Unresolved issues in theories of autoimmune disease using myocarditis as a framework

Journal of Theoretical Biology

Volumn 375, Issue , 2015, Pages 101-123

  Root Bernstein, Robert ^a   Fairweather, DeLisa ^b  

^a MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b JOHNS HOPKINS BLOOMBERG SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

Antigenic complementarity; Autoimmune disease theories and modeling; Infection; Myocarditis; Sex differences

Indexed keywords

ANTIGEN; EPITOPE; MYOSIN;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ANIMAL; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BIOLOGICAL MODEL; CHEMISTRY; DISEASE MODEL; ENTEROVIRUS; FEMALE; HUMAN; IMMUNOLOGY; INNATE IMMUNITY; MALE; MICROBIOLOGY; MOLECULAR GENETICS; MOUSE; MYOCARDITIS; RAT; SEQUENCE HOMOLOGY; SEX DIFFERENCE; VIROLOGY;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; AMINO ACID SEQUENCE; ANIMALS; ANTIGENS; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; ENTEROVIRUS; EPITOPES; FEMALE; HUMANS; IMMUNITY, INNATE; MALE; MICE; MODELS, BIOLOGICAL; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA; MYOCARDITIS; MYOSINS; RATS; SEQUENCE HOMOLOGY, AMINO ACID; SEX FACTORS;

EID: 84940006490     PISSN: 00225193     EISSN: 10958541     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2014.11.022     Document Type: Article

References (239)

1. Abrams D., Derrick G., Penny D.J., et al. Cardiac complications in children following infection with varicella zoster virus. Cardiol. Young 2001, 11:647-652.
2. Abston E.D., Barin J.G., Cihakova D., Bucek A., Coronado M.J., Brandt J.E., Bedja D., Kim J.B., Georgakopoulos D., Gabrielson K.L., Mitzner W., Fairweather D. IL-33 independently induces eosinophilic pericarditis and cardiac dilation: ST2 improves cardiac function. Circ. Heart Fail. 2012, 5:366-375. 10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.111.963769.
3. Afanasyeva M., Georgakopoulos D., Belardi D.F., et al. Quantitative analysis of myocardial inflammation by flow cytometry in murine autoimmune myocarditis: correlation with cardiac function. Am. J. Pathol. 2004, 164:807-815.
4. Agewall S., Giannitsis E., Jernbert T., Katus H. Troponin elevation in coronary vs. non-coronary disease. Eur. Heart J. 2011, 32:404-411. 10.1093/eurheartj/ehq456.
5. Andréoletti L., Lévêque N., Boulagnon C., et al. Viral causes of human myocarditis. Arch. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2009, 102:559-568.
6. Ansari A.A., Neckelmann N., Villinger F., et al. Epitope mapping of the branched chain a - ketoacid dehydrogenase dihydrolipoyl transacylase (BCKD-E2) protein that reacts with sera from patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J. Immunol. 1994, 153:4754-4765.
7. Auger J.L., Haasken S., Steinert E.M., Binstadt B.A. Incomplete TCR-β allelic exclusion accelerates spontaneous autoimmune arthritis in K/BxN TCR transgenic mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 2012, 42:2354-2362. 10.1002/eji.201242520.
8. Badorff C., Knowlton K.U. Dystrophin disruption in enterovirus-induced myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy: from bench to bedside. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 2004, 193:121-126.
9. Beisel K.W., Srinivasappa J., Olsen M.R., Stiff A.C., Essani K., Prabhakar B.S. A neutralizing monoclonal antibody against coxsackievirus B4 cross-reacts with contractile muscle proteins. Microb. Pathog. 1990, 8:151-156.
10. Benoist C.L., Mathis D. Autoimmunity provoked by infection: how good is the case for T cell epitope mimicry. Nat. Immunol. 2001, 2:797-801.
11. Blander J.M., Torchinsky M.B., Campisi L. Revisiting the old link between infection and autoimmune disease with commensals and T helper 17 cells. Immunol. Res. 2012, 54:50-68. 10.1007/s12026-012-8311-9.
12. Blyuss K.B., Nicholson L.B. The role of tunable activation thresholds in the dynamics of autoimmunity. J. Theor. Biol. 2012, 308:45-55. 10.1016/j.jtbi.2012.05.019.
13. Borghans J.A., De Beor R.J. A minimal model for T-cell vaccination. Proc. Biol. Sci. 1995, 259:173-178.
14. Borghans J.A., De Boer R.J., Sercarz E., Kumar V. T cell vaccination in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: a mathematical model. J. Immunol. 1998, 161:1087-1093.
15. Bowles N.E., Ni J., Kearney D.L., et al. Detection of viruses in myocardial tissues by polymerase chain reaction: evidence of adenovirus as a common cause of myocarditis in children and adults. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2003, 42:466-472.
16. Burch G.E., Giles T.D. The role of viruses in the production of heart disease. Am. J. Cardiol. 1972, 29:231-240.
17. Burch G.E., Sun S.C., Colcolough H.L., Sohal R.S., De Pasquale N.P. Coxsackie B viral myocarditis and valvulitis identified in routine autopsy specimens by immunofluorescent techniques. Am. Heart J. 1967, 74:13-23.
18. Burch G.E., Giles T.D., Colcolough H.L. Pathogenesis of rheumatic heart disease: critique and theory. Am. Heart J. 1970, 80:556-561.
19. Burroughs N.J., Oliveira B.M.P.M., Pinto A.A. Autoimmunity arising from bystander proliferation of T cells in an immune response model. Math. Comput. Model. 2011, 53:1389-1393.
20. Caforio A.L., Iliceto S. Genetically determined myocarditis: clinical presentation and immunological characteristics. Curr. Opin. Cardiol. 2008, 23:219-226. 10.1097/HCO.0b013e3282fbf572.
21. Carapetis J.R., Steer A.C., Mulholland E.K., Weber M. The global burden of group A streptococcal diseases. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2005, 5:685-694.
22. Chandy K.G., John T.J., Mukundan P., Cherian G. Coxsackie B antibodies in rheumatic valvular heart-disease. Lancet 1979, 1:381.
23. Chandy K.G., John T.J., Cherian G. Coxsackieviruses and chronic valvular heart disease. Am. Heart J. 1980, 100:578-580.
24. Cifuente J.O., Ferrer M.F., Jaquenod de Giusti C., et al. Molecular determinants of disease in coxsackievirus B1 murine infection. J. Med. Virol. 2011, 83:1571-1581. 10.1002/jmv.22133.
