Attitude formation and change through association: An evaluative conditioning account

Attitudes and Attitude Change

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 87-110

  Walther, Eva ^a   Langer, Tina ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TRIER   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84920860621     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203838068     Document Type: Chapter

References (119)

1. Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179–211.
2. Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
3. Allen, C. T., & Janiszewski, C. A. (1989). Assessing the role of contingency awareness in attitudinal conditioning with implications for advertising research. Journal of Marketing and Research, 26, 30–43.
4. Amundson, J. C., Escobar, M., & Miller, R. (2003). Proactive interference between cues trained with a common outcome in fi rst-order Pavlovian conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 29, 311–322.
5. Baeyens, F., Crombez, G., & Hendrickx, H. (1995). Parameters of human evaluative fl avorfl avor conditioning. Learning and Motivation, 26, 141–160.
6. Baeyens, F., Crombez, G., van den Bergh, O., & Eelen, P. (1988). Once in contact always in contact: Evaluative conditioning is resistant to extinction. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 10, 179–199.
7. Baeyens, F., Eelen, P., Crombez, G., & van den Bergh, O. (1992). Human evaluative conditioning: Acquisition trials, presentation schedule, evaluative style and contingency awareness. Behavior Research and Therapy, 30, 133–142.
8. Baeyens, F., Eelen, P., van den Bergh, O., & Crombez, G. (1989). Acquired affective-evaluative value. Conservative but not unchangeable. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 27, 279–287.
9. Baeyens, F., Eelen, P., & van den Bergh, O. (1990). Contingency awareness in evaluative conditioning: A case for unaware affective-evaluative learning. Cognition and Emotion, 4, 3–18.
10. Baeyens, F., Eelen, P., van den Bergh, O., & Crombez, G. (1992). The content of learning in human evaluative conditioning: Acquired valence is sensitive to US revaluation. Learning and Motivation, 23, 200–224.
11. Baeyens, F., Hermans, R., & Eelen, P. (1993). The role of CS-US contingency in human evaluative conditioning. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 73–737.
12. Bakker-DePree, B. J., Defares, P. B., & Zwaan, E. J. (1970). The conditioning of evaluative meaning. Acta Psychologica, 32, 281–289.
13. Barnet, R. C., Grahame, N. J., & Miller, R. E. (1991). Comparing the magnitude of secondorder conditioning and sensory preconditioning effects. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 29, 133–135.
14. Barone, M. J., Miniard, P. W., & Romeo, J. B. (2000). The infl uence of positive mood on brand extension evaluations. Journal of Consumer Research, 26, 386–400.
15. Beggan, J. K. (1992). On the social nature of nonsocial perception: The mere ownership effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 229–237.
16. Bierley, C., McSweeney, F. K., & Vannieuwkerk, R. (1985). Classical conditioning of preferences for stimuli. Journal of Consumer Research, 12, 316–323.
17. Boulding, W., Morgan, R., & Staelin, R. (1997). Pulling the plug to stop the new product drain. Journal of Marketing Research, 34, 164–176.
18. Bouton, M. (2000). A learning theory perspective on lapse, relapse, and the maintenance of behavior change. Health Psychology, 19, 57–63.
19. Bouton, M. (2002). Context, ambiguity, and unlearning: Sources of relapse after behavioral extinction. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 976–986.
20. Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148.
21. Brewer, W. F. (1974). There is no convincing evidence for operant or classical conditioning in adult humans. In W. B. Weimer & D. S. Palermo (Eds.), Cognition and the symbolic process (pp. 1–42). Oxford, UK: Erlbaum.
22. Brooks, D. C., Hale, B., Nelson, J. B., & Bouton, M. (1995). Reinstatement after counterconditioning. Animal Learning and Behavior, 23, 383–390.
23. Cadinu, M. R., & Rothbart, M. (1996). Self-anchoring and differentiation processes in the minimal group setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 661–677.
24. Chaiken, S., Liberman, A., & Eagly, A. H. (1989). Heuristic and systematic processing within and beyond the persuasion context. In J. S. Uleman & J. A. Bargh (Eds.), Unintended thought (pp. 212–252). New York: Guilford.
25. Cialdini, R. B., & De Nicholas, M. E. (1989). Self-presentation by association. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 626–631.
26. Clement, R. W., & Krueger, J. (2002). Social categorization moderates social projection. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 219–231.
27. Dawson, M. E. (1973). Can classical conditioning occur without contingency learning? A review and evaluation of the evidence. Psychophysiology, 10, 82–86.
28. Dawson, M. E., & Reardon, P. (1973). Construct validity of recall and recognition postconditioning measures of awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 98, 308–315.
