Implicit ambivalence: A meta-cognitive approach

Attitudes: Insights from the New Implicit Measures

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 119-161

  Petty, Richard E ^a   Briñol, Pablo ^b  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSIDAD AUTÓNOMA DE MADRID   (Spain)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84920449536     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203809884     Document Type: Chapter

References (132)

1. Anderson, N. H. (1971). Integration theory and attitude change. Psychological Review, 78, 171–206.
2. Asendorpf, J. B., Banse, R., & Mücke, D. (2002). Double dissociation between implicit and explicit personality self-concept: The case of shy behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 380–393.
3. Barden, J., Maddux, W. W., Petty, R. E., & Brewer, M. B. (2004). Contextual moderation of racial bias: The impact of social roles on controlled and automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 5–22.
4. Bargh, J. A., Chaiken, S., Govender, R., & Pratto, F. (1992). The generality of the automatic attitude activation effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62, 893–912.
5. Bassili, J. N. (1996) Meta-judgmental versus operative indices of psychological properties: The case of measures of attitude strength. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 637–653.
6. Bell, D. W., & Esses, V. (2002). Ambivalence and response amplification: A motivational perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 1143–1152.
7. Betsch, T., Haberstroh, S., Molter, B., & Glöckner, A. (2004). Oops, I did it again—relapse errors in routinized decision making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 93, 62–74.
8. Bosson, J. K., Swann, W. B., Jr., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000). Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 631–643.
9. Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., DeMarree, K., & Priester, J. R. (2008). Subjective ambivalence: A self-validation analysis. Unpublished manuscript, Ohio State University.
10. Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., & See, Y. H. M. (2008). Implicit-explicit discrepancies in racial attitudes predict race-relevant information processing. Unpublished manuscript, Ohio State University.
11. Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., & Wheeler, S. C. (2003, May). Implicit ambivalence: Implications for attitude change. Paper presented at the Attitudinal Incongruence and Information Processing Symposium. Amsterdam, Netherlands.
12. Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., & Wheeler, S. C. (2006). Discrepancies between explicit and implicit self-concepts: Consequences for information processing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91 (1), 154–170.
13. Byrne, D. (1961). Interpersonal attraction and attitude similarity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 62, 713–715.
14. Cacioppo, J. T., & Berntson, G. (1994). Relationship between attitudes and evaluative space: A critical review, with emphasis on the separability of positive and negative substrates. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 401–423.
15. Cacioppo, J. T., Gardner, W. L., & Berntson, G. G. (1997). Beyond bipolar conceptualizations and measures: The case of attitudes and evaluative space. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 3–25.
16. Chein, I. (1951). Notes on a framework for the measurement of discrimination and prejudice. In M. Jahoda, M. Deutsch, & S. W. Cook (Ed.), Research methods in social relations with especial reference to prejudice. New York: The Dryden Press.
17. Cialdini, R. B., Trost, M. R., & Newsome, J. T. (1995). Preference for consistency: The development of a valid measure and the discovery of surprising behavioral implications. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 318–328.
18. Clark, J., Wegener, D. T., & Fabrigar, L. R. (2008). Attitudinal ambivalence and message based processing: Motivated processing of pro-attitudinal information and avoidance of counter attitudinal information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 565–577.
19. Cohen, J. B., & Reed, A. (2006). A multiple pathway anchoring and adjustment (MPAA) model of attitude generation and reinforcement. Journal of Consumer Research, 33, 1–15.
20. Cooper, J., & Fazio, R. H. (1984). A new look at dissonance theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 17, pp. 229–266). New York: Academic Press.
21. Cooper, J., Zanna, M. P., & Taves, P. A. (1978). Arousal as a necessary condition for attitude change following induced compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1101–1106.
22. Costello, R. M., Rice, D. P., & Schoenfeld, L. S. (1974). Attitudinal ambivalence with alcoholic respondents. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42, 303–304.
23. DeCoster, J., Banner, M. J.; Smith, E. R., & Semin, G. R. (2006). On the inexplicability of the implicit: Differences in the information provided by implicit and explicit tests. Social Cognition, 24, 5–21.