25. Ciháková D., Sharma R.B., Fairweather D., Afanasyeva M., Rose N.R. Animal models for autoimmune myocarditis and autoimmune thyroiditis. Methods Mol. Med. 2004, 102:175-193.
26. Cohen I.R., Atlan H. Network regulation of autoimmunity: an automation model. J. Autoimmun. 1989, 2:613-625.
27. Cook I.F. Sexual dimorphism of humoral immunity with vaccines. Vaccine 2008, 26:3551-3555.
28. Coronado M.J., Brandt J.E., Kim E., Bucek A., Bedja D., Abston E.D., Shin J., Gabrielson K.L., Mitzner W., Fairweather D. Testosterone and interleukin-1β increase cardiac remodeling during acute coxsackievirus B3 myocarditis via serpin A 3n. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 2012, 302:H1726-H1736. 10.1152/ajpheart.00783.2011.
29. Corthay A., Nandakumar K.S., Holmdahl R. Evaluation of the percentage of peripheral T cells with two different T cell receptor alpha-chains and of their potential role in autoimmunity. J. Autoimmun. 2001, 16:423-429.
30. Cunha-Neto E., Bilate A.M., Hyland K.V., et al. Induction of cardiac autoimmunity in Chagas heart disease: a case for molecular mimicry. Autoimmunity 2006, 39:41-54.
31. Cunningham M.W., McCormack J.M., Fenderson P.G., Ho M.K., Beachey E.H., Dale J.B. Human and murine antibodies cross-reactive with streptococcal M protein and myosin recognize the sequence GLN-LYS-SER-LYS-GLN in M protein. J. Immunol. 1989, 143:2677-2683.
32. Cunningham M.W., Antone S.M., Gulizia J.M., McManus B.M., Fischetti V.A., Gauntt C.J. Cytotoxic and viral neutralizing antibodies cross-react with streptococcal M protein, enteroviruses and human cardiac myosin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1992, 89:1320-1324.
33. Cusick M.F., Libbey J.E., Fujinami R.S. Molecular mimicry as a mechanism of autoimmune disease. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 2012, 42:102-111. 10.1007/s12016-011-8293-8.
34. Damian R.T. A theory of immunoselection for eclipsed antigens of parasites and its implications for the problem of antigenic polymorphism in man. J. Parasitol. 1962, 48:16.
35. Damian R.T. Molecular mimicry: antigen sharing by parasite and host and its consequences. Am. Nat. 1964, 98:129-149.
36. Davies A.M. Molecular mimicry: can epitope mimicry induce autoimmune disease. Immunol. Cell Biol. 1997, 75:113-126.
37. Davodeau F., Peyrat M.-A., Romagné F., et al. Dual T cell receptor β chain expression on human T lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med. 1995, 181:1391-1398.
38. De Boer R.J., Hogeweg P. Idiotypic networks incorporating T-B cell co-operation. The conditions for percolation. J. Theor. Biol. 1989, 139:17-38.
39. De Boer R.J., Hogeweg P. Memory but no suppression in low-dimensional symmetric idiotypic networks. Bull. Math. Biol. 1989, 51:223-246.
40. De Haan E.C., Wagenaar-Hilbers J.P.A., Liskamp R.M.J., Moret E.E., Wauben M.H.M. Limited plasticity in T cell recognition of modified T cell receptor contact residues in MHC class II bound peptides. Mol. Immunol. 2005, 42:355-364.
41. De Rosa G.L., Pardeo M., Stabile A., Rigante D. Rheumatic heart disease in children: from clinical assessment to therapeutical management. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2006, 10:107-110.
42. De Scheerder I.K., de Buyzere M.L., Delanghe J.R., Clement D.L., Wieme R.J. Anti-myosin humoral immune response following cardiac injury. Autoimmunity 1989, 4:51-58.
43. Denic A., Johnson A.J., Bieber A.J., et al. The relevance of animal models in multiple sclerosis research. Pathophysiology 2011, 18:21-29. 10.1016/j.pathophys.2010.04.004.
44. Dinkla K., Rohde M., Jansen W.T., Kaplan E.L., Chhatwal G.S., Talay S.R. Rheumatic fever-associated Streptococcus pyogenes isolates aggregate collagen. J. Clin. Invest. 2003, 111:1905-1912.
45. Dinkla K., Nitsche-Schmitz D.P., Barroso V., et al. Identification of a streptococcal octapeptide motif involved in acute rheumatic fever. J. Biol. Chem. 2007, 282:18686-18693.
46. Dinkla K., Talay S.R., Mörgelin M., et al. Crucial role of the CB3-region of collagen IV in PARF-induced acute rheumatic fever. PLoS One 2009, 4:e4666. 10.1371/journal.pone.0004666.
47. Dörner A., Grunert H.P., Lindig V., et al. Treatment of coxsackievirus-B3-infected BALB/c mice with the soluble coxsackie adenovirus receptor CAR4/7 aggravates cardiac injury. J. Mol. Med. 2006, 84:842-851.
48. Elamm C., Fairweather D., Cooper L.T. Pathogenesis and diagnosis of myocarditis. Heart 2012, 98:835-840. 10.1136/heartjnl-2012-301686.
49. Elliott J.I., Altmann D.M. Dual T cell receptor alpha chain T cells in autoimmunity. J. Exp. Med. 1995, 182:953-959.
50. Esper L., Utsch L., Soriani F.M., et al. Regulatory effects of IL-18 on cytokine profiles and development of myocarditis during Trypanosoma cruzi infection. Microbes Infect. 2014, 16:481-490. 10.1016/j.micinf.2014.03.007.
51. Fabre A., Sheppard M.N. Sudden adult death syndrome and other non-ischaemic causes of sudden cardiac death. Heart 2006, 92:316-320.
52. Fairweather D., Lawson C.M., Chapman A.J., Brown C.M.S., Booth T.W.M., Papadimitriou J.M., Shellam G.R. Wild isolates of murine cytomegalovirus induce myocarditis and antibodies that cross-react with virus and cardiac myosin. Immunology 1998, 94:263-270.
53. Fairweather D., Kaya Z., Shellam G.R., Lawson C.M., Rose N.R. From infection to autoimmunity. J. Autoimmun. 2001, 16:175-186.
