The molecular pathology of noroviruses

Journal of Pathology

Volumn 235, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 206-216

  Karst, Stephanie M ^a   Zhu, Shu ^a   Goodfellow, Ian G ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Calicivirus; Gastroenteritis; Norovirus; Vomiting

Indexed keywords

ACUTE GASTROENTERITIS; ANIMAL DISEASE; ARTICLE; CALICIVIRUS; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNITY; IMMUNOCOMPROMISED PATIENT; LIFE CYCLE; MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; NOROVIRUS; NOROVIRUS INFECTION; PATHOGENESIS; VIRAL TROPISM; VIRUS REPLICATION; ANIMAL; BIOPSY; CALICIVIRUS INFECTION; GASTROENTERITIS; GENETICS; GENOTYPE; HOST PATHOGEN INTERACTION; IMMUNOLOGY; PATHOGENICITY; PATHOLOGY; PREDICTIVE VALUE; PROCEDURES; PROGNOSIS; VIROLOGY; VIRULENCE;

ANIMALS; BIOPSY; CALICIVIRIDAE INFECTIONS; GASTROENTERITIS; GENOTYPE; HOST-PATHOGEN INTERACTIONS; HUMANS; NOROVIRUS; PATHOLOGY, MOLECULAR; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; PROGNOSIS; VIRAL TROPISM; VIROLOGY; VIRULENCE;

EID: 84917706842     PISSN: 00223417     EISSN: 10969896     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/path.4463     Document Type: Article

References (143)

1. Zahorsky J. Hyperemesis hiemis or the winter vomiting disease. Arch Pediatr 1929; 46: 391-395.
2. Kapikian AZ. The discovery of the 27-nm Norwalk virus: an historic perspective. J Infect Dis 2000; 181 (Suppl 2): S295-S302.
3. Ahmed SM, Hall AJ, Robinson AE, et al. Global prevalence of norovirus in cases of gastroenteritis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infect Dis 2014; 14: 725-730.
4. Scallan E, Hoekstra RM, Angulo FJ, et al. Foodborne illness acquired in the United States-major pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis 2011; 17: 7-15.
5. Hall AJ, Lopman BA, Payne DC, et al. Norovirus disease in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2013; 19: 1198-1205.
6. Hall AJ, Curns AT, McDonald LC, et al. The roles of Clostridium diffcile and norovirus among gastroenteritis-associated deaths in the United States, 1999-2007. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 216-223.
7. Bok K, Green KY. Norovirus gastroenteritis in immunocompro-mised patients. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 2126-2132.
8. Batz MB, Hoffmann S, Morris JG. Ranking the disease burden of 14 pathogens in food sources in the United States using attribution data from outbreak investigations and expert elicitation. J Food Prot 2012; 75: 1278-1291.
9. Debbink K, Lindesmith LC, Baric RS. The state of norovirus vaccines. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58: 1746-1752.
10. Bartsch SM, Lopman BA, Hall AJ, et al. The potential economic value of a human norovirus vaccine for the United States. Vaccine 2012; 30: 7097-7104.
11. Duizer E, Schwab KJ, Neill FH, et al. Laboratory efforts to cultivate noroviruses. J Gen Vi ro l 2004; 85: 79-87.
12. Thorne LG, Goodfellow IG. Norovirus gene expression and replication. J Gen Vi ro l 2014; 95: 278-291.
13. Karst SM, Wobus CE, Goodfellow IG, et al. Advances in norovirus biology. Cell Host Microbe 2014; 15: 668-680.
14. McFadden N, Bailey D, Carrara G, et al. Norovirus regulation of the innate immune response and apoptosis occurs via the product of the alternative open reading frame 4. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7: e1002413.
15. Jones MK, Karst SM. Noroviruses. In Foodborne Infections and Intoxications (4th edn), Morris JG Jr, Potter ME (eds). Academic Press: London, 2013; 261-278.
16. Patterson T, Hutchings P, Palmer S. Outbreak of SRSV gastroenteritis at an international conference traced to food handled by a post-symptomatic caterer. Epidemiol Infect 1993; 111: 157-162.