24. de Liver, Y., van der Pligt, J., & Wigboldus, D. (2007). Positive and negative associations underlying ambivalent attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 319–326.
25. Deutsch, R., Gawronski, B., & Strack, F. (2006). At the boundaries of automaticity: Negation as reflective operation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 385–405.
26. Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18.
27. Devine, P. G., Monteith, M. J., Zuwerink, J. R., & Elliot, A. J. (1991). Prejudice with and without compunction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60, 817–830.
28. Dovidio, J., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., Johnson, B., & Howard, A. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 510–540.
29. Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Smoak, N., & Gaertner, S. L. (in press). The nature of contemporary racial prejudice: Insight from implicit and explicit measures of attitudes. In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Briñol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures. New York: Psychology Press.
30. Dunton, B. C., & Fazio, R. H. (1997). An individual difference measure of motivation to control prejudiced reactions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 15, 543–538.
31. Edwards, A. L. (1946). A critique of “neutral” items in attitude scales constructed by the method of equal appearing intervals. Psychological Review, 53, 159–169.
32. Eiser, J. R., Fazio, R. H., Stafferd, T., & Prescott, T. J. (2003). Connectionist simulation of attitude learning: Asymmetries in the acquisition of positive and negative evaluations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1221–1235.
33. Epstein, S. (2003). Cognitive-experiential self-theory of personality. In T. Millon & M. J. Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 159–184). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
34. Farnham, S. D., Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1999). Implicit self-esteem. In D. Abrams & M. A. Hogg (Eds.), Social identity and social cognition (pp. 230–248). Oxford, England: Blackwell.
35. Fazio, R. H. (1995). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations: Determinants, consequences, and correlates of attitude accessibility. In R. E. Petty & J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 247–283). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
36. Fazio, R. H. (2007). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations of varying strength. Social Cognition, 25, 664–703.
37. Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013–1027.
38. Feldman, J. M., & Lynch, J. G. (1988). Self-generated validity and other effects of measurement on belief, attitude, intention, and behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 73, 421–435.
39. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Oxford, England: Row, Peterson.
40. Fiske, S. T., & Pavelchak, M. A. (1986). Category-based versus piecemeal-based affective responses: Developments in schema driven affect. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (pp. 167–203). New York: Guilford Press.
41. Fleming, M. A., Petty, R. E., & White, P. H. (2005). Stigmatized targets and evaluation: Prejudice as a determinant of attribute scrutiny and polarization. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 496–507.
42. Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2006). Associative and prepositional processes in evaluation: An integrative review of implicit and explicit attitude change. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 692–731.
43. Gawronski, B., Deutsch, R. M., Mbirkou, S., Seibt, B., & Strack, F. (in press). When “just say no” is not enough: Affirmation versus negation training and the reduction of automatic stereotype activation. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 370–377.
44. Gawronski, B., Strack, F., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (in press). Attitudes and cognitive consistency: The role of associative and propositional processes. In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Briñol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures. New York: Psychology Press.
45. Gilbert, D. T. (1991). How mental systems believe. American Psychologist, 46, 107–119.
46. Gilbert, D. T., Krull, D. S., & Malone, P. S. (1990). Unbelieving the unbelievable: Some problems in the rejection of false information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 601–613.
47. Gilbert, D. T., Tafarodi, R. W., & Malone, P. S. (1993). You can’t not believe everything you read. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 221–233.
48. Green, R. F., & Goldfried, M. R. (1965). On the bipolarity of semantic space. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 79, 1–31.
49. Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102, 4–27.
50. Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D. (2000). Using the Implicit Association Test to measure self-esteem and self-concept. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 1022–1038.
51. Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.
52. Gregg, A. P., Seibt, B, & Banaji, M. R. (2006). Easier done than undone: Asymmetry in the malleability of implicit preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 1–20.