54. Fairweather D., Frisancho-Kiss S., Njoku D.B., Nyland J.F., Kaya Z., Yusung S.A., Davis S.E., Frisancho J.A., Barrett M.A., Rose N.R. Complement receptor 1 and 2 deficiency increases coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis and heart failure by increasing macrophages, IL-1β and immune complex deposition in the heart. J. Immunol. 2006, 176:3516-3524.
55. Fairweather D., Frisancho-Kiss S., Rose N.R. Sex differences in autoimmune disease from a pathologic perspective. Am. J. Pathol. 2008, 173:600-609. 10.2353/ajpath.2008.071008.
56. Fairweather D., Abston E.D., Coronado M.J. Biomarkers of heart failure in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. Myocarditis 2011, 323-348. InTech Open Access Publisher, Rijeka, Croatia. D. Cihakova (Ed.).
57. Fairweather D., Petri M.A., Coronado M.J., Cooper L.T. Autoimmune heart disease: role of sex hormones and autoantibodies in disease pathogenesis. Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol. 2012, 8:269-284. 10.1586/eci.12.10.
58. Fairweather D., Stafford K.A., Sung Y.K. Update on coxsackievirus B3 myocarditis. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 2012, 24:401-407. 10.1097/BOR.0b013e328353372d.
59. Fairweather D., Cooper L.T., Blauwet L.A. Sex and gender differences in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. Curr. Probl. Cardiol. 2013, 38:7-46. 10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2012.07.003.
60. Fairweather D., Coronado M.J., Garton A.E., Dziedzic J.L., Bucek A., Cooper L.T., Brandt J.E., Alikhan F.S., Wang H., Endres C.J., Choi J., Pomper M.G., Guilarte T.R. Sex differences in translocator protein 18kDa (TSPO) in the heart: implications for imaging myocardial inflammation. J. Cardiovasc. Trans. Res. 2014, 7:192-202. 10.1007/s12265-013-9538-0.
61. Flanagan K.L., Klein S.L., Skakkebaek N.E., et al. Sex differences in the vaccine-specific and non-targeted effects of vaccines. Vaccine 2011, 16:2349-2354. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.01.071.
62. Fohlman J., Pauksen K., Borein K.B., et al. High yield production of an inactivated coxsackievirus B3 adjuvant vaccine with protective effect against experimental myocarditis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 1993, 88(Suppl.):S103-S108.
63. Fourneau J.-M., Bach J.-M., van Endert P.M., Bach J.-F. The elusive case for a role of molecular mimicry in autoimmune diseases. Mol. Immunol. 2004, 40:1095-1102.
64. Frisancho-Kiss S., Davis S.E., Nyland J.F., Frisancho J.A., Cihakova D., Rose N.R., Fairweather D. Cutting edge: cross-regulation by TLR4 and T cell Ig mucin-3 determines sex differences in inflammatory heart disease. J. Immunol. 2007, 178:6710-6714.
65. Froude J., Gibofsky A., Buskirk D.R., Khanna A., Zabriskie J.B. Cross-reactivity between Streptococcus and human tissue: a model of molecular mimicry and autoimmunity. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 1989, 145:5-26.
66. Fu L.X., Magnusson Y., Bergh C.H., et al. Localization of a functional autoimmune epitope on the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor-2 in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J. Clin. Invest. 1993, 91:1964-1968.
67. Fujinami R.S., Oldstone M.B.A. Amino acid homology between the encephalitogenic site of myelin basic protein and virus: mechanism for autoimmunity. Science 1985, 230:1043-1045.
68. Fujinami R.S., Oldstone M.B.A., Wroblewska Z., Frankel M.E., Koprowski H. Molecular mimicry in virus infection: crossreaction of measles virus phosphoprotein or of herpes simplex virus protein with human intermediate filaments. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1983, 80:2346-2350.
69. Fujinami R.S., Von Herrath M.G., Christen U., Whitton J.L. Molecular mimicry, bystander activation, or viral persistence: infections and autoimmune disease. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2006, 19:80.
70. Galvin J.E., Hemric M.E., Ward K., Cunningham M.W. Cytotoxic mAb from rheumatic carditis recognizes heart valves and laminin. J. Clin. Invest. 2000, 106:217-224.
71. Garlanda C., Dinarello C.A., Mantovani A. The interleukin-1 family: back to the future. Immunity 2013, 39:1003-1018. 10.1016/j.immuni.2013.11.010.
72. Gauntt C.J., Higdon A.L., Arizpe H.M., et al. Epitopes shared between coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) and normal heart tissue contribute to CVB3-induced murine myocarditis. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1993, 68:129.
73. Geluk A.L., van Meijgaarden K.E., Ottenhoff T.H. Flexibility in T-cell receptor ligand repertoires depends on MHC and T-cell receptor clonotype. Immunology 1997, 90:370-375.
74. Germolic D., Kono D.H., Pfau J.C., Pollard K.M. Animal models used to examine the role of environment in the development of autoimmune disease: findings from an NIEHS Expert Panel Workshop. J. Autoimmun. 2012, 39:285-293. 10.1016/j.jaut.2012.05.020.
75. Gharaee-Kermani M., Hatano K., Nozaki Y., Phan S.H. Gender-based differences in bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Am. J. Pathol. 2005, 166:1593-1606.
76. Gironès N., Cuervo H., Fresno M. Trypanosoma cruzi-induced molecular mimicry and Chagas[U+05F3] disease. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2005, 296:89-123.
77. Gonnella P.A., Del Nido P.J., McGowan F.X. Oral tolerization with cardiac myosin peptide (614-629) ameliorates experimental autoimmune myocarditis: role of STAT 6 genes in BALB/CJ mice. J. Clin. Immunol. 2009, 29:434-443.
78. Goodfellow I.G., Evans D.J., Blom A.M., et al. Inhibition of coxsackie B virus infection by soluble forms of its receptors: binding affinities, altered particle formation, and competition with cellular receptors. J. Virol. 2005, 79:12016-12024.
79. Górska A., Urban M., Głowińska B., Kowalewski M. Is infection with group A streptococcus the only reason for rheumatic fever? A case report of rheumatic fever coexisting with Coxsackie B1 virus infection. Prz. Lek. 1998, 55:418-419.
80. Gorton D., Blyth S., Gorton J.G., Govan B., Ketheesan N. An alternative technique for the induction of autoimmune valvulitis in a rat model of rheumatic heart disease. J. Immunol. Methods 2010, 355:80-85. 10.1016/j.jim.2010.02.013.
