J.A. Effects of a stimulant-free dietary supplement on body weight and fat loss in obese adults: a six-week exploratory study. Current Therapeutic Research - Clinical and Experimental 2003, 64:248-262.
192. Wu T., Zivanovic S. Determination of the degree of acetylation of chitin and chitosan by an improved first derivative UV method. Carbohydrate Polymers 2008, 73:248-253.
193. Xia W.S., Liu P., Liu J. Advances in chitosan hydrolysis by non-specific cellulases. Bioresource Technology 2008, 99:6751-6762.
194. Polysaccharides: Synthesis, Modifications and Structure/Property Relations 1988, Elsevier, Amsterdam. M. Yalpani (Ed.).
195. Yalpani M., Pantaleone D. An examination of the unusual susceptibility of aminoglycans to enzymatic hydrolysis. Carbohydrate Research 1994, 256:159-175.
196. Yamada K., Aoki T., Ikeda N., Hirata M., Hata Y., Higashida K., Nakamura Y. Application of chitosan solutions gelled by melB tyrosinase to water-resistant adhesives. Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2008, 107:2723-2731.
197. Yamada T., Kawasaki T. Microbial synthesis of hyaluronan and chitin: new approaches. Journal of Bioscience and Bioengineering 2005, 99:521-528.
198. Yoo S.H., Lee J.S., Park S.Y., Kim Y.S., Chang P.S., Lee H.G. Effects of selective oxidation of chitosan on physical and biological properties. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 2005, 35:27-31.
199. Zhang J.L., Liu J.N., Li L., Xia W.S. Dietary chitosan improves hyper-cholesterolemia in rats fed high-fat diets. Nutrition Research 2008, 28:383-390.
200. Zheng L.Y., Zhu J.F. Study on antimicrobial activity of chitosan with different molecular weights. Carbohydrate Polymers 2003, 54:527-530.
201. Zhou H.Y., Chen X.G., Kong M., Liu C.S., Cha D.S., Kennedy J.F. Effect of molecular weight and degree of chitosan deacetylation on the preparation and characteristics of chitosan thermosensitive hydrogel as a delivery system. Carbohydrate Polymers 2008, 73:265-273.
202. Zhou K.Q., Xia W.S., Zhang C., Yu L. In vitro binding of bile acids and triglycerides by selected chitosan preparations and their physico-chemical properties. LWT-Food Science and Technology 2006, 39:1087-1092.
203. Zuo Y.Y., Alolabi H., Shafiei A., Kang N.X., Policova Z., Cox P.N., Acosta E., Hair M.L., Neumann A.W. Chitosan enhances the In vitro surface activity of dilute lung surfactant preparations and resists albumin-induced inactivation. Pediatric Research 2006, 60:125-130.