Pulmonary circulation

High Altitude: Human Adaptation to Hypoxia

Volumn 9781461487722, Issue , 2014, Pages 85-102

  Maggiorini, Marco ^a   Bärtsch, Peter ^b   Swenson, Erik R ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL ZURICH   (Switzerland)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL HEIDELBERG   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84919682554     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-8772-2_5     Document Type: Chapter

References (166)

1. Grover RF, Wagner WW, McMurtry IF, Reeves JT. Pulmonary circulation. In: Handbook of physiology: the cardiovascular system. Peripheral circulation and organ blood flow. Sect. 2, vol III, pt. 1, chapter 4. Besthesda, MD; 1985. p. 103-36.
2. Sommer N, Dietrich A, Schermuly RT, et al. Regulation of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction: basic mechanisms. Eur Respir J. 2008;32:1639-51.
3. Wagner Jr WW, Latham LP, Capen RL. Capillary recruitment during airway hypoxia: role of pulmonary artery pressure. J Appl Physiol. 1979;47:383-7.
4. Naeije R, Brimioulle S. Physiology in medicine: importance of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in maintaining arterial oxygenation during acute respiratory failure. Crit Care. 2001;5:67-71.
5. Morin FC, Egan EA. Pulmonary hemodynamics in fetal lambs during development at normal and increased oxygen tension. J Appl Physiol. 1992;73:213-8.
6. Maggiorini M. High altitude-induced pulmonary oedema. Cardiovasc Res. 2006;72:41-50.
7. Dehnert C, Berger MM, Mairbaurl H, Bartsch P. High altitude pulmonary edema: a pressure-induced leak. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2007;158:266-73.
8. Sui GJ, Liu Y, Cheng XS, et al. Subacute infantile mountain sickness. J Pathol. 1988;155:161-70.
9. Anand IS, Malhotra RM, Chandrashekhar Y, et al. Adult subacute mountain sickness-a syndrome of congestive heart failure in man at very high altitude. Lancet. 1990;335:561-5.
10. Hecht HH, Kuida H, Lange RL, et al. Brisket disease. Am J Med. 1962;32:171-83.
11. Sylvester JT, Shimoda LA, Aaronson PI, Ward JP. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Physiol Rev. 2012;92:367-520.
12. Hakim TS, Michel RP, Minami H, Chang HK. Site of pulmonary hypoxic vasoconstriction studied with arterial and venous occlusion. J Appl Physiol. 1983;54:1298-302.
13. Audi SH, Dawson CA, Rickaby DA, Linehan JH. Localization of the sites of pulmonary vasomotion by use of arterial and venous occlusion. J Appl Physiol. 1991;70:2126-36.
14. Wang L, Yin J, Nickles HT, Ranke H, et al. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction requires connexin 40-mediated endothelial signal conduction. J Clin Invest. 2012;122:4218-30.
15. Conhaim RL, Burt Olson Jr E, Vidruk EH, et al. Acute hypoxia does not alter inter-alveolar perfusion distribution in unanesthetized rats. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2008;160:277-83.
16. Watson KE, Dovi WF, Conhaim RL. Evidence for active control of perfusion within lung microvessels. J Appl Physiol. 2012;112:48-53.
17. Morrell NW, Nijran KS, Biggs T, Seed WA. Magnitude and time course of acute hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in man. Respir Physiol. 1995;100:271-81.
18. Deem S, Hedges RG, Kerr ME, Swenson ER. Acetazolamide reduces hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in isolated perfused rabbit lungs. Respir Physiol. 2000;123:109-19.
19. Talbot NP, Balanos GM, Dorrington KL, Robbins PA. Two temporal components within the human pulmonary vascular response to approximately 2 h of isocapnic hypoxia. J Appl Physiol. 2005;98:1125-39.
20. Aaronson PI, Robertson TP, Ward JP. Endotheliumderived mediators and hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2002;132:107-20.