81. Guilherme L., Kalil J. Rheumatic fever: from sore throat to autoimmune heart lesions. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 2004, 134:56-64.
82. Guilherme L., Kohler K.F., Postol E., Kalil J. Genes, autoimmunity and pathogenesis of rheumatic heart disease, Ann. Pediatr. Cardiol. 2011, 4:13-21. 10.4103/0974-2069.79617.
83. Guilherme L., Köhler K.F., Kalil J. Rheumatic heart disease: mediation by complex immune events. Adv. Clin. Chem. 2011, 53:31-50.
84. Gupta M., Lent R.W., Kaplan E.L., Zabriskie J.B. Serum cardiac troponin I in acute rheumatic fever. Am. J. Cardiol. 2002, 89:779-782.
85. Gupta S., Markham D.W., Drazner M.H., et al. Fulminant myocarditis. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 2008, 5:693e706. 10.1038/ncpcardio1331.
86. Halsell J.S., Riddle J.R., Atwood J.E., et al. Myopericarditis following smallpox vaccination among vaccinia-naive US military personnel. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2003, 289:3283-3289.
87. Hanamsagar R., Hanke M.L., Kielian T. Toll-like receptor (TLR) and inflammasome actions in the central nervous system. Trends Immunol. 2012, 33:333-342. 10.1016/j.it.2012.03.001.
88. Henao-Martínez A.F., Schwartz D.A., Yang I.V. Chagasic cardiomyopathy, from acute to chronic: is this mediated by host susceptibility factors. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2012, 106:521-527. 10.1016/j.trstmh.2012.06.006.
89. Higgins P.M. Splenomegaly in acute infections due to group A streptococci and viruses. Epidemiol. Infect. 1992, 109:199-209.
90. Huber S., Polgar J., Moraska A., Cunningham M.W., Schwimmbeck P., Schultheiss P. T lymphocyte responses in CVB3-induced murine myocarditis. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 1993, 88(Suppl.):S67-S78.
91. Huber S.A., Cunningham M.W. Streptococcal M protein peptide with similarity to myosin induces CD4+ T cell-dependent myocarditis in MRL/++ mice and induces partial tolerance against coxsakieviral myocarditis. J. Immunol. 1996, 156:3528-3534.
92. Hurford A.L., Day T. Immune evasion and the evolution of molecular mimicry in parasites. Evolution 2013, 67:2889-2904. 10.1111/evo.12171.
93. Imazio M., Cooper L.T. Management of myopericarditis. Expert Rev. Cardiovasc. Ther. 2013, 11:193-201. 10.1586/erc.12.184.
94. Jacobson D.L., Gange S.J., Rose N.R., Graham N.M. Epidemiology and estimated population burden of selected autoimmune disease in the United States. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1997, 84:223-243.
95. Kaplan M.H. Immunologic relation of streptococcal and tissue antigens. I. Properties of an antigen in certain strains of group A streptococci exhibiting an immunologic cross-reaction with human heart tissue. J. Immunol. 1963, 90:595.
96. Kaplan M.H. Rheumatic fever, rheumatic heart disease, and the streptococcal connection: the role of streptococcal antigens cross-reactive with heart tissue. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1979, 1:986-988.
97. Kaplan M.H., Meyeserian M. An immunological cross-reaction between group A streptococcal cells and human heart tissue. Lancet 1962, 1:706.
98. Kaplan M.H., Suchy M.L. Immunologic relation of streptococcal and tissue antigens. II. Cross-reaction of antisera to mammalian heart tissue with a cell wall constituent of certain strains of Group A streptococci. J. Exp. Med. 1964, 119:643.
99. Kasahara H., Ito M., Sugiyama T., et al. Autoimmune myocarditis induced in mice by cardiac c-protein. J. Clin. Invest. 1994, 94:1026-1036.
100. Kato N., Fujii Y., Agata N., et al. Experimental murine model for autoimmune myocarditis using Klebsiella pneunoniae O-3 lipopolysaccharide as a potent immunological adjuvant. Autoimmunity 1993, 14:231-236.
101. Kawasaki T., Kawai T., Akira S. Recognition of nucleic acids by pattern-recognition receptors and its relevance in autoimmunity. Immunol. Rev. 2011, 243:61-73. 10.1111/j.1600-065X.2011.01048.x.
102. Kaya Z., Katus H.A., Rose N.R. Cardiac troponins and autoimmunity: their role in the pathogenesis of myocarditis and of heart failure. Clin. Immunol. 2010, 134:80-88. 10.1016/j.clim.2009.04.008.
103. Kekäläinen E., Hänninen A., Maksimow M., Arstila T.P. T cells expressing two different T cell receptors form a heterogeneous population containing autoreactive clones. Mol. Immunol. 2010, 48:211-218. 10.1016/j.molimm.2010.08.008.
104. Kindermann I., Barth C., Mahfoud F., et al. Update on myocarditis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2012, 59:779-792. 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.09.074.
105. Koenig A., Sateriale A., Budd R.C., Huber S.A., Buskiewicz I.A. The role of sex differences in autophagy in the heart during coxsackievirus B3-induced myocarditis. J. Cardiovasc. Transl. Res. 2014, 7:182-191. 10.1007/s12265-013-9525-5.
106. Kogut E.P., Livashova N.V., Bondarenk A.P., Zherdeva A.I., Shuvalova I.A. Eksperimental[U+05F3]noe izuchenie koksaki-streptokokkovoi infektsii [experimental study of coxsackie-streptococcal infection]. Vopr. Virusol. 1978, 6:690-695.
107. Krisher K., Cunningham M.W. Myosin: a link between streptococci and heart. Science 1985, 227:413-415.
108. Kristóf K., Madách K., Czaller I., Bajtay Z., Erdei A. Mathematical analysis of clinical data reveals a homunculus of bacterial mimotopes protecting from autoimmunity via oral tolerance in human. Mol. Immunol. 2009, 46:1673-1678. 10.1016/j.molimm.2009.02.017.
109. Kuhl U., Pauschinger M., Noutsias M., et al. High prevalence of viral genomes and multiple viral infections in the myocardium of adults with idiopathic left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2005, 111:887-893.
110. Lahita R.G. Sex hormones and immune function. Principles of Gender-Specific Medicine 2010, 615-626. Elsevier, Massachusetts. 2nd ed. M.J. Legato (Ed.).