17. Parashar UD, Dow L, Fankhauser RL, et al. An outbreak of viral gastroenteritis associated with consumption of sandwiches: implications for the control of transmission by food handlers. Epidemiol Infect 1998; 121: 615-621.
18. Anderson AD, Garrett VD, Sobel J, et al. Multistate outbreak of Norwalk-like virus gastroenteritis associated with a common caterer. Am J Epidemiol 2001; 154: 1013-1019.
19. Daniels NA, Bergmire-Sweat DA, Schwab KJ, et al. A foodborne outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with Norwalk-like viruses: frst molecular traceback to deli sandwiches contaminated during preparation. J Infect Dis 2000; 181: 1467-1470.
20. Seitz SR, Leon JS, Schwab KJ, et al. Norovirus infectivity in humans and persistence in water. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011; 77: 6884-6888.
21. Hall AJ. Noroviruses: the perfect human pathogens? J Infect Dis 2012; 205: 1622-1624.
22. Kaplan JE, Schonberger LB, Varano G, et al. An outbreak of acute nonbacterial gastroenteritis in a nursing home. Demonstration of person-to-person transmission by temporal clustering of cases. Am J Epidemiol 1982; 116: 940-948.
23. Kappus KD, Marks JS, Holman RC, et al. An outbreak of Nor-walk gastroenteritis associated with swimming in a pool and secondary person-to-person transmission. Am J Epidemiol 1982; 116: 834-839.
24. Cáceres VM, Kim DK, Bresee JS, et al. A viral gastroenteritis outbreak associated with person-to-person spread among hospital staff. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1998; 19: 162-167.
25. Baron RC, Murphy FD, Greenberg HB, et al. Norwalk gastrointestinal illness: an outbreak associated with swimming in a recreational lake and secondary person-to-person transmission. Am J Epidemiol 1982; 115: 163-172.
26. Alfano-Sobsey E, Sweat D, Hall A, et al. Norovirus outbreak associated with undercooked oysters and secondary household transmission. Epidemiol Infect 2012; 140: 276-282.
27. Chadwick PR, McCann R. Transmission of a small round structured virus by vomiting during a hospital outbreak of gastroenteritis. J Hosp Infect 1994; 26: 251-259.
28. Lopman B. Air sickness: vomiting and environmental transmission of norovirus on aircraft. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53: 521-522.
29. O'Neill PD, Marks PJ. Bayesian model choice and infection route modelling in an outbreak of Norovirus. Stat Med 2005; 24: 2011-2024.
30. Rockx B, de Wit M, Vennema H, et al. Natural history of human calicivirus infection: a prospective cohort study. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35: 246-253.
31. Atmar RL, Opekun AR, Gilger MA, et al. Norwalk virus shedding after experimental human infection. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14: 1553-1557.
32. Chan MCW, Sung JJY, Lam RKY, et al. Fecal viral load and norovirus-associated gastroenteritis. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12: 1278-1280.
33. Green KY. Caliciviridae: the noroviruses. In Fields Virology, Volume 1 (6th edn), Knipe DM, Howley PM (eds). Lippincott Williams and Wilkins: Philadelphia, 2013; 582-608.
34. Sakai Y, Nakata S, Honma S, et al. Clinical severity of Norwalk virus and Sapporo virus gastroenteritis in children in Hokkaido, Japan. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2001; 20: 849-853.
35. Zintz C, Bok K, Parada E, et al. Prevalence and genetic characterization of caliciviruses among children hospitalized for acute gastroenteritis in the United States. Infect Genet Evol 2005; 5: 281-290.
36. Kirkwood CD, Streitberg R. Calicivirus shedding in children after recovery from diarrhoeal disease. J Clin Vi ro l 2008; 43: 346-348.
37. Murata T, Katsushima N, Mizuta K, et al. Prolonged norovirus shedding in infants under 6 months of age with gastroenteritis. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007; 26: 46-49.
38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Norovirus activity-United States, 2006-2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2007; 56: 842-846.