29. Dawson, M. E., & Schell, A. (1987). Human autonomic and skeletal classical conditioning: The role of conscious cognitive factors. In G. Davey (Ed.), Cognitive processes and Pavlovian conditioning in humans (pp.27–55). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
30. De Houwer, J., Baeyens, F., & Eelen, P. (1994). Verbal evaluative conditioning with undetected US presentations. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 32, 629–633.
31. De Houwer, J., Baeyens, F., Vansteenwegen, D., & Eelen, P. (2000). Evaluative conditioning in the picture-picture paradigm with random assignment of conditioned to unconditioned stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 26, 237–242.
32. De Houwer, J., Hendrickx, H., & Baeyens, F. (1997). Evaluative learning with “subliminally” presented stimuli. Consciousness and Cognition, 6, 87–107.
33. De Houwer, J., Thomas, S., & Baeyens, F. (2001). Associative learning of likes and dislikes: A review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 853–869.
34. De Jong, P. J., Vorage, I., & van den Hout, M. A. (2000). Counterconditioning in the treatment of spider phobia: effects on disgust, fear and valence. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 38, 1055–1069.
35. Delamater, A. R., & Lolordo, V. M. (1991). Event revaluation procedures and associative structures in Pavlovian conditioning. In L. Dachowski & C. Flaherty, Current topics in animal learning: brain, emotion, and cognition (pp.55–94). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
36. Dijksterhuis, A. (2004). I like myself but I don’t know why: Enhancing implicit self-esteem by subliminal evaluative conditioning. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 345–355.
37. Eagly, A. H., & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
38. Eifert, G. H., Craill, L., Carey, E., & O’Connor, C. (1988). Affect modifi cation through evaluative conditioning with music. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 26, 321–330.
39. Fazio, R. H. (1990). Multiple processes by which attitudes guide behavior: The MODE model as an integrative framework. In M. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 23, pp. 75–109). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
40. Feys, J. (1991). Briefl y induced belongingness to self and preference. European Journal of Social Psychology, 21, 547–552.
41. Feys, J. (1995). Mere ownership: Affective self-bias or evaluative conditioning? European Journal of Social Psychology, 25, 559–575.
42. Field, A. P. (2000). Evaluative conditioning is Pavlovian conditioning: Issues of defi nition, measurement, and the theoretical importance of contingency awareness. Consciousness & Cognition, 9, 41–49.
43. Field, A. P. (2001). When all is still concealed: Are we closer to understanding the mechanisms underlying evaluative conditioning? Consciousness and Cognition, 10, 559–566.
44. Field, A. P., & Moore, A. C. (2005). Dissociating the effects of attention and contingency awareness on evaluative conditioning effects in the visual paradigm. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 217–243.
45. Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
46. Fishbein, M., & Middlestadt, S. (1995). Noncognitive effects on attitude formation and change: Fact or artifact? Journal of Consumer Psychology, 4, 181–202.
47. Flaherty, K. E., & Pappas, J. M. (2000). Implicit personality theory in evaluation of brand extensions. Psychological Reports, 86, 807–818.
48. Fulcher, E. P., & Cocks, P. (1997). Dissociative storage systems in human evaluative conditioning. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 35, 1–10.
49. Fulcher, E. P., & Hammerl, M. (2001). When all is considered: Evaluative learning does not require contingency awareness. Consciousness and Cognition, 10, 567–573.
50. Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006). Associative and propositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 692–731.
51. Gawronski, B., Walther, E., & Blank, H. (2005). Cognitive consistency and the formation of interpersonal attitudes: Cognitive balance affects the encoding of social information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 618–626.
52. Ghuman, A. S., & Bar, M. (2006). The infl uence of nonremembered affective associations on preference. Emotion, 6, 215–223.
53. Goldfried, M. R., Linehan, M. M., & Smith, J. L. (1978). Reduction of test anxiety through cognitive restructuring. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 32–39.
54. Greenwald, A. G. (1968). Cognitive learning, cognitive response to persuasion, and attitude change. In A. G. Greenwald, T. C. Brock, & T. M. Edstrom (Eds.), Psychological foundations of attitudes (pp. 147–170). New York: Academic Press.
55. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4–27.
56. Grossman, R. L., & Till, B. D. (1998). The persistence of classically conditioned brand attitudes. Journal of Advertising, 27, 23–31.
57. Hammerl, M. (2000). I like it, but only when I’m not sure why: Evaluative conditioning and the awareness issue. Consciousness and Cognition, 9, 37–40.
58. Hammerl, M., & Grabitz, H.-J. (1996). Human evaluative conditioning without experiencing a valued event. Learning and Motivation, 27, 278–293.
59. Hammerl, M., & Grabitz, H.-J. (2000). Affective-evaluative learning in humans: A form of associative learning or only an artifact? Learning and Motivation, 31, 345–363.