111. Lane D., Koprowski H. Molecular recognition and the future of monoclonal antibodies. Nature 1982, 296:200-202.
112. Lang T.J. Estrogen as an immunomodulator. Clin. Immunol. 2004, 113:224-230.
113. Latif N., Zhang H., Archard L.C., et al. Characterization of anti-heart antibodies in mice after infection with coxsackie B3 virus. Clin. Immunol. 1999, 91:90-98.
114. Lawson C.M., O'Donoghue H.L., Reed W.D. Mouse cytomegalovirus infection induces antibodies which cross-react with virus and cardiac myosin: a model for the study of molecular mimicry in the pathogenesis of viral myocarditis. Immunology 1992, 75:513-519.
115. Lehmann P.V., Forsthuber T., Miller A., Sercarz E.E. Spreading of T cell autoimmunity to cryptic determinants of an autoantigen. Nature 1992, 358:155-157.
116. Li H.S., Ligons D.L., Rose N.R. Genetic complexity of autoimmune myocarditis. Autoimmun. Rev. 2008, 7:168-173. 10.1016/j.autrev.2007.11.010.
117. Li Y., Heuser J.S., Kosanke S.D., Hemric M., Cunningham M.W. Cryptic epitope identified in rat and human cardiac myosin S2 region induces myocarditis in the Lewis rat. J. Immunol. 2004, 172:3225-3234.
118. Liao L., Sindhwani R., Rojkind M., et al. Antibody-mediated autoimmune myocarditis depends on genetically determined target organ sensitivity. J. Exp. Med. 1995, 181:1123-1131.
119. Limson B.M., Chan V.F., Guzman S.V., Maaba M.R., Mendoza M.T. Occurrence of infection with group B coxsackievirus in rheumatic and non-rheumatic Filipino children. J. Infect. Dis. 1979, 140:415-418.
120. Magnusson Y., Marullo S., Hoyer S., et al. Mapping of a functional autoimmune epitope on the beta-adrenergic receptor in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J. Clin. Invest. 1990, 86:1658-1663.
121. Mahfoud F., Gärtner B., Kindermann M., et al. Virus serology in patients with suspected myocarditis: utility or futility. Eur. Heart J. 2011, 32:897-903. 10.1093/eurheartj/ehq493.
122. Mallampalli M.P., Davies E., Wood D., et al. Role of environment and sex differences in the development of autoimmune diseases: a roundtable meeting report. J. Women[U+05F3]s Health 2013, 22:578-586. 10.1089/jwh.2013.4462.
123. Mascaro-Blanco A., Alvarez K., Yu X., et al. Consequences of unlocking the cardiac myosin molecule in human myocarditis and cardiomyopathies. Autoimmunity 2008, 41:442-453. 10.1080/08916930802031579.
124. Masedunskas A., Porat-Shliom N., Weigert R. Linking differences in membrane tension with the requirement for a contractile actomyosin scaffold during exocytosis in salivary glands. Commun. Integr. Biol. 2012, 5:84-87.
125. Massilamany C., Gangaplara A., Steffen D., Reddy J. Identification of novel mimicry epitopes for cardiac myosin heavy chain-α that induce autoimmune myocarditis in A/J mice. Cell. Immunol. 2011, 271:438-449. 10.1016/j.cellimm.2011.08.013.
126. Massilamany C., Huber S.A., Cunningham M.W., Reddy J. Relevance of molecular mimicry in the mediation of infectious myocarditis. J. Cardiovasc. Trans. Res. 2013, 7:165-171. 10.1007/s12265-013-9519-3.
127. Masters S.L. Specific inflammasomes in complex diseases. Clin. Immunol. 2013, 143:223-228. 10.1016/j.clim.2012.12.006.
128. Matsumoto Y., Park I.K., Kohyama K. B-cell epitope spreading is a critical step for the switch from C-protein-induced myocarditis to dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Pathol. 2007, 170:43-51.
129. McCoy L., Tsunoda I., Fujinami R.S. Multiple sclerosis and virus induced immune responses: autoimmunity can be primed by molecular mimicry and augmented by bystander activation. Autoimmunity 2006, 39:9-19.
130. McGuire K.L., Holmes D.S. Role of complementary proteins in autoimmunity: an old idea re-emerges with new twists. Trends Immunol. 2005, 26:367-372.
131. McNamara D.M., Starling R.C., Cooper L.T., et al. Clinical and demographic predictors of outcomes in recent onset dilated cardiomyopathy: results of the IMAC (intervention in Myocarditis and Acute Cardiomyopathy)-2 study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2011, 58:1112-1118. 10.1016/j.jacc.2011.05.033.
132. Melo T.G., Almeida D.S., Meirelles M.N., Pereira M.C. Disarray of sarcomeric alpha-actinin in cardiomyocytes infected by Trypanosoma cruzi. Parasitology 2006, 133(Pt 2):171-178.
133. Miller S.D., Katz-Levy Y., Neville K.L., Vanderlugt C.L. Virus-induced autoimmunity: epitope spreading to myelin autoepitopes in Theiler[U+05F3]s virus infection of the central nervous system. Adv. Virus Res. 2001, 56:199-217.
134. Miller V.M. Why are sex and gender important to basic physiology and translational and individualized medicine. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 2014, 306:H781-H788. 10.1152/ajpheart.00994.2013.
135. Mills K.H.G. TLR-dependent T cell activation in autoimmunity. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2011, 11:807-822. 10.1038/nri3095.
136. Moraska A., Huber S.A. Synergism between adriamycin and coxsackievirus group B type 3 (CVB3) in induction of myocardial injury: potential role for gamma/delta TCR+ T lymphocytes in pathogenesis. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 1993, 68:124-128.
137. Myers J.M., Fairweather D., Huber S.A., Cunningham M.W. Autoimmune myocarditis, valvulitis, and cardiomyopathy. Curr. Protoc. Immunol. 2013, 1-51. (Chapter 15, Unit 15.14). 10.1002/0471142735.im1514s101.
138. Nahrendorf M., Swirski F.K., Aikawa E., et al. The healing myocardium sequentially mobilizes two monocyte subsets with divergent and complementary functions. J. Exp. Med. 2007, 204:3037-3047.
139. Neu N., Craig S.W., Rose N.R., et al. Coxsackievirus induced myocarditis in mice: cardiac myosin autoantibodies do not cross-react with the virus. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1987, 69:566-574.
140. Neumann D.A., Rose N.R., Ansari A.A., Herskowitz A. Induction of multiple heart autoantibodies in mice with coxsackievirus B3- and cardiac myosin-induced autoimmune myocarditis. J. lmmunol. 1994, 152:343.