53. Gross, S. R., Holtz, R., & Miller, N. (1995). Attitude certainty. In R. E. Petty & J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences (pp. 215–245). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
54. Han, H. A., Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2006). The influence of experimentally created extrapersonal associations on the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 259–272
55. Harmon-Jones, E., & Mills, J. (Eds.). (1999). Cognitive dissonance: Progress on a pivotal theory in social psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
56. Hass, R. G., Katz, I., Rizzo, N., Bailey, J., & Moore, J. (1992). When racial ambivalence evokes negative affect using a disguised measure of feelings. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 18, 786–797.
57. Hermans, D., de Houwer, J., & Eelen, P. (2001). A time analysis of the affective priming effect. Cognition and Emotion, 15, 143–165.
58. Hetts, J. J., & Pelham, B. W. (2001). A case for the non-conscious self-concept. In G. B. Moskowitz (Ed.), Cognitive social psychology: The Princeton Symposium on the legacy and future of social cognition (pp. 105–123). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
59. Hetts, J. J., Sakuma, M., & Pelham, B. W. (1999). Two roads to positive regard: Implicit and explicit self-evaluation and culture. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35, 512–559.
60. Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L., & Kelley, H. H. (1953). Communication and persuasion: Psychological studies of opinion change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
61. Jarvis, W. B. G., & Petty, R. E. (1996). The need to evaluate. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 172–194.
62. Jonas, K., Diehl, M., & Bromer, P. (1997). Effects of attitudinal ambivalence on information processing and attitude-intention consistency. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 190–210.
63. Jordan, C. H., Logel, C. E. R., Spencer, S. J., Zanna, M. P., & Whitfield, M. L. (in press). The heterogeneity of self-esteem: Exploring the interplay between implicit and explicit self-esteem. In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Briñol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures. New York: Psychology Press.
64. Jost, J. T., Kruglanski, A. W., & Nelson, T. O. (1998). Social meta-cognition: An expansionist review. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 2, 137–154.
65. Kaplan, K. J. (1972). On the ambivalence-indifference problem in attitude theory and measurement: A suggested modification of the semantic differential technique. Psychological Bulletin, 77, 361–372.
66. Karpinski, A. (2004). Measuring self-esteem using the Implicit Association Test: The role of the other. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 22–34.
67. Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J. L. (2001). Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 774–788.
68. Karpinski, A., & Steinman, R. B. (2006). The single category Implicit Association Test as a measure of implicit social cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 16–32.
69. Katz, I., & Hass, R. G. (1988). Racial ambivalence and American value conflict: Correlational and priming studies of dual cognitive structures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 893–905.
70. Katz, I., Wackenhut, J., & Hass, R. G. (1986). Racial ambivalence, value duality, and behavior. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Ed.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 35–59). San Diego: Academic Press.
71. Kehr, H. M. (2004). Implicit/explicit motive discrepancies and volitional depletion among managers. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 315–327.
72. Kitayama, S., & Markus, H. R. (1999). The yin and yang of the Japanese self: The cultural psychology of personality coherence. In D. Cervone & Y. Shoda (Eds.), The coherence of personality: Social-cognitive bases of consistency, variability, and organization (pp. 242–302). New York: Guilford Press.
73. Kitayama, S., Snibbe, A. C., Markus, H. R., & Tomoko, S. (2004). Is there any free choice? Self and dissonance in two cultures. Psychological Science, 15, 527–533.
74. Kitayama, S., & Uchida, Y. (2003). Explicit self-criticism and implicit self-regard: Evaluating self and friend in two cultures. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 476–482.
75. Klopfer, F. J., & Madden, T. M. (1980). The middlemost choice on attitude items: Ambivalence, neutrality, or uncertainty? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 6, 97–101.
76. Komorita, S. S., & Bass, A. R. (1967). Attitude differentiation and evaluative scales of the semantic differential. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6, 241–244.
77. Koole, S. L., Dijksterhuis, A., & van Knippenberg, A. (2001). What’s in a name? Implicit self-esteem and the automatic self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 669–685.
78. Kumkale, G. T., & Albarracín, D. (2004). The sleeper effect in persuasion: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 143–172.
79. Maddux, W. W., Barden, J., Brewer, M. B., & Petty, R. E. (2005). Saying no to negativity: The effects of context and motivation to control prejudice on automatic evaluative responses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41, 19–35.