21. Weigand L, Shimoda LA, Sylvester JT. Enhancement of myofilament calcium sensitivity by acute hypoxia in rat distal pulmonary arteries. Am J Physiol. 2011;301:L380-738.
22. Weir EK, Olschewski A. Role of ion channels in acute and chronic responses of the pulmonary vasculature to hypoxia. Cardiovasc Res. 2006;71:630-41.
23. Schumacker PT. Lung cell hypoxia: role of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species signaling in triggering responses. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2011;8:477-784.
24. Bailey DM, Dehnert C, Luks AM, et al. Highaltitude pulmonary hypertension is associated with a free radical-mediated reduction in pulmonary nitric oxide bioavailability. J Physiol. 2010;588:4837-47.
25. Irwin DC, McCord JM, Nozik-Grayck E, et al. A potential role for reactive oxygen species and the HIF-1alpha-VEGF pathway in hypoxia-induced pulmonary vascular leak. Free Radic Biol Med. 2009;47:55-61.
26. Zhang F, Kaide JI, Yang L, et al. CO modulates pulmonary vascular response to acute hypoxia: relation to endothelin. Am J Physiol. 2004;286:H137-44.
27. Motterlini R, Foresti R, Bassi R, et al. Endothelial heme oxygenase-1 induction by hypoxia. Modulation by inducible nitric-oxide synthase and S-nitrosothiols. J Biol Chem. 2000;275:13613-20.
28. Madden JA, Ahlf SB, Dantuma MW, et al. Precursors and inhibitors of hydrogen sulfide synthesis affect acute hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in the intact lung. J Appl Physiol. 2012;112:411-8.
29. Skovgaard N, Gouliaev A, Aalling M, Simonsen U. The role of endogenous H2S in cardiovascular physiology. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2011;12:1385-93.
30. Evans AM, Hardie DG, Peers C, Mahmoud A. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction: mechanisms of oxygensensing. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2011;24:13-20.
31. Palareti G, Coccheri S, Poggi M, et al. Changes in the rheologic properties of blood after a high altitude expedition. Angiology. 1984;35:451-8.
32. Hakim TS, Macek AS. Role of erythrocyte deformability in the acute hypoxic pressor response in the pulmonary vasculature. Respir Physiol. 1988; 72:95-107.
33. Kaniewski WS, Hakim TS, Freedman JC. Cellular deformability of normoxic and hypoxic mammalian red blood cells. Biorheology. 1994;31:91-101.
34. Manier G, Guenard H, Castaing Y, Varene N, Vargas E. Pulmonary gas exchange in Andean natives with excessive polycythemia-effect of hemodilution. J Appl Physiol. 1988;65:2107-17.
35. Kerbaul F, Van der Linden P, Pierre S, et al. Prevention of hemodilution-induced inhibition of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction by N-acetylcysteine in dogs. Anesth Analg. 2004;99:547-51.
36. Deem S, Swenson ER, Alberts MK, et al. Redblood- cell augmentation of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction: hematocrit dependence and the importance of nitric oxide. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1181-6.
37. Kiefmann R, Rifkind JM, Nagababu E, Bhattacharya J. Red blood cells induce hypoxic lung inflammation. Blood. 2008;111:5205-14.
38. Stamler JS, Singel DJ, Loscalzo J. Biochemistry of nitric oxide and its redox-activated forms. Science. 1992;258:1898-902.
39. Crawford JH, Isbell TS, Huang Z, et al. Hypoxia, red blood cells, and nitrite regulate NO-dependent hypoxic vasodilation. Blood. 2006;107:566-74.
40. Sprague RS, Olearczyk JJ, Spence DM, et al. Extracellular ATP signaling in the rabbit lung: eryth- rocytes as determinants of vascular resistance. Am J Physiol. 2003;285:H693-700.
41. Kummer W. Pulmonary vascular innervation and its role in responses to hypoxia: size matters! Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2011;8:471-6.