39. Lopman BA, Reacher MH, Vipond IB, et al. Clinical manifestation of norovirus gastroenteritis in health care settings. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 39: 318-324.
40. Lopman BA, Adak GK, Reacher MH, et al. Two epidemiologic patterns of norovirus outbreaks: surveillance in England and Wales, 1992-2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2003; 9: 71-77.
41. Ahn JY, Chung J-W, Chang K-J, et al. Clinical characteristics and etiology of travelers' diarrhea among Korean travelers visiting South-East Asia. J Korean Med Sci 2011; 26: 196-200.
42. Chapin AR, Carpenter CM, Dudley WC, et al. Prevalence of norovirus among visitors from the United States to Mexico and Guatemala who experience traveler's diarrhea. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 1112-1117.
43. Ko G, Garcia C, Jiang Z-D, et al. Noroviruses as a cause of traveler's diarrhea among students from the United States visiting Mexico. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 6126-6129.
44. Dolin R, Levy AG, Wyatt RG, et al. Viral gastroenteritis induced by the Hawaii agent. Jejunal histopathology and serologic response. Am J Med 1975; 59: 761-768.
45. Blacklow NR, Dolin R, Fedson DS, et al. Acute infectious non-bacterial gastroenteritis: etiology and pathogenesis. Ann Intern Med 1972; 76: 993-1008.
46. Schreiber DS, Blacklow NR, Trier JS. The mucosal lesion of the proximal small intestine in acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis. N Engl J Med 1973; 288: 1318-1323.
47. Schreiber DS, Blacklow NR, Trier JS. The small intestinal lesion induced by Hawaii agent acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis. J Infect Dis 1974; 129: 705-708.
48. Troeger H, Loddenkemper C, Schneider T, et al. Structural and functional changes of the duodenum in human norovirus infection. Gut 2009; 58: 1070-1077.
49. Meeroff JC, Schreiber DS, Trier JS, et al. Abnormal gastric motor function in viral gastroenteritis. Ann Intern Med 1980; 92: 370-373.
50. Turcios-Ruiz RM, Axelrod P, St John K, et al. Outbreak of necro-tizing enterocolitis caused by norovirus in a neonatal intensive care unit. J Pediatr 2008; 153: 339-344.
51. Stuart RL, Tan K, Mahar JE, et al. An outbreak of necrotizing ente-rocolitis associated with norovirus genotype GII.3. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2010; 29: 644-647.
52. Pelizzo G, Nakib G, Goruppi I, et al. Isolated colon ischemia with norovirus infection in preterm babies: a case series. J Med Case Rep 2013; 7: 108.
53. Marshall JK, Thabane M, Borgaonkar MR, et al. Postinfectious irritable bowel syndrome after a food-borne outbreak of acute gastroenteritis attributed to a viral pathogen. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007; 5: 457-460.
54. Khan RR, Lawson AD, Minnich LL, et al. Gastrointestinal norovirus infection associated with exacerbation of infammatory bowel disease. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009; 48: 328-333.
55. Ito S, Takeshita S, Nezu A, et al. Norovirus-associated encephalopa-thy. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2006; 25: 651-652.
56. Obinata K, Okumura A, Nakazawa T, et al. Norovirus encephalopa-thy in a previously healthy child. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2010; 29: 1057-1059.
57. Kawano G, Oshige K, Syutou S, et al. Benign infantile convulsions associated with mild gastroenteritis: a retrospective study of 39 cases including virological tests and effcacy of anticonvulsants. Brain Dev 2007; 29: 617-622.
58. Chen S-Y, Tsai C-N, Lai M-W, et al. Norovirus infection as a cause of diarrhea-associated benign infantile seizures. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48: 849-855.
59. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Outbreak of acute gastroenteritis associated with Norwalk-like viruses among British military personnel-Afghanistan, May 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002;51: 477-479.
60. Takanashi S, Hashira S, Matsunaga T, et al. Detection, genetic characterization, and quantifcation of norovirus RNA from sera of children with gastroenteritis. J Clin Vi ro l 2009; 44: 161-163.