80. Maimaran, M., Wheeler, S. C., Briñol, P., & Petty, R. E. (2008). Personal relevance moderates the impact of implicit-explicit discrepancies on information processing. Unpublished manuscript.
81. Maio, G. R., Bell, D. W., & Esses, V. M. (1996). Ambivalence in persuasion: The processing of messages about immigrant groups. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 32, 513–536.
82. Maio, G. R., & Olson, J. M. (1995). The effect of attitude dissimulation on attitude accessibility. Social Cognition, 13, 127–144.
83. Mayo, R., Schul, Y., & Burnstein, E. (2004). “I am not guilty” versus “I am innocent”: Successful negation may depend on the schema used for its encoding. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40, 433–449.
84. McConahay, J. B., Hardee, B. B., & Batts, V. (1981). Has racism declined in America? It depends upon who’s asking and what is asked. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 25, 563–579.
85. Monteith, M. J. (1993). Self-regulation of prejudiced responses: Implications for progress in prejudice reduction effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 469–485.
86. Monteith, M. J., Devine, P. G., & Zuwerink, J. R. (1993). Self-directed versus other directed affect as a consequence of prejudice-related discrepancies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 198–210.
87. Newby-Clark, I. R., McGregor, I., & Zanna, M. P. (2002). Thinking and caring about cognitive inconsistency: When and for whom does attitudinal ambivalence feel uncomfortable? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 157–166.
88. Nordgren, L. F., van Harreveld, F., & vander Pligt, J. (2006). Ambivalence, discomfort, and motivated information processing. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 252–258.
89. Nosek, B. A. (2005). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134, 565–584.
90. Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2004). Reducing the influence of extra-personal associations on the Implicit Association Test: Personalizing the IAT. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 653–667.
91. Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2007). Discordant evaluations of Blacks affect nonverbal behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 1214–1224.
92. Olson, M. A., Fazio, R. H., & Hermann, A. D. (2007). Reporting tendencies underlie discrepancies between implicit and explicit measures of self-esteem. Psychological Science, 18, 287–291.
93. Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (in press). Implicit and explicit measures of attitudes: The perspective of the MODE model. In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Briñol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures. New York: Psychology Press.
94. Osgood, C. E., Suci, G. J., & Tanenbaum, P. H. (1957). The measurement of meaning. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
95. Petty, R. E. (2006). A metacognitive model of attitudes. Journal of Consumer Research, 33, 22–24.
96. Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2006). A meta-cognitive approach to “implicit” and “explicit” evaluations: Comment on Gawronski and Bodenhausen (2006). Psychological Bulletin, 132, 740–744.
97. Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., & DeMarree, K. (2007). The Meta-Cognitive Model (MCM) of attitudes. Implications for attitude measurement, change, and strength. Social Cognition, 25, 657–686.
98. Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., & Tormala, Z. L. (2002). Thought confidence as a determinant of persuasion: The self-validation hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 722–741.
99. Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., Tormala, Z. L., & Wegener, D. T. (2007). The role of meta-cognition in social judgment. In E. T. Higgins & A. W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.
100. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1979). Issue involvement can increase or decrease persuasion by enhancing message-relevant cognitive responses. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1915–1926.
101. Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). Communication and persuasion: Centraland peripheral routes to attitude change. New York: Springer-Verlag.
102. Petty, R. E., Fleming, M. A., & White, P. (1999). Stigmatized sources and persuasion: Prejudice as a determinant of argument scrutiny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 19–34.
103. Petty, R. E., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (1998, October). What happens to the old attitude when attitudes change? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Experimental Social Psychology, Lexington, KY.
104. Petty, R. E., & Krosnick, J. A. (Eds.). (1995). Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
105. Petty, R. E., Schumann, D. W., Richman, S. A., & Strathman, A. J. (1993). Positive mood and persuasion: Different roles for affect under high and low elaboration conditions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 64, 5–20.
106. Petty, R. E., Tormala, Z. L., Briñol, P., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (2006). Implicit ambivalence from attitude change: An exploration of the PAST model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 21–41.