42. McMahon TJ, Hood JS, Kadowitz PJ. Pulmonary vasodilator response to vagal stimulation is blocked by N omega-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester in the cat. Circ Res. 1992;70:364-9.
43. Naeije R, Lejeune P, Leeman M, et al. Pulmonary vascular responses to surgical chemodenervation and chemical sympathectomy in dogs. J Appl Physiol. 1989;66:42-50.
44. Levitzky MG, Newell JC, Dutton RE. Effect of chemoreceptor denervation on the pulmonary vascular response to atelectasis. Respir Physiol. 1978;35: 43-51.
45. Chapleau MW, Wilson LB, Gregory TJ, Levitzky MG. Chemoreceptor stimulation interferes with regional hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Respir Physiol. 1988;71:185-200.
46. Wilson LB, Levitzky MG. Chemoreflex blunting of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction is vagally mediated. J Appl Physiol. 1989;66:782-91.
47. Marshall JM. Peripheral chemoreceptors and cardiovascular regulation. Physiol Rev. 1994;74:543-94.
48. Lejeune P, Vachiery JL, Leeman M, et al. Absence of parasympathetic control of pulmonary vascular pressure- flow plots in hyperoxic and hypoxic dogs. Respir Physiol. 1989;78(2):123-33. PubMed PMID: 2609023. Epub 1989/11/01. eng.
49. Lodato RF, Michael JR, Murray PA. Absence of neural modulation of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in conscious dogs. J Appl Physiol. 1988; 65(4):1481-7.
50. Liu C, Smith TG, Balanos GM, et al. Lack of involvement of the autonomic nervous system in early ventilatory and pulmonary vascular acclimatization to hypoxia in humans. J Physiol. 2007;579: 215-25.
51. Alberts TJ, Swenson ER. Peripheral chemoreceptor responsivness and hypoxic pulmonary asoconstriction in humans. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;183:A5033.
52. Bartsch P, Mairbaurl H, Maggiorini M, Swenson ER. Physiological aspects of high-altitude pulmonary edema. J Appl Physiol. 2005;98:1101-10.
53. Duplain H, Vollenweider L, Delabays A, et al. Augmented sympathetic activation during shortterm hypoxia and high-altitude exposure in subjects susceptible to high-altitude pulmonary edema. Circulation. 1999;99:1713-8.
54. Koyama S, Kobayashi T, Kubo K, et al. The increased sympathoadrenal activity in patients with high altitude pulmonary edema is centrally mediated. Jpn J Med. 1988;27:10-6.
55. Hohenhaus E, Paul A, McCullough RE, et al. Ventilatory and pulmonary vascular response to hypoxia and susceptibility to high altitude pulmonary oedema. Eur Respir J. 1995;8:1825-33.
56. Selland MA, Stelzner TJ, Stevens T, et al. Pulmonary function and hypoxic ventilatory response in subjects susceptible to high-altitude pulmonary edema. Chest. 1993;103:111-6.
57. Lahm T, Albrecht M, Fisher AJ, et al. 17beta- Estradiol attenuates hypoxic pulmonary hypertension via estrogen receptor-mediated effects. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;185:965-80.
58. Cargill RI, Lipworth BJ. Atrial natriuretic peptide and brain natriuretic peptide in cor pulmonale. Hemodynamic and endocrine effects. Chest. 1996; 110:1220-5.
59. Cargill RI, Lipworth BJ. Acute effects of hypoxaemia and angiotensin II in the human pulmonary vascular bed. Pulm Pharmacol. 1994;7:305-10.
60. Thomas T, Marshall JM. The role of adenosine in hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in the anaesthetized rat. Exp Physiol. 1993;78:541-3.
61. Herget J, Frydrychova M, Kawikova I, McMurtry IF. Thyroxine treatment increases the hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in isolated lungs from thyroidectomized rats. Bull Eur Physiopathol Respir. 1987;23:217-21.