61. Green KY. Norovirus infection in immunocompromised hosts. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20: 717-723.
62. Gallimore CI, Lewis D, Taylor C, et al. Chronic excretion of a norovirus in a child with cartilage hair hypoplasia (CHH). J Clin Vi ro l 2004; 30: 196-204.
63. Morotti RA, Kaufman SS, Fishbein TM, et al. Calicivirus infection in pediatric small intestine transplant recipients: pathological considerations. Hum Pathol 2004; 35: 1236-1240.
64. Nilsson M, Hedlund K-O, Thorhagen M, et al. Evolution of human calicivirus RNA in vivo: accumulation of mutations in the protruding P2 domain of the capsid leads to structural changes and possibly a new phenotype. J Virol 2003; 77: 13117-13124.
65. Roddie C, Paul JPV, Benjamin R, et al. Allogeneic hematopoi-etic stem cell transplantation and norovirus gastroenteritis: a previously unrecognized cause of morbidity. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 49: 1061-1068.
66. Schorn R, Höhne M, Meerbach A, et al. Chronic norovirus infection after kidney transplantation: molecular evidence for immune-driven viral evolution. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51: 307-314.
67. Frange P, Touzot F, Debré M, et al. Prevalence and clinical impact of norovirus fecal shedding in children with inherited immune defciencies. J Infect Dis 2012; 206: 1269-1274.
68. Pinto P, Wang Q, Chen N, et al. Discovery and genomic characterization of noroviruses from a gastroenteritis outbreak in domestic cats in the US. PLoS One 2012; 7: e32739.
69. Sugieda M, Nakajima S. Viruses detected in the caecum contents of healthy pigs representing a new genetic cluster in genogroup II of the genus 'Norwalk-like viruses'. Viru s Res 2002; 87: 165-172.
70. Wolf S, Williamson W, Hewitt J, et al. Molecular detection of norovirus in sheep and pigs in New Zealand farms. Vet Microbiol 2009; 133: 184-189.
71. Karst SM, Wobus CE, Lay M, et al. STAT1-dependent innate immunity to a Norwalk-like virus. Science 2003; 299: 1575-1578.
72. Oliver SL, Dastjerdi AM, Wong S, et al. Molecular characterization of bovine enteric caliciviruses: a distinct third genogroup of noroviruses (Norwalk-like viruses) unlikely to be of risk to humans. J Virol 2003; 77: 2789-2798.
73. Tse H, Chan W-M, Lam CSF, et al. Complete genome sequences of novel rat noroviruses in Hong Kong. J Virol 2012; 86: 12435-12436.
74. Martella V, Lorusso E, Decaro N, et al. Detection and molecular characterization of a canine norovirus. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14: 1306-1308.
75. Thackray LB, Wobus CE, Chachu KA, et al. Murine noroviruses comprising a single genogroup exhibit biological diversity despite limited sequence divergence. J Virol 2007; 81: 10460-10473.
76. Vashist S, Bailey D, Putics A, et al. Model systems for the study of human norovirus biology. Future Virol 2009; 4: 353-367.
77. Bok K, Parra GI, Mitra T, et al. Chimpanzees as an animal model for human norovirus infection and vaccine development. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108: 325-330.
78. Farkas T, Dufour J, Jiang X, et al. Detection of norovirus-, sapovirus-and rhesus enteric calicivirus-specifc antibodies in captive juvenile macaques. J Gen Vi ro l 2010; 91: 734-738.
79. Jung K, Scheuer KA, Zhang Z, et al. Pathogenesis of GIII.2 bovine norovirus, CV186-OH/00/US strain in gnotobiotic calves. Vet Microbiol 2014; 168: 202-207.
80. Otto PH, Clarke IN, Lambden PR, et al. Infection of calves with bovine norovirus GIII.1 strain Jena virus: an experimental model to study the pathogenesis of norovirus infection. J Virol 2011; 85: 12013-12021.
81. Mumphrey SM, Changotra H, Moore TN, et al. Murine norovirus 1 infection is associated with histopathological changes in immunocompetent hosts, but clinical disease is prevented by STAT1-dependent interferon responses. J Virol 2007; 81: 3251-3263.