107. Petty, R. E., Wells, G. L., & Brock, T. C. (1976). Distraction can enhance or reduce yielding to propaganda: Thought disruption versus effect justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 874–884.
108. Priester, J. R., & Petty, R. E. (1996). The gradual threshold model of ambivalence: Relating the positive and negative bases of attitudes to subjective ambivalence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 431–449.
109. Priester, J. R., & Petty, R. E. (2001). Extending the bases of subjective attitudinal ambivalence: Interpersonal and intrapersonal antecedents of evaluative tension. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 19–34.
110. Priester, J. R., Wegener, D., Petty, R. E., & Fabrigar, L. (1999). Examining the psychological processes underlying the sleeper effect: The Elaboration Likelihood Model explanation. Media Psychology, 1, 27–48.
111. Proshansky, H. M. (1943). A projective method for the study of attitudes. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 38, 393–395.
112. Ross, M., & Conway, M. (1986). Remembering one’s own past: The construction of personal histories. In R. M. Sorrentino & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (pp. 122–144). New York: Guilford Press.
113. Rydell, R. J., & McConnell, A. R. (2006). Understanding implicit and explicit attitude change: A systems of reasoning analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 995–1008.
114. Rydell, R. J., McConnell, A. R., Mackie, D. M., & Strain, L. M. (2006). Of two minds: Forming and changing valence-inconsistent implicit and explicit attitudes. Psychological Science, 17, 954–958.
115. Schwarz, N., & Bohner, G. (2001). The construction of attitudes. In A. Tesser & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of social psychology: Intra-individual processes (pp. 436–457). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers.
116. Scott, W. A. (1969). Structure of natural cognitions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 12, 261–278.
117. Snyder, M. (1982). When believing means doing: Creating links between attitudes and behavior. In M. P. Zanna, E. T. Higgins, & C. P. Hermann (Eds.), Consistency in social behavior: The Ontario Symposium (Vol. 2, pp. 105–130). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
118. Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 21, 261–302.
119. Thompson, M. M., Zanna, M. P., & Griffin, D. W. (1995). Let’s not be indifferent about (attitudinal) ambivalence. In R. E. Petty & J. A. Krosnick (Eds.), Attitude strength: Antecedents and consequences. Hillsdale, N.J.: Erlbaum.
120. Tourangeau, R., Rasinski, K. A., Bradburn, N., & D’Andrade, R. (1989). Carryover effects in attitude surveys. Public Opinion Quarterly, 53, 495–524.
121. Tybout, A. M., Calder, B. J., & Sternthal, B. J. (1981). Using information processing theory to design marketing strategies. Journal of Marketing Research, 28, 73–79.
122. Van Harreveld, F., vander Pligt, J., De Vries, N. K., Wenneker, C., & Verhue, D. (2004). Ambivalence and information integration in attitudinal judgment. British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 431–447.
123. Van Overwalle, F., & Siebler, F. (2005). A connectionist model of attitude formation and change. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9, 231–274.
124. Wegner, D. M. (1989). White bears and other unwanted thoughts. New York: Viking Press.
125. Wells, G. L., Olson, E. A., & Charman, S. D. (2003). Distorted retrospective eyewitness reports as functions of feedback and delay. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 9, 42–52.
126. White, P., & Harkins, S. G. (1994). Race of source effects in the elaboration likelihood model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 790–807.
127. Wigboldus, D. H. J., Holland, R. W., & van Knippenberg, A. (2004). Single target implicit associations. Unpublished manuscript.
128. Wilson, T. D., & Hodges, S. D. (1992). Attitudes as temporary constructions. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), The construction of social judgments (pp. 37–65). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
129. Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., & Schooler, T. Y. (2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107, 101–126.
130. Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (2001). Spontaneous prejudice in context: Variability in automatically activated attitudes. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 81, 815–827.
131. Woike, B. A., & Baumgardner, A. H. (1993). Global-specific incongruencies in self-worth and the search for self-knowledge. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 19, 290–295.
132. Zelenski, J. M., & Larsen, R. J. (2003, February). The importance of knowing what we want: How implicit and explicit motives interact to predict wellbeing. Paper presented at the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Los Angeles.