62. Stobdan T, Karar J, Pasha MA. High altitude adaptation: genetic perspectives. High Alt Med Biol. 2008;9:140-7.
63. Leon-Velarde F, Mejia O. Gene expression in chronic high altitude diseases. High Alt Med Biol. 2008;9:130-9.
64. Fred HL, Schmith AM, Bates T, Hecht HH. Acute pulmonary edema of altitude. Circulation. 1962;25: 929-37.
65. Scoggin CH, Hyers TM, Reeves JT, Grover RF. High altitude pulmonary edema in the children and young adults of Leadville, Colorado. N Engl J Med. 1977;297:1269-71.
66. Lorenzo VF, Yang Y, Simonson TS, et al. Genetic adaptation to extreme hypoxia: study of highaltitude pulmonary edema in a three-generation Han Chinese family. Blood Cells Mol Dis. 2009;43: 221-5.
67. Balanos GM, Talbot NP, Dorrington KL, Robbins PA. Human pulmonary vascular response to 4 h of hypercapnia and hypocapnia measured using Doppler echocardiography. J Appl Physiol. 2003;94: 1543-51.
68. Tsai BM, Wang M, Pitcher JM, et al. Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction and pulmonary artery tissue cytokine expression are mediated by protein kinase C. Am J Physiol. 2004;287:L1215-9.
69. Petersen B, Austen KF, Bloch KD, et al. Cysteinyl leukotrienes impair hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in endotoxemic mice. Anesthesiology. 2011;115: 804-11.
70. Johnson D, Hurst T, Wilson T, et al. NG-monomethyl- L-arginine does not restore loss of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction induced by TNF-alpha. J Appl Physiol. 1993;75:618-25.
71. Savale L, Tu L, Rideau D, Izziki M, Maitre B, Adnot S, et al. Impact of interleukin-6 on hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension and lung inflammation in mice. Respir Res. 2009;10:6-10.
72. Petersen B, Bloch KD, Ichinose F, et al. Activation of Toll-like receptor 2 impairs hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction in mice. Am J Physiol. 2008;294: L300-8.
73. De Cruz SJ, Kenyon NJ, Sandrock CE. Bench-tobedside review: the role of nitric oxide in sepsis. Expert Rev Respir Med. 2009;3:511-21.
74. Smith TG, Balanos GM, Croft QP, et al. The increase in pulmonary arterial pressure caused by hypoxia depends on iron status. J Physiol. 2008;586: 5999-6005.
75. Smith TG, Talbot NP, Privat C, et al. Effects of iron supplementation and depletion on hypoxic pulmonary hypertension: two randomized controlled trials. JAMA. 2009;302:1444-50.
76. Knowles HJ, Raval RR, Harris AL, Ratcliffe PJ. Effect of ascorbate on the activity of hypoxiainducible factor in cancer cells. Cancer Res. 2003;63:1764-8.
77. Engebretsen BJ, Irwin D, Valdez ME. e tal. Acute hypobaric hypoxia (5486 m) induces greater pulmonary HIF-1 activation in hilltop compared to madison rats. High Alt Med Biol. 2007;8:312-21.
78. Shimoda LA, Manalo DJ, Sham JS, et al. Partial HIF-1alpha deficiency impairs pulmonary arterial myocyte electrophysiological responses to hypoxia. Am J Physiol. 2001;281:L202-8.
79. Yu AY, Shimoda LA, Iyer NV, et al. Impaired physiological responses to chronic hypoxia in mice partially deficient for hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha. J Clin Invest. 1999;103:691-6.
80. Kline DD, Peng YJ, Manalo DJ, et al. Defective carotid body function and impaired ventilatory responses to chronic hypoxia in mice partially defi- cient for hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2002;99:821-6.
81. Abud EM, Maylor J, Undem C, et al. Digoxin inhibits development of hypoxic pulmonary hypertension in mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2012;109:1239-44.
82. Janssen C, Lheureux O, Beloka S, et al. Digoxin increases peripheral chemosensitivity and the ventilatory response to exercise in normal subjects. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2010;37:303-8.