82. Arias A, Bailey D, Chaudhry Y, et al. Development of a reverse-genetics system for murine norovirus 3: long-term persistence occurs in the caecum and colon. J Gen Vi ro l 2012; 93: 1432-1441.
83. Smith DB, McFadden N, Blundell RJ, et al. Diversity of murine norovirus in wild-rodent populations: species-specifc associations suggest an ancient divergence. J Gen Vi ro l 2012; 93: 259-266.
84. Farkas T, Fey B, Keller G, et al. Molecular detection of murine noroviruses in laboratory and wild mice. Vet Microbiol 2012; 160: 463-467.
85. Wobus CE, Karst SM, Thackray LB, et al. Replication of Norovirus in cell culture reveals a tropism for dendritic cells and macrophages. PLoS Biol 2004; 2: e432.
86. Chaudhry Y, Skinner MA, Goodfellow IG. Recovery of genetically defned murine norovirus in tissue culture by using a fowlpox virus expressing T7 RNA polymerase. J Gen Vi ro l 2007; 88: 2091-2100.
87. Ward VK, McCormick CJ, Clarke IN, et al. Recovery of infectious murine norovirus using pol II-driven expression of full-length cDNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104: 11050-11055.
88. Wang Q-H, Han MG, Cheetham S, et al. Porcine noroviruses related to human noroviruses. Emerg Infect Dis 2005; 11: 1874-1881.
89. Farkas T, Nakajima S, Sugieda M, et al. Seroprevalence of noroviruses in swine. J Clin Microbiol 2005; 43: 657-661.
90. van Der Poel WH, Vinjé J, van Der Heide R, et al. Norwalk-like calicivirus genes in farm animals. Emerg Infect Dis 2000; 6: 36-41.
91. Sugieda M, Nagaoka H, Kakishima Y, et al. Detection of Norwalk-like virus genes in the caecum contents of pigs. Arch Virol 1998; 143: 1215-1221.
92. Cheetham S, Souza M, Meulia T, et al. Pathogenesis of a genogroup II human norovirus in gnotobiotic pigs. J Virol 2006; 80: 10372-10381.
93. Souza M, Costantini V, Azevedo MSP, et al. A human norovirus-like particle vaccine adjuvanted with ISCOM or mLT induces cytokine and antibody responses and protection to the homologous GII.4 human norovirus in a gnotobiotic pig disease model. Vaccine 2007; 25: 8448-8459.
94. Kocher J, Bui T, Giri-Rachman E, et al. Intranasal P particle vaccine provided partial cross-variant protection against human GII.4 norovirus diarrhea in gnotobiotic pigs.J Virol 2014; 88: 9728-9743.
95. Jung K, Wang Q, Kim Y, et al. The effects of simvastatin or interferon-α on infectivity of human norovirus using a gnotobiotic pig model for the study of antivirals. PLoS One 2012; 7: e41619.
96. Bui T, Kocher J, Li Y, et al. Median infectious dose of human norovirus GII.4 in gnotobiotic pigs is decreased by simvastatin treatment and increased by age. J Gen Vi ro l 2013; 94: 2005-2016.
97. Bank-Wolf BR, König M, Thiel H-J. Zoonotic aspects of infections with noroviruses and sapoviruses. Vet Microbiol 2010; 140: 204-212.
98. Caddy S, Breiman A, Le Pendu J, et al. Genogroup IV and VI canine noroviruses interact with histo-blood group antigens. J Virol 2014; 88: 10377-10391.
99. Mesquita JR, Costantini VP, Cannon JL, et al. Presence of antibodies against genogroup VI norovirus in humans. Vi ro l J 2013; 10: 176.
100. Straub TM, Honer zu BK, Orosz-Coghlan P, et al. In vitro cell culture infectivity assay for human noroviruses. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13: 396-403.
101. Herbst-Kralovetz MM, Radtke AL, Lay MK, et al. Lack of norovirus replication and histo-blood group antigen expression in 3-dimensional intestinal epithelial cells. Emerg Infect Dis 2013; 19: 431-438.