141. Newkirk M.M. Rheumatoid factors: host resistance or autoimmunity. Clin. Immunol. 2002, 104:1-13.
142. Notkins A.L. Pathogenic mechanisms in autoimmune disease. Autoimmun. Rev. 2004, 3(Suppl. 1):S7-S9.
143. Novikov I. O dignostike nervmaticheskikh miokarditov [diagnosis of nonrheumatic myocarditis]. Kardiologiia 1983, 23:50-55.
144. Oldstone M.B.A. Molecular mimicry and autoimmune disease. Cell 1987, 50:819-820.
145. Olgunturk R., Okur I., Cirak M.Y., et al. The role of viral agents in aetiopathogenesis of acute rheumatic fever. Clin. Rheumatol. 2011, 30:15-20. 10.1007/s10067-010-1447-x.
146. Orthopoulos G., Triantafilou K., Triantafilou M. Coxsackie B viruses use multiple receptors to infect human cardiac cells. J. Med. Virol. 2004, 74:291-299.
147. O'Donoghue H.L., Lawson C.M., Reed W.D. Autoantibodies to cardiac myosin in mouse cytomegalovirus myocarditis. Immunology 1990, 71:20-28.
148. Padovan E., Casorati G., Dellabona P., et al. Expression of two T cell receptor alpha chains: dual receptor T cells. Science 1993, 262:422-424.
149. Padovan E., Casorati G., Dellabona P., et al. Dual receptor T-cells: implications for allocreactivity and autoimmunity. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1995, 756:66-70.
150. Padovan E., Giachino C., Cella M., et al. Normal T lymphocytes can express two different T cell receptor β chains: implications for the mechanism of allelic exclusion. J. Exp. Med. 1995, 181:1587-1591.
151. Pankoweit S., Lamparter S., Schoppet M., Maisch B. Parvovirus B19 genome in endomyocardial biopsy specimens. Circulation 2004, 109:e179.
152. Pankuweit S., Klingel K. Viral myocarditis: from experimental models to molecular diagnosis in patients. Heart Fail. Rev. 2013, 18:683-702. 10.1007/s10741-012-9357-4.
153. Paque R.E., Miller R. Polyclonal anti-idiotypes influence macrophage chemotaxis in coxsackievirus-induced murine myocarditis. J. Leukoc. Biol. 1988, 45:79-86.
154. Paque R.E., Miller R. Modulation of murine coxsackievirus-induced myocarditis utilizing anti-idiotypes. Viral Immunol. 1988, 1:207-224.
155. Paque R.E., Miller R. Monoclonal anti-idiotypic antibodies regulate the expression of virus-induced murine myocarditis. Infect. Immun. 1989, 57:2864-2871.
156. Paque R.E., Miller R. Autoanti-idiotypes exhibit mimicry of myocyte antigens in virus-induced myocarditis. J. Virol. 1991, 65:16-22.
157. Paque R.E., Miller R. Adoptively transferred anti-idiotype pulsed B cells mediate autoimmune myocarditis. Infect. Immun. 1992, 60:3396-3404.
158. Pauschinger M., Bowles N.E., Fuentes-Garcia F.J., et al. Detection of adenoviral genome in the myocardium of adult patients with idiopathic left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 1999, 99:1348-1354.
159. Pearce J.M. Cardiac lesions in rabbits produced by a filterable virus (virus Ill). Arch. Pathol. 1939, 28:827-845.
160. Pearce J.M. The effect of hemolytic streptococcus toxin on experimental viral carditis. Am. J. Pathol. 1951, 27:699-700.
161. Pearce J.M. Effect of hemolytic toxin of streptococcus pyogenes on viral myocarditis in rabbit. AMA Arch. Pathol. 1953, 56:113-122.
162. Pendergraft W.F., Preston G.A., Shah R.R., et al. Autoimmunity is triggered by cPR-3(105-201), a protein complementary to human autoantigen proteinase-3. Nat. Med. 2004, 10:72-79.
163. Pendergraft W.F., Pressler B.M., Jennette J.C., Falk R.J., Preston G.A. Autoantigen complementarity: a new theory implicating complementary proteins as initiators of autoimmune disease. J. Mol. Med. 2005, 83:12-25.
164. Pennell L.M., Galligan C.L., Fish E.N. Sex affects immunity. J. Autoimmun. 2012, 38:J282-J291.
165. Pinto A.A., Burroughs N.J., Ferreira M., Oliveira B.M. Dynamics of immunological models. Acta Biotheor. 2010, 58:391-404. 10.1007/s10441-010-9117-6.
166. Plotz P.H. Autoantibodies are anti-idiotype antibodies to antiviral antibodies. Lancet ii 1983, 824-826.
167. Poltorak A., He X., Smirnova I., et al. Defective LPS signaling in C3H/HeJ and C57BL/10ScCr mice: mutations in Tlr4 gene. Science 1998, 282:2085-2088.
168. Pongpanich B., Suthas N.A., Ayuthya P., Jayavasu J., Sangkavibha N. Coxsackie group B virus and acquired valvular heart disease in children. J. Med. Assoc. Thail. 1976, 59:452-456.
169. Powell A.M., Black M.M. Epitope spreading: protection from pathogens, but propagation of autoimmunity. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 2001, 26:427-432.
170. Preston G., Falk R. Autoimmunity: does autoantigen complementarity underlie PR3-ANCA AAV. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 2011, 7:439-440. 10.1038/nrrheum.2011.86.
171. Preston G.A., Pendergraft W.F., Falk R.J. New insights that link microbes with the generation of antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies: the theory of autoantigen complementarity. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 2005, 14:217-222.
172. Quinn A., Kosanke S., Fischetti V.A., Factor S.M., Cunningham M.W. Induction of autoimmune valvular heart disease by recombinant streptococcal M protein. Infect. Immun. 2001, 69:4072-4078.
173. Rawji K.S., Yong W. The benefits and detriments of macrophages/microglia in models of multiple sclerosis. Clin. Dev. Immunol. 2013, 2013:948976. 10.1155/2013/948976.
174. Rigante D., Mazzoni M.B., Esposito S. The cryptic interplay between systemic lupus erythematosus and infections. Autoimmun. Rev. 2014, 13:96-102. 10.1016/j.autrev.2013.09.004.