83. Zhang H, Qian DZ, Tan YS, et al. Digoxin and other cardiac glycosides inhibit HIF-1alpha synthesis and block tumor growth. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2008;105:19579-86.
84. Groves BM, Reeves JT, Sutton JR, et al. Operation Everest II: elevated high altitude pulmonary resistance unresponsive to oxygen. J Appl Physiol. 1987;63:521-30.
85. Penaloza D, Arias-Stella J. The heart and pulmonary circulation at high altitudes: healthy highlanders and chronic mountain sickness. Circulation. 2007;115: 1132-46.
86. Stenmark KR, Fagan KA, Frid MG. Hypoxiainduced pulmonary vascular remodeling: cellular and molecular mechanisms. Circ Res. 2006;99: 675-91.
87. Stenmark KR, Davie NJ, Reeves JT, Frid MG. Hypoxia, leukocytes, and the pulmonary circulation. J Appl Physiol. 2005;98:715-21.
88. Li M, Riddle SR, Frid MG, et al. Emergence of fibroblasts with a proinflammatory epigenetically altered phenotype in severe hypoxic pulmonary hypertension. J Immunol. 2012;187:2711-22.
89. Hartney T, Birari R, Venkataraman S, et al. Xanthine oxidase-derived ROS upregulate Egr-1 via ERK1/2 in PA smooth muscle cells; model to test impact of extracellular ROS in chronic hypoxia. PLoS One. 2011;6:e27531.
90. Nozik-Grayck E, Stenmark KR. Role of reactive oxygen species in chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension and vascular remodeling. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2007;618:101-12.
91. Cavasin MA, Demos-Davies K, Horn TR, et al. Selective class I histone deacetylase inhibition suppresses hypoxia-induced cardiopulmonary remodeling through an antiproliferative mechanism. Circ Res. 2012;110:739-48.
92. de Frutos S, Spangler R, Alo D, et al. NFATc3 mediates chronic hypoxia-induced pulmonary arterial remodeling with alpha-actin up-regulation. J Biol Chem. 2007;282:15081-9.
93. de Frutos S, Caldwell E, Nitta CH, et al. NFATc3 contributes to intermittent hypoxia-induced arterial remodeling in mice. Am J Physiol. 2010;299: H356-63.
94. Eltzschig HK, Carmeliet P. Hypoxia and inflammation. N Engl J Med. 2012;364:656-65.
95. Chan YC, Banerjee J, Choi SY, Sen CK. miR-210: the master hypoxamir. Microcirculation. 2012;19:215-23.
96. Guo L, Qiu Z, Wei L, et al. The microRNA-328 regulates hypoxic pulmonary hypertension by targeting at insulin growth factor 1 receptor and L-type calcium channel-alpha1C. Hypertension. 2012;59: 1006-13.
97. Sarkar J, Gou D, Turaka P, et al. MicroRNA-21 plays a role in hypoxia-mediated pulmonary artery smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration. Am J Physiol. 2010;299:L861-71.
98. Pullamsetti SS, Doebele C, Fischer A, et al. Inhibition of microRNA-17 improves lung and heart function in experimental pulmonary hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012;185:409-19.
99. Chen F, Zhang W, Liang Y, et al. Transcriptome and network changes in climbers at extreme altitudes. PLoS One. 2012;7:e31645.
100. Brusselmans K, Compernolle V, Tjwa M, et al. Heterozygous deficiency of hypoxia-inducible factor- 2alpha protects mice against pulmonary hypertension and right ventricular dysfunction during prolonged hypoxia. J Clin Invest. 2003;111: 1519-27.
101. Formenti F, Beer PA, Croft QP, et al. Cardiopulmonary function in two human disorders of the hypoxiainducible factor (HIF) pathway: von Hippel-Lindau disease and HIF-2alpha gain-of-function mutation. FASEB J. 2012;25:2001-11.