60. Hebl, M. R., & Mannix, L. M. (2003). The weight of obesity in evaluating others: A mere proximity effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 28–38.
61. Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
62. Hosoba, T., Iwanaga, M., & Seiwa, H. (2001). The effect of UCS infl ation and defl ation procedures on fear conditioning. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 39, 465–475.
63. Ito, T. A., Chiao, K. W., Devine, P. G., Lorig, T. S., & Cacioppo, T. (2006). The infl uence of facial feedback on race bias. Psychological Science, 17, 256–261.
64. Jennings, D., & Kirkpatrick, K. (2006). Interval duration effects on blocking in appetitive conditioning. Behavioural Processes, 71, 318–329.
65. Kearney, A. B. (1993). The use of covert conditioning in the treatment of obsessive compulsive disorder. In J. R. Cautela & A. J. Kearney (Eds.), Covert conditioning casebook (pp. 22–37). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
66. Koole, S. L., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001). What’s in a name: Implicit self-esteem and the automatic self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 669–685.
67. Krosnick, J. A., Betz, A. L., Jussim, L. L., & Lynn, A. R. (1992). Subliminal conditioning of attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 152–162.
68. Krueger, J. (2000). The projective perception of the social world: A building block of social comparison processes. In J. Suls & L. Wheeler (Eds.), Handbook of social comparison: Theory and research (pp. 323–351). Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
69. Kruglanski, A. W., & Dechesne, M. (2006). Are associative and propositional processes qualitatively distinct? Comment on Gawronski and Bodenhausen. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 736–739.
70. Kruglanski, A. W., & Thompson, E. P. (1999). Persuasion by a single route: A view from the unimodel. Psychological Inquiry, 10, 83–109.
71. Lane, V. R. (2000). The impact of ad repetition and ad content on consumer perceptions of incongruent extensions. Journal of Marketing, 64, 80–91.
72. Lazarus, A. A. (1974). Desensitization and cognitive restructuring. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 11, 98–102.
73. Lazarus, R. S. (1984). On the primacy of cognition. American Psychologist, 39, 124–129.
74. Lovibond, P. F., & Shanks, D. R. (2002). The role of awareness in Pavlovian conditioning: Empirical evidence and theoretical implications. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 28, 3–26.
75. Manis, M., Cornell, S. D., Moore, J. C., & Jeffrey, C. (1974). Transmission of attitude relevant information through a communication chain. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 30, 81–94.
76. Martin, I., & Levey, A. B. (1978). Evaluative conditioning. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1, 57–101.
77. Martin, I., & Levey, A. B. (1987). Learning what will happen next: Conditioning, evaluation, and cognitive processes. In G. Davey (Ed.), Cognitive processes and Pavlovian conditioning in humans (pp. 57–81). Chichester, UK: Wiley.
78. Matthews, L., & Litwack, L. (1995). Cognitive restructuring. In M. Ballou (Ed.), Psychological interventions: A practical guide to strategies (pp. 37–53). Westport, CT: Praeger.
79. Niedenthal, P. M. (1990). Implicit perception of affective information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 26, 505–527.
80. Nuttin, J. M. (1985). Narcissism beyond Gestalt and awareness: The name letter effect. European Journal of Social Psychology, 15, 353–361.
81. Öhman, A., Esteves, F., & Soares, J. J. F. (1995). Preparedness and preattentive associative learning: Electrodermal conditioning to masked stimuli. Journal of Psychophysiology, 9, 99–108.
82. Öhman, A., & Soares, J. J. F. (1998). Emotional conditioning to masked stimuli: Expectancies for aversive outcomes following nonrecognized fear-relevant stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 127, 69–82.
83. Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2001). Implicit attitude formation through classical conditioning. Psychological Science, 12, 413–417.
84. Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2002). Implicit acquisition and manifestation of classically conditioned attitudes. Social Cognition, 20, 89–104.
85. Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2006). Reducing automatically activated racial prejudice through implicit evaluative conditioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 421–433.
86. Otten, S., & Wentura, D. (1999). About the impact of automaticity in the Minimal Group Paradigm: Evidence from affective priming tasks. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 1049–1071.
87. Otten, S., & Wentura, D. (2001). Self-anchoring and in-group favoritism: An individual profi les analysis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 525–532.
88. Paunovic, N. (2003). Prolonged exposure counterconditioning as a treatment for chronic posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 17, 479–499.
89. Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. New York: Oxford University Press.
90. Pelham, B. W., Mirenberg, M. C., & Jones, J. T. (2002). Why Susie sells seashells by the seashore: Implicit egotism and major life decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 469–487.
91. Perdue, C. W., Dovidio, J. F., & Gurtman, M. B. (1990). Us and them: Social categorization and the process of intergroup bias. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 475–486.
92. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1984). The effects of involvement on responses to argument quantity and quality: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 69–81.
93. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The Elaboration Likelihood Model of persuasion. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 19, pp. 123–205). New York: Academic Press.
94. Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T., & Goldman, R. (1981). Personal involvement as a determinant of argument-based persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 847–855.
95. Pleyers, G., Corneille, O., Luminet, O., & Yzerbyt, V. (2007). Aware and (dis)liking: Itembased analyses reveal that valence acquisition via evaluative conditioning emerges only when there is contingency awareness. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 33, 130–144.
96. Rachman, S. (1985). The treatment of anxiety disorders: A critique of the implications for psychopathology. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 453–461). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
97. Rescorla, R. A., & Wagner, A. R. (1972). A theory of Pavlovian conditioning: Variations in the effectiveness of reinforcement and nonreinforcement. In A. H. Black & W. F. Prokasy (Eds.), Classical conditioning: Vol.2. Current research and theory (pp. 64–99). New York: Appleton.
98. Richardson, R., Riccio, D. C., & Smoller, D. (1987). Counterconditioning of memory in rats. Animal Learning and Behavior, 15, 321–326.
99. Rizley, R. C., & Rescorla, R. A. (1972). Associations in second-order conditioning and sensory preconditioning. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 81, 1–11.
100. Schell, A. M., Dawson, M. E., & Marinkovic, K. (1991). Effects of potentially phobic conditioned stimuli on retention, reconditioning, and extinction of the conditioned skin conductance response.Psychophysiology, 28, 140–153.
101. Schienle, A., Schaefer, A., Walter, B., Stark, R., & Vaitl, D. (2005). Elevated disgust sensitivity in blood phobia. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 1229–1241.
102. Sherman, D. K., & Kim, H. S. (2002). Affective perseverance: The resistance of affect to cognitive invalidation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 224–237.
103. Shimp, T. A., Stuart, E. W., & Engle, R. W. (1991). A program of classical conditioning experiments testing variations in the conditioned stimulus and context. Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 1–12.
104. Skowronski, J. J., Carlston, D. E., Mae, L., & Crawford, M. T. (1998). Spontaneous trait transference: Communicators take on the qualities they describe in others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 837–848.
105. Stapel, D. A., & Koomen, W. (2000). Distinctiveness of others, mutability of selves: Their impact on self-evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1068–1087.
106. Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971). Social categorization and intergroup behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 1, 149–178.
107. Till, B. D., & Priluck, R. L. (2000). Stimulus generalization in classical conditioning: An initial investigation and extension. Psychology and Marketing, 17, 55–72.
108. Todrank, J., Byrnes, D., Wrzesniewski, A., & Rozin, P. (1995). Odors can change preferences for people in photographs: A cross-modal evaluative conditioning study with olfactory USs and visual CSs. Learning & Motivation, 26, 116–140.
109. Tracy, J., McFall, R. M., & Steinmetz, J. E. (2005). Effects of emotional valence and arousal manipulation on eyeblink classical conditioning and autonomic measures. Integrative Physiological and Behavioral Science, 40, 45–54.
110. Van Reekum, C., van den Berg, H., & Frijda, N. H. (1999). Cross-modal preference acquisition: Evaluative conditioning of pictures by affective olfactory and auditory cues. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 831–836.
111. Vansteenwegen, D., Francken, G., Vervliet, B., De Clercq, A., & Eelen, P. (2006). Resistance to extinction in evaluative conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes.
112. Walther, E. (2002). Guilty by mere association: Evaluative conditioning and the spreading attitude effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 919–934.
113. Walther, E., Gawronski, B., Blank, H., & Langer, T. (2007). Chaning likes and dislikes through the back door: The US-revaluation effect. Paper submitted for publication.
114. Walther, E., & Grigoriadis, S. (2004). Why sad people like shoes better: The infl uence of mood on the evaluative conditioning of consumer attitudes. Psychology and Marketing, 21, 755–773.
115. Walther, E., & Nagengast, B. (2006). Evaluative conditioning and the awareness issue: Assessing contingency awareness with the four-picture recognition test. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 32, 454–459.
116. Walther, E., Nagengast, B., & Trasselli, C. (2005). Evaluative conditioning in social psychology: Facts and speculations. Cognition and Emotion, 19, 175–196.
117. Walther, E., & Trasselli, C. (2003). I like her, because I like myself: Self-evaluation as a source of interpersonal attitudes. Experimental Psychology, 50, 239–246.
118. Zajonc, B. (1980). On the primacy of affect. American Psychologist, 39, 117–123.
119. Zellner, D. A., Rozin, P., Aron, M., & Kulish, C. (1983). Conditioned enhancement of human’s liking for fl avor by pairing with sweetness. Learning and Motivation, 26, 141–160.