Environmental law outside the canon

Indiana Law Journal

Volumn 89, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 1239-1298

  Aagaard, Todd S ^a  

^a VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84899061350     PISSN: 00196665     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (428)

1. 42 U. S. C. §§ 7401-7671q (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
2. 33 U. S. C. §§ 1251-1387 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
3. 42 U. S. C. §§ 9601-9675 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
4. 42 U. S. C. §§ 6901-6992k (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
5. 42 U. S. C. §§ 4321-4370h (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
6. 16 U. S. C. §§ 1531-1544 (2012).
7. See, e.g., Holly Doremus, Preserving Citizen Participation in the Era of Reinvention: The Endangered Species Act Example, 25 ECOLOGY L. Q. 707, 717 (1999);
8. Robert L. Fischman, What Is Natural Resources Law?, 78 U. COLO. L. REV. 717, 720 (2007);
9. J. B. Ruhl, The Fitness of Law: Using Complexity Theory to Describe the Evolution of Law and Society and Its Practical Meaning for Democracy, 49 VAND. L. REV. 1407, 1459 (1996);
10. see also Robert V. Percival, Regulatory Evolution and the Future of Environmental Policy, 1997 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 159, 165 n. 30 ("[T]here can be no doubt about the revolutionary nature of the legislation. ").
11. See Richard J. Lazarus, A Different Kind of "Republican Moment" in Environmental Law, 87 MINN. L. REV. 999, 1002, 1003 n. 17 (2003);
12. see also Richard N. L. Andrews, The EPA at 40: An Historical Perspective, 21 DUKE ENVTL. L. & POL'Y F. 223, 224 (2011) (noting that in the early 1970s "solidly bipartisan majorities [in Congress] vested this new agency [(EPA)] with sweeping new powers");
13. See, e.g., Clean Water Act § 101 (a) (1), 33 U. S. C. § 1251 (a) (1) ("[I]t is the national goal that the discharge of pollutants into the navigable waters be eliminated by 1985.");
14. Clean Air Act § 109 (a) (1), 42 U. S. C. § 7409 (a) (1) (directing EPA to publish proposed regulations prescribing air quality standards within thirty days of the statute's enactment).
15. See generally RICHARD J. LAZARUS, THE MAKING OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 67-73 (2004).
16. See, e.g., Linda A. Malone, Looking Beyond Environmental Law's Mid-Life Crisis, 23 PACE ENVTL. L. REV. 679, 680 (2006).
17. Holly Doremus, Reinvigorating the Union of Wonder and Power, 24 VA. ENVTL. L. J. 281, 281 (2005).
18. See, e.g., Clear Skies-Legislative Information, EPA, http://www.epa.gov/ clearskies/legis.html (noting that the Bush Administration's Clear Skies bill "never moved out of the Senate Environment and Public Works committee in 2005 and was therefore never enacted") (last updated May 18, 2012);
19. see also Ryan Lizza, As the World Burns, NEW YORKER, Oct. 11, 2010, at 70 (detailing the demise of the Obama Administration's climate change bill in the Senate).
20. Carol A. Casazza Herman, David Schoenbrod, Richard B. Stewart & Katrina M. Wyman, Breaking the Logjam: Environmental Reform for the New Congress and Administration, 17 N. Y. U. ENVTL. L. J. 1, 1 (2008);
21. see also Laurie Ristino & Sam Kalen, Is Environmental Law Serving Society?, NAT. RESOURCES & ENV'T, Spring 2012, at 52, 52-53 ("Little doubt exists that our middle-aged environmental programs are shouldering challenges not particularly well-suited to their statutory frameworks.");
22. William Ruckelshaus, A New Shade of Green, WALL ST. J., Apr. 17, 2010, at R1 ("[T]he solutions we devised back in the 1970s aren't likely to make much of a dent in the environmental problems we face today[,]⋯ [even though] [considerable progress has been made thanks to those early laws.").
23. See, e.g, John M. Broder, Bashing E. P. A. Is New Theme in G. O. P. Race, N. Y. TIMES, Aug. 18, 2011, at A1;
24. John M. Broder, House Votes to Bar E. P. A. from Regulating Emissions, N. Y. TIMES, Apr. 8, 2011, at A17;
25. Robin Bravender & Gabriel Nelson, Republicans Blitz Obama over EPA's 'Anti-Industrial' Regulations, N. Y. TIMES, Sept. 28, 2010, http://www.nytimes. com/gwire/2010/09/28/28greenwire-republicans-blitz-obama-over-epas-anti-industr- 84657.html.
26. See, e.g., EPA, THE BENEFITS AND COSTS OF THE CLEAN AIR ACT, 1970 to 1990, at ES-2-ES-3 (1997) (reporting that the Clean Air Act reduced sulfur dioxide emissions by 40%, nitrogen oxides emissions by 30%, volatile organic compound emissions by 45%, carbon monoxide emissions by 50%, primary particulate emissions by 75%, and lead emissions by 99% as compared with what they otherwise would have been in 1990 without the Act).
27. See, e.g., J. B. Ruhl, Farms, Their Environmental Harms, and Environmental Law, 27 ECOLOGY L. Q. 263, 265 (2000) ("[F]arms are virtually unregulated by the expansive body of environmental law that has developed in the United States in the past 30 years.").
28. See, e.g., Jean Macchiaroli Eggen, Nanotechnology and the Environment: What's Next?, NAT. RESOURCES & ENV'T, Winter 2012, at 51, 51-52 (noting that nanotechnology is an "emerging industrial hazard[] requiring safety research and regulation" and the inadequacy of "existing applicable statutes⋯ enacted at a time when the unique challenges of nanotechnology were not yet contemplated").
29. Cf. Austin B. Caswell, Canonicity in Academia: A Music Historian's View, J. AESTHETIC EDUC., Fall 1991, at 129, 129 (asserting that "the tyranny of canonicity" can be "destructive of our critical faculties").