102. Kronenberg RG, Safar P, Wright F, et al. Pulmonary artery pressure and alveolar gas exchange in men during acclimatization to 12,470 ft. J Clin Invest. 1971;50:827-37.
103. Vogel JHK, Goss GE, Mori M, Brammell HL. Pulmonary circulation in normal man with acute exposure to high altitude (14.260 feet). Circulation. 1966;43(suppl III):3-233.
104. Maggiorini M, Mélot C, Pierre S, et al. High altitude pulmonary edema is initially caused by an increase in capillary pressure. Circulation. 2001;103:2078-83.
105. Groves BM, Droma T, Sutton JR, McCullough RG, McCullough RE, Zhuang J, et al. Minimal hypoxic pulmonary hypertension in normal Tibetans at 3,658 m. J Appl Physiol. 1993;74(1):312-8.
106. Hultgren HN, Kelly J, Miller H. Pulmonary circulation in acclimatized mean at high altitude. J Appl Physiol. 1965;20(2):233-8.
107. Vogel J, Weaver W, Rose R, et al. Pulmonary hypertension on exertion in normal man living at 10,150 feet (Leadville Colorado). Med Thorac. 1962;19:461-77.
108. Gupta ML, Rao KS, Anand IS, et al. Lack of smooth muscle in the small pulmonary arteries of the native Ladakhi. Is the Himalayan highlander adapted? Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;145:1201-14.
109. Wagenvoort CA, Wagenvoort N. Hypoxic pulmonary vascular lesions in man at high altitude and in patients with chronic respiratory disease. Pathol Microbiol. 1973;39:276-82.
110. Leon-Velarde F, Maggiorini M, Reeves JT, et al. Consensus statement on chronic and subacute high altitude diseases. High Alt Med Biol. 2005;6:147-57.
111. Antezana G, Leguia G, Guzman A. Hemodynamic study of high altitude pulmonary edema (12'000 ft). In: Brendel W, Zink R, editors. High altitude physiology and medicine. New York: Springer; 1982. p. 232-41.
112. Hultgren NH, Lopez CE, Lundberg E, Miller H. Physiologic studies of pulmonary edema at high altitude. Circulation. 1964;29:393-408.
113. Kobayashi T, Koyama S, Kubo K, et al. Clinical features of patients with high altitude pulmonary edema in Japan. Chest. 1987;92:814-21.
114. Koitzumi T, Kawashima A, Kubo K, et al. Radiographic and hemodynamic changes during recovery from high altitude pulmonary edema. Intern Med. 1994;33:525-8.
115. Roy BS, Guleria JS, Khanna PK, et al. Haemodynamic studies in high altitude pulmonary edema. Br Heart J. 1969;31:52-8.
116. Penaloza D, Sime F. Circulatory dynamics during high altitude pulmonary edema. Am J Cardiol. 1969;23:368-78.
117. Anand IS, Wu T. Syndromes of subacute mountain sickness. High Alt Med Biol. 2004;5:156-70.
118. Sobin SS, Tremer HM, Hardy JD, Chiodi HP. Changes in arteriole in acute and chronic hypoxic pulmonary hypertension and recovery in rat. J Appl Physiol. 1983;55:1445-55.
119. Rabinovitch M, Gamble W, Miettinen O, Reid L. Age and sex influence on pulmonary hypertension of chronic hypoxia and on recovery. Am J Physiol. 1981;240:H62-72.
120. Rabinovitch M, Konstam MA, Gamble WJ, et al. Changes in pulmonary blood flow affect vascular response to chronic hypoxia in rats. Circ Res. 1983;52:432-41.
121. Berg JT, Breen EC, Fu Z, et al. Alveolar hypoxia increases gene expression of extracellular matrix proteins and platelet-derived growth factor-B in lung parenchyma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158:1920-8.
122. Ge RL, Helun G. Current concept of chronic mountain sickness: pulmonary hypertension-related highaltitude heart disease. Wilderness Environ Med. 2001;12:190-4.