102. Papafragkou E, Hewitt J, Park GW, et al. Challenges of culturing human norovirus in three-dimensional organoid intestinal cell culture models. PLoS One 2013; 8: e63485.
103. Takanashi S, Saif LJ, Hughes JH, et al. Failure of propagation of human norovirus in intestinal epithelial cells with microvilli grown in three-dimensional cultures. Arch Virol 2014; 159: 257-266.
104. Agus SG, Dolin R, Wyatt RG, et al. Acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis: intestinal histopathology. Histologic and enzymatic alterations during illness produced by the Norwalk agent in man. Ann Intern Med 1973; 79: 18-25.
105. Souza M, Azevedo MSP, Jung K, et al. Pathogenesis and immune responses in gnotobiotic calves after infection with the genogroup II.4-HS66 strain of human norovirus. J Virol 2008; 82: 1777-1786.
106. Jones MK, Watanabe M, Zhu S, et al. Enteric bacteria promote human and murine norovirus infection of B cells. Science 2014; 346: 755-759.
107. Ward JM, Wobus CE, Thackray LB, et al. Pathology of immunod-efcient mice with naturally occurring murine norovirus infection. Toxicol Pathol 2006; 34: 708-715.
108. Lay MK, Atmar RL, Guix S, et al. Norwalk virus does not replicate in human macrophages or dendritic cells derived from the peripheral blood of susceptible humans. Virology 2010; 406: 1-11.
109. Chan MC-W, Ho W-S, Sung JJ-Y. In vitro whole-virus binding of a norovirus genogroup II genotype 4 strain to cells of the lamina propria and Brunner's glands in the human duodenum. J Virol 2011; 85: 8427-8430.
110. Taube S, Kolawole AO, Höhne M, et al. A mouse model for human norovirus. mBio 2013; 4: e00450-13.
111. Miura T, Sano D, Suenaga A, et al. Histo-blood group antigen-like substances of human enteric bacteria as specifc adsorbents for human noroviruses. J Virol 2013; 87: 9441-9451.
112. Kuss SK, Best GT, Etheredge CA, et al. Intestinal microbiota promote enteric virus replication and systemic pathogenesis. Science 2011; 334: 249-252.
113. Kane M, Case LK, Kopaskie K, et al. Successful transmission of a retrovirus depends on the commensal microbiota. Science 2011; 334: 245-249.
114. Robinson CM, Jesudhasan PR, Pfeiffer JK. Bacterial lipopolysac-charide binding enhances virion stability and promotes environmental ftness of an enteric virus. Cell Host Microbe 2014; 15: 36-46.
115. Elftman MD, Gonzalez-Hernandez MB, Kamada N, et al. Multiple effects of dendritic cell depletion on murine norovirus infection. J Gen Vi ro l 2013; 94: 1761-1768.
116. Chang K-O, George DW. Interferons and ribavirin effectively inhibit Norwalk virus replication in replicon-bearing cells. J Virol 2007; 81: 12111-12118.
117. Changotra H, Jia Y, Moore TN, et al. Type I and type II interferons inhibit the translation of murine norovirus proteins. J Virol 2009; 83: 5683-5692.
118. McCartney SA, Thackray LB, Gitlin L, et al. MDA-5 recognition of a murine norovirus. PLoS Pathog 2008; 4: e1000108.
119. Thackray LB, Duan E, Lazear HM, et al. Critical role for interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF-3) and IRF-7 in type I interferon-mediated control of murine norovirus replication. J Virol 2012; 86: 13515-13523.
120. Rodriguez MR, Monte K, Thackray LB, et al. ISG15 functions as an interferon-mediated antiviral effector early in the murine norovirus life cycle. J Virol 2014; 88: 9277-9286
121. Hwang S, Maloney NS, Bruinsma MW, et al. Nondegradative role of Atg5-Atg12/Atg16L1 autophagy protein complex in antiviral activity of interferon gamma. Cell Host Microbe 2012; 11: 397-409.