175. Roberts B.J., Dragon J.A., Moussawi M., Huber S.A. Sex-specific signaling through Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 contributes to survival outcome of coxsackievirus B3 infection in C57BL/6 mice. Biol. Sex Differ. 2012, 3:25. 10.1186/2042-6410-3-25.
176. Root-Bernstein R.S., Yurochko F., Westall F.C. Clinical suppression of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis by muramyl dipeptide adjuvant. Brain Res. Bull. 1986, 17:473-476.
177. Root-Bernstein R.S. Multiple antigen mediated autoimmunity (MAMA) in AIDS: a possible model for post infectious autoimmunity. Res. Immunol. 1990, 141:321-339.
178. Root-Bernstein R.S., Westall F.C. Serotonin binding sites. II. Muramyl dipeptide binds to serotonin binding sites on myelin basic protein, LHRH, and MSH-ACTH 4-10. Brain Res. Bull. 1990, 25:827-841.
179. Root-Bernstein R.S., Holsworth D.D. Antisense peptides: a critical mini-review. J. Theor. Biol. 1998, 190:107-119.
180. Root-Bernstein R.S., Dobbelstein C. Insulin binds to glucagon forming a complex that is hyper-antigenic and inducing complementary antibodies having an idiotype-antiidiotype relationship. Autoimmunity 2001, 33:153-169.
181. Root-Bernstein R.S., Couturier J. Antigenic complementarity in the origins of autoimmunity: a general theory illustrated with a case study of idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura. Clin. Dev. Immunol. 2006, 13:49-65.
182. Root-Bernstein R.S. Antigenic complementarity in the induction of autoimmunity: a general theory and review. Autoimmun. Rev. 2007, 6:272-277.
183. Root-Bernstein R. Autoreactive T-cell receptor (Vbeta/D/Jbeta) sequences in diabetes are homologous to insulin, glucagon, the insulin receptor, and the glucagon receptor. J. Mol. Recognit. 2009, 2:177-187. 10.1002/jmr.930.
184. Root-Bernstein R.S., Vonck J., Podufaly A. Antigenic complementarity between coxsackie virus and streptococci in rheumatic heart disease and myocarditis. Autoimmunity 2009, 22:177-187. 10.1080/08916930802208540.
185. Root-Bernstein R., Podufaly A. T cell receptor variable regions in diabetes bind to each other, to insulin, glucagon or insulin receptor, and to their antibodies. Open Autoimmun. J. 2012, 4:10-22.
186. Root-Bernstein R. Rethinking molecular mimicry in rheumatic heart disease and autoimmune myocarditis: laminin, collagen IV, CAR and B1AR as initial targets of disease. Front. Pediatr. 2014, 2:85. 10.3389/fped.2014.00085.
187. Root-Bernstein R., Fairweather D. Complexities in the relationship between infection and autoimmunity. Curr. Allergy Asthma Rep. 2014, 14:407. 10.1007/s11882-013-0407-3.
188. Rose N.R. The discovery of thyroid autoimmunity. Immunol. Today 1991, 12:167-168.
189. Rose N.R. The role of infection in the pathogenesis of autoimmune disease. Semin. Immunol. 1998, 10:5-13.
190. Rose N.R. Infection, mimics, and autoimmune disease. J. Clin. Invest. 2001, 107:943-944.
191. Rose N.R. Predictors of autoimmune disease: autoantibodies and beyond. Autoimmunity 2008, 41:419-428. 10.1080/08916930802031686.
192. Rose N.R., Mackay I.R. Molecular mimicry: a critical look at exemplary instances in human diseases. Cell. Mol. Life Sci. 2000, 57:542-551.
193. Rosenbaum J.T., Kim H.W. Innate immune signals in autoimmune and autoinflammatory uveitis. Int. Rev. Immunol. 2013, 32:68-75. 10.3109/08830185.2012.750132.
194. Rubtsov A., Rubtsova K., Kappler J.W., Marrack P. Genetic and hormonal factors in female-biased autoimmunity. Autoimmun. Rev. 2010, 9:494-498. 10.1016/j.autrev.2010.02.008.
195. Sato Y., Yamada T., Matsumori A. Hepatitis C virus and cardiomyopathy. Cardiomyopathies and Heart Failure: Biomolecular, Infectious, and Immune Mechanisms 2003, 325-339. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, Mass. A. Matsumori (Ed.).
196. Schultheiss H.P., Schulze K., Dorner A. Significance of the adenine nucleotide translocator in the pathogenesis of viral heart disease. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 1996, 163/164:319-327.
197. Segal L.A., Bar-Or R.L. On the role of a possible dialogue between cytokine and TCR presentation mechanisms in the regulation of autoimmune disease. J. Theor. Biol. 1998, 190:161-178.
198. Segel L.A., Jager E. Reverse engineering: a model for T-cell vaccination. Bull. Math. Biol. 1994, 56:687-721.
199. Selinka H.C., Wolde A., Sauter M., Kandolf R., Klingel K. Virus-receptor interactions of coxsackie B viruses and their putative influence on cardiotropism. Med. Microbiol. Immunol. 2004, 193:127-131.
200. Shakya A.K., Nandakumar K.S. Applications of polymeric adjuvants in studying autoimmune responses and vaccination against infectious diseases. J. R. Soc. Interface 2012, 10. (20120536). 10.1098/rsif.2012.0536.
201. Shi Y., Chen C., Lisewski U., et al. Cardiac deletion of the coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor abolishes coxsackievirus B3 infection and prevents myocarditis in vivo. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2009, 53:1219-1226. 10.1016/j.jacc.2008.10.064.
202. Shikhman A.R., Greenspan N.S., Cunningham M.W. A subset of mouse monoclonal antibodies cross-reactive with cytoskeletal proteins and group A streptococcal M proteins recognizes N-acetyl-beta-d-glucosamine. J. Immunol. 1993, 151:3902-3913.
203. Siemion I.Z., Cebrat M., Kluczyk A. The problem of amino acid complementarity and antisense peptides. Curr. Protein Pept. Sci. 2004, 5:507-527.
204. Srinivasappa J., Saegusa J., Prabhakar B.S., et al. Molecular mimicry: frequency of reactivity of monoclonal antiviral antibodies with normal tissues. J. Virol. 1986, 57:397-401.
205. Straub R.H. The complex role of estrogens in inflammation. Endocr. Rev. 2007, 28:521-574.
206. Stubgen J.-P. Immune-mediated myelitis following hepatitis B vaccination. Autoimmun. Rev. 2012, 12:144-149. 10.1016/j.autrev.2012.03.008.