123. Pei SX, Chen XJ, Si Ren BZ, et al. Chronic mountain sickness in Tibet. Q J Med. 1989;71:555-74.
124. Anand IS, Chandrashekhar Y, Rao SK, et al. Body fluid compartments, renal blood flow, and hormones at 6,000 m in normal subjects. J Appl Physiol. 1993;74:1234-9.
125. Wu T. A Tibetan with chronic mountain sickness followed by high altitude pulmonary edema on reentry. High Alt Med Biol. 2004;5:190-4.
126. Hultgren HN, Marticorena EA. High altitude pulmonary edema. Epidemiologic observations in Peru. Chest. 1978;74:372-6.
127. Fasules JW, Wiggins JW, Wolfe RR. Increased lung vasoreactivity in children from Leadville, Colorado, after recovery from high altitude. Circulation. 1985;72:957-62.
128. Wu TY. Chronic mountain sickness on the Qinghai- Tibetan plateau. Chin Med J. 2005;118: 161-8.
129. Gamboa R, Marticorena E. Pulmonary arterial pressure in newborn infants in high altitude. Arch Inst Biol Andina. 1971;4:55-66.
130. Sime F, Banchero N, Penaloza D, et al. Pulmonary hypertension in children born and living at high altitudes. Am J Cardiol. 1963;11:143-9.
131. Ge RL, Ma RY, Bao HH, et al. Changes of cardiac structure and function in pediatric patients with high altitude pulmonary hypertension in Tibet. High Alt Med Biol. 2009;10:247-52.
132. Arias-Stella J, Saldaña M. The terminal portion of the pulmonary arterial tree in people native to high altitude. Circulation. 1963;28:915-25.
133. Gamboa R, Marticorena E. The ductus arteriosus in the newborn infant at high altitude. Vasa. 1972;1: 192-5.
134. Hultgren H. Chronic mountain sickness. In: Hultgren H, editor. High altitude medicine. San Francisco, CA: Hultgren Publication; 1997. p. 348-67.
135. Maignan M, Rivera-Ch M, Privat C, Leon-Velarde F, et al. Pulmonary pressure and cardiac function in chronic mountain sickness patients. Chest. 2009;135: 499-504.
136. Aldashev AA, Sarybaev AS, Sydykov AS, et al. Characterization of high-altitude pulmonary hypertension in the Kyrgyz: association with angiotensin- converting enzyme genotype. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:1396-402.
137. Kojonazarov BK, Imanov BZ, Amatov TA, et al. Noninvasive and invasive evaluation of pulmonary arterial pressure in highlanders. Eur Respir J. 2007; 29:352-6.
138. Hoffman JI. Pulmonary vascular resistance and viscosity: the forgotten factor. Pediatr Cardiol. 2011;32: 557-61.
139. Winslow RM, Monge CC, Brown EG, et al. Effects of hemodilution on O2 transport in high-altitude polycythemia. J Appl Physiol. 1985;59:1495-502.
140. Groepenhoff H, Overbeek MJ, Mule M, et al. Exercise pathophysiology in patients with chronic mountain sickness. Chest. 2012;142:877-84.
141. Vargas E, Spielvogel H. Chronic mountain sickness, optimal hemoglobin, and heart disease. High Alt Med Biol. 2006;7:138-49.
142. Maggiorini M, Leon-Velarde F. High-altitude pulmonary hypertension: a pathophysiological entity to different diseases. Eur Respir J. 2003;22:1019-25.
143. Grunig E, Weissmann S, Ehlken N, et al. Stress Doppler echocardiography in relatives of patients with idiopathic and familial pulmonary arterial hypertension: results of a multicenter European analysis of pulmonary artery pressure response to exercise and hypoxia. Circulation. 2009;119: 1747-57.
144. Wu T, Kayser B. High altitude adaptation in Tibetans. High Alt Med Biol. 2006;7:193-208.
145. Beall CM, Decker MJ, Brittenham GM, et al. An Ethiopian pattern of human adaptation to highaltitude hypoxia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2002;99: 17215-8.