122. Maloney NS, Thackray LB, Goel G, et al. Essential cell autonomous role for interferon regulatory factor 1 in interferon-γ-mediated inhibition of norovirus replication in macrophages. J Virol 2012; 86: 12655-12664.
123. Basic M, Keubler LM, Buettner MDRN, et al. Norovirus triggered microbiota-driven mucosal infammation in interleukin 10-defcient mice. Infamm Bowel Dis 2014; 20: 431-443.
124. Chachu KA, Strong DW, Lobue AD, et al. Antibody is critical for the clearance of murine norovirus infection. J Virol 2008; 82: 6610-6617.
125. Chachu KA, Lobue AD, Strong DW, et al. Immune mechanisms responsible for vaccination against and clearance of mucosal and lymphatic norovirus infection. PLoS Pathog 2008; 4: e1000236.
126. Zhu S, Regev D, Watanabe M, et al. Identifcation of immune and viral correlates of norovirus protective immunity through comparative study of intra-cluster norovirus strains. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9: e1003592.
127. Tomov VT, Osborne LC, Dolf DV, et al. Persistent enteric murine norovirus infection is associated with functionally suboptimal virus-specifc CD8 T cell responses. J Virol 2013; 87: 7015-7031.
128. Lindesmith L, Moe C, Marionneau S, et al. Human susceptibility and resistance to Norwalk virus infection. Nature Med 2003; 9: 548-553.
129. Lindesmith L, Moe C, LePendu J, et al. Cellular and humoral immunity following Snow Mountain virus challenge. J Virol 2005; 79: 2900-2909.
130. Lindesmith LC, Donaldson E, Leon J, et al. Heterotypic humoral and cellular immune responses following Norwalk virus infection. J Virol 2010; 84: 1800-1815.
131. Parrino TA, Schreiber DS, Trier JS, et al. Clinical immunity in acute gastroenteritis caused by Norwalk agent. N Engl J Med 1977; 297: 86-89.
132. Johnson PC, Mathewson JJ, DuPont HL, et al. Multiple-challenge study of host susceptibility to Norwalk gastroenteritis in US adults. J Infect Dis 1990; 161: 18-21.
133. Wyatt RG, Dolin R, Blacklow NR, et al. Comparison of three agents of acute infectious nonbacterial gastroenteritis by cross-challenge in volunteers. J Infect Dis 1974; 129: 709-714.
134. Bull RA, White PA. Mechanisms of GII.4 norovirus evolution. Trends Microbiol 2011; 19: 233-240.
135. Estes MK, Prasad BV, Atmar RL. Noroviruses everywhere: has something changed? Curr Opin Infect Dis 2006; 19: 467-474.
136. Debbink K, Lindesmith LC, Donaldson EF, et al. Emergence of new pandemic GII.4 Sydney norovirus strain correlates with escape from herd immunity. J Infect Dis 2013; 208: 1877-1887.
137. Lindesmith LC, Donaldson EF, Baric RS. Norovirus GII.4 strain antigenic variation. J Virol 2011; 85: 231-242.
138. Lindesmith LC, Beltramello M, Donaldson EF, et al. Immuno-genetic mechanisms driving norovirus GII.4 antigenic variation. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8: e1002705.
139. Swanstrom J, Lindesmith LC, Donaldson EF, et al. Characterization of blockade antibody responses in GII.2.1976 Snow Mountain virus-infected subjects. J Virol 2014; 88: 829-837.
140. Karst SM. Pathogenesis of noroviruses, emerging RNA viruses. Viruses 2010; 2: 748-781.
141. Simmons K, Gambhir M, Leon J, et al. Duration of immunity to norovirus gastroenteritis. Emerg Infect Dis 2013; 19: 1260-1267.
142. Atmar RL, Bernstein DI, Harro CD, et al. Norovirus vaccine against experimental human Norwalk virus illness. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 2178-2187.
143. Bernstein DI, Atmar RL, Lyon GM, et al. Norovirus Vaccine Against Experimental Human GII.4 Virus Illness: A Challenge Study in Healthy Adults. J Infect Dis 2014; DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiu497.