207. Styrt B., Sugarman B. Estrogens and infection. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1991, 13:1139-1150.
208. Sulzer B., Weisbuch G. Idiotypic regulation of B cell differentiation. Bull. Math. Biol. 1995, 57:841-864.
209. Suresh L., Chandrasekar S., Rao R.S., Ravi V., Badrinath S. Coxsackie virus and rheumatic fever: a correlative study. J. Assoc. Phys. India 1989, 37:582-585.
210. Sutterwala F.S., Haasken S., Cassel S.L. Mechanism of NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2014, 1319:82-95. 10.1111/nyas.12458.
211. Takata S., Nakamura H., Umemoto S., et al. Identification of autoantibodies with the corresponding antigen for repetitive coxsackievirus infection-induced cardiomyopathy. Circ. J. 2004, 68:677-682.
212. Takeuchi Y., Root-Bernstein R.S., Shih J.C. Peptide displacement of [3H]5-hydroxytryptamine binding to bovine cortical membranes. Brain Res. Bull. 1990, 25:817-820.
213. Tam J.C., Jacques D.A. Intracellular immunity: finding the enemy within- how cells recognize and respond to intracellular pathogens. J. Leukoc. Biol. 2014, (pii), (jib.4RI0214-090R).
214. Tandon R., Sharma M., Chandrasekhar Y., Kotb M., Yacoub M.H., Narula J. Revisiting the pathogenesis of rheumatic fever and carditis. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 2013, 10:171-177. 10.1038/nrcardio.2012.197.
215. Teixeira-Coelho M., Cruz A., Carmona J., et al. TLR2 deficiency by compromising p19 (IL-23) expression limits Th17 cell responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Int. Immunol. 2011, 23:89-96. 10.1093/intimm/dxq459.
216. Theil D.J., Tsunoda I., Rodriguez F., Whitton J.L., Fujinami R.S. Viruses can silently prime for and trigger central nervous system autoimmune disease. J. Neurovirol. 2001, 7:220-227.
217. Tough D.F., Borrow P., Sprent J. Induction of bystander T cell proliferation by viruses and type I interferon in vivo. Science 1996, 272:1947-1950.
218. Tough D.F., Sun S., Sprent J. T cell stimulation in vivo by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). J. Exp. Med. 1997, 185:2089-2094.
219. Tsunoda I., Libbey J.E., Fujinami R.S. Sequential polymicrobial infections lead to CNS inflammatory disease: possible involvement of bystander activation in heterologous immunity. J. Neuroimmunol. 2007, 188:22-33.
220. Vanderlugt C.L., Miller S.D. Epitope spreading in immune-mediated diseases: implications for immunotherapy. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2002, 2:85-95.
221. Vera-Lastra O., Medina G., Cruz-Dominguez P., Jara L.J., Shoenfeld Y. Autoimmune/inflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (Shoenfeld[U+05F3]s syndrome): clinical and immunological spectrum. Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol. 2013, 9:361-371. 10.1586/eci.13.2.
222. Vikerfors T., Stjerna A., Olcen P., Malmcrona R., Magnius L. Acute myocarditis: serologic diagnosis, clinical findings and follow-up. Acta Med. Scand. 1988, 223:45-52.
223. Von Herrath M.G., Fujinami R.S., Whitton J.L. Microorganisms and autoimmunity: making the barren field fertile. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2003, 1:151-157.
224. Wallukat G., Morwinski M., Kowal K., et al. Antibodies against the beta-adrenergic receptor in human myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy: beta-adrenergic agonism without desensitization. Eur. Heart J. 1991, 12(Suppl. D):S178-S181.
225. Weller A.H., Hall M., Huber S.A. Polyclonal immunoglobulin therapy protects against cardiac damage in experimental coxsackievirus-induced myocarditis. Eur. Heart J. 1992, 13:115-119.
226. Weremeichik H., Moraska A., Herzum M., Weller A., Huber S.A. Naturally occurring anti-idiotypic antibodies- mechanisms for autoimmunity and immunoregulation?. Eur. Heart J. 1991, 12(Suppl. D):S154-S157.
227. Westall F.C., Root-Bernstein R.S. An explanation of prevention and suppression of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. Mol. Immunol. 1983, 20:169-177.
228. Westall F.C., Root-Bernstein R.S. The cause and prevention of post infectious and post vaccinal encephalopathies in light of a new theory of autoimmunity. Lancet 1986, 2:251-252.
229. Whitacre C.C. Sex differences in autoimmune disease. Nat. Immunol. 2001, 2:777-780.
230. Wilder R.L. Neuroendocrine-immune system interactions and autoimmunity. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 1995, 13:307-338.
231. Williams R.C. Rheumatic fever and the streptococcus: another look at molecular mimicry. Am. J. Med. 1983, 75:727-730.
232. Wolff P.G., Kuhl U., Schultheiss H.P. Laminin distribution and autoantibodies to laminin in dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. Am. Heart J. 1989, 117:1303-1309.
233. Wolfgram L.J., Beisel K.W., Rose N.R. Heart-specific autoantibodies following murine coxsackievirus B3 myocarditis. J. Exp. Med. 1985, 161:1112.
234. Wood J.N., Hudson L., Jessell T.M., Yamamoto M. A monoclonal antibody defining antigenic determinants on subpopulations of mammalian neurons and Trypanosoma cruzi parasites. Nature 1982, 296:34-38.
235. Yeter D., Deth R. ITPKC susceptibility in Kawasaki syndrome as a sensitizing factor for autoimmunity and coronary arterial wall relaxation induced by thimerosal[U+05F3]s effects on calcium signaling via IP3. Autoimmun. Rev. 2012, 11:903-908. 10.1016/j.autrev.2012.03.006.
236. Yung R.L., Julius A. Epigenetics, aging, and autoimmunity. Autoimmunity 2008, 41:329-335. 10.1080/08916930802024889.
237. Zaher S.R., Kassem A.S., Hughes J.J. Coxsackie virus infections in rheumatic fever. Indian J. Pediatr. 1993, 60:289-298.
238. Zandman-Goddard G., Peeva E., Shoenfeld Y Y. Gender and autoimmunity. Autoimmun. Rev. 2007, 6:366-372.
239. Zhang P., Cox C.J., Alvarez K.M., Cunningham M.W. Cutting edge: cardiac myosin activates innate immune responses through TLRs. J. Immunol. 2009, 183:27-31. 10.4049/jimmunol.0800861.