146. Beall CM, Laskowski D, Strohl KP, et al. Pulmonary nitric oxide in mountain dwellers. Nature. 2001;414:411-2.
147. Ahsan A, Norboo T, Baig MA, Qadar Pasha MA. Simultaneous selection of the wild-type genotypes of the G894T and 4B/4A polymorphisms of NOS3 associate with high-altitude adaptation. Ann Hum Genet. 2005;69:260-7.
148. Droma Y, Hanaoka M, Basnyat B, et al. Genetic contribution of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase gene to high altitude adaptation in sherpas. High Alt Med Biol. 2006;7:209-20.
149. Mejia OM, Prchal JT, Leon-Velarde F, et al. Genetic association analysis of chronic mountain sickness in an Andean high-altitude population. Haematologica. 2005;90:13-9.
150. Mortimer H, Patel S, Peacock AJ. The genetic basis of high-altitude pulmonary oedema. Pharmacol Ther. 2004;101:183-92.
151. Bushuev VI, Miasnikova GY, Sergueeva AI, et al. Endothelin-1, vascular endothelial growth factor and systolic pulmonary artery pressure in patients with Chuvash polycythemia. Haematologica. 2006;91: 744-9.
152. Hotta J, Hanaoka M, Droma Y, et al. Polymorphisms of renin-angiotensin system genes with high-altitude pulmonary edema in Japanese subjects. Chest. 2004;126:825-30.
153. Rupert JL, Koehle MS. Evidence for a genetic basis for altitude-related illness. High Alt Med Biol. 2006;7:150-67.
154. van Patot MC, Gassmann M. Hypoxia: adapting to high altitude by mutating EPAS-1, the gene encoding HIF-2alpha. High Alt Med Biol. 2011;12:157-67.
155. Penaloza D, Sime F. Chronic cor pulmonale due to loss of altitude acclimatization (chronic mountain sickness). Am J Med. 1971;50:728-43.
156. Das BB, Wolfe RR, Chan KC, et al. High-altitude pulmonary edema in children with underlying cardiopulmonary disorders and pulmonary hypertension living at altitude. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2004;158:1170-6.
157. Antezana AM, Antezana G, Aparicio O, et al. Pulmonary hypertension in high-altitude chronic hypoxia: response to nifedipine. Eur Respir J. 1998;12:1181-5.
158. Aldashev AA, Kojonazarov BK, Amatov TA, et al. Phosphodiesterase type 5 and high altitude pulmonary hypertension. Thorax. 2005;60:683-7.
159. Maggiorini M, Brunner-La Rocca HP, Peth S, et al. Both tadalafil and dexamethasone may reduce the incidence of high-altitude pulmonary edema: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med. 2006;145:497-506.
160. Ghofrani HA, Grimminger F. Soluble guanylate cyclase stimulation: an emerging option in pulmonary hypertension therapy. Eur Respir Rev. 2009;18:35-41.
161. Kojonazarov B, Myrzaakhmatova A, Sooronbaev T, et al. Effects of fasudil in patients with high-altitude pulmonary hypertension. Eur Respir J. 2012;39: 496-8.
162. Swenson ER, Teppema LJ. Prevention of acute mountain sickness by acetazolamide: as yet an unfinished story. J Appl Physiol. 2007;102:1305-7.
163. Swenson ER. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors and hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2006;151:209-16.
164. Teppema LJ, Balanos GM, Steinback CD, et al. Effects of acetazolamide on ventilatory, cerebrovascular, and pulmonary vascular responses to hypoxia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;175:277-81.
165. Rivera-Ch M, Huicho L, Bouchet P, et al. Effect of acetazolamide on ventilatory response in subjects with chronic mountain sickness. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2008;162:184-9.
166. Richalet JP, Rivera-Ch M, Maignan M, et al. Acetazolamide for Monge's disease: efficiency and tolerance of 6-month treatment. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177:1370-6.