30. 26 U. S. C. §§4681-1682 (2006).
31. See generally Janet E. Milne, Environmental Taxation in the United States: The Long View, 15 LEWIS & CLARK L. REV. 417 (2011).
32. Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-246, § 8204, 122 Stat. 1651, 2052-56.
33. For the purposes of this Article, the field of environmental law is defined to encompass laws that reflect a consideration of human impacts on the natural environment. See Todd S. Aagaard, Environmental Law as a Legal Field: An Inquiry in Legal Taxonomy, 95 CORNELL L. Rev. 221, 263 (2010) (arguing in favor of this definition among several alternatives). This definition is not limited to laws with the only or overriding purpose of protecting the environment, because environmental laws reflect a balance of objectives, including but not limited to environmental protection. This definition also excludes laws that unintentionally affect the environment. Even accepting this definition, however, laws are not necessarily susceptible to simple classification as environmental or not. For example, the common law of nuisance is not aimed specifically at the environment, but it has important applications to remedying environmental problems.
34. See, e.g., State V. Ventron Corp., 468 A.2d 150, 157 (N. J. 1983) (holding under common law of nuisance that landowners are strictly liable for harm caused by toxic wastes stored on their property that flow onto the property of others); see also infra Part III (examining how environmental laws outside the canon help to define the scope of the field).
35. In previous articles, I have explored the features that environmental laws share in common and that distinguish environmental law from other legal fields. See Todd S. Aagaard, Environmental Harms, Use Conflicts, and Neutral Baselines in Environmental Law, 60 DUKE L. J. 1505 (2011) [hereinafter Aagaard, Use Conflicts]; Aagaard, supra note 23. These previous articles argued that environmental lawmaking is best understood as the management of conflicts among uses of environmental resources.
36. See Aagaard, Use Conflicts, supra, at 1525-27;
37. See Aagaard, Use Conflicts, supra, at 1526;
38. Moreover, the characteristics of resources are such that conflicts, when they arise, tend to be intense, complicated, and multidimensional. See Aagaard, Use Conflicts, supra, at 1527. Here, by contrast to these earlier works examining commonalities among environmental laws, my focus is on distinguishing among environmental laws.
39. See, e.g., Noise Control Act of 1972 § 2 (b), 42 U. S. C. § 4901 (b) (2006) ("The Congress declares that it is the policy of the United States to promote an environment for all Americans free from noise that jeopardizes their health or welfare.").
40. See, e.g., Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 §1, 16 U. S. C. § 528 (2012) ("It is the policy of the Congress that the national forests are established and shall be administered for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed, and wildlife and fish purposes."). Many other laws significantly but unintentionally affect the physical environment-positively, adversely, or both. Such laws are not part of environmental law per se, although they merit increased attention from environmental law scholars, teachers, and practitioners.
41. See, e.g., United States-Japan Fishery Agreement Approval Act of 1987, Pub. L. No. 100-20, §2202, 101 Stat. 1458, 1465 (1987) (directing EPA, in consultation with the Commerce Department, to "commence a study of the adverse effects of the improper disposal of plastic articles on the environment and on waste disposal, and the various methods to reduce or eliminate such adverse effects").
42. See, e.g., Solid Waste Disposal Act § 4004, 42 U. S. C. § 6944 (2006) (directing state plans to require the disposal of solid waste in sanitary landfills that comply with federal regulations).
43. See, e.g., Robert L. Fischman, The Divides of Environmental Law and the Problem of Harm in the Endangered Species Act, 83 IND. L. J. 661, 662 (2008) (referring to pollution and natural resources as "the two main lines of environmental law").
44. See Lincoln L. Davies, Alternative Energy and the Energy-Environment Disconnect, 46 IDAHO L. REV. 473, 487-88 (2010);
45. see also Lincoln L. Davies, Energy Policy Today and Tomorrow-Toward Sustainability?, 29 J. LAND RESOURCES & ENVTL. L. 71, 76-77 (2009) (using slightly different terminology). Pollution abatement, such as the Clean Air Act and Clean Water Act, "aim to reduce, or mitigate, pollution", and pollution remediation laws such as the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) "seek to clean up existing pollution, or to ensure its proper disposal"
46. Davies, Alternative Energy and the Energy-Environment Disconnect, supra, at 487.
47. See, e.g., National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), 42 U. S. C. §§ 4321-4370h (2006 and Supp. V 2011);
48. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986, 42 U. S. C. §§ 11001-11050 (2006).
49. See, e.g., Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 7 U. S. C. §§ 136-136y (2012);
50. Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA), 15 U. S. C. §§ 2601-2697 (2012).
51. See, e.g., Clean Air Act § 111, 42 U. S. C. § 7411 (2006) (directing EPA to issue standards of performance for new stationary sources of air pollution).
52. Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 § 202 (a), 43 U. S. C. § 1712 (a) (2006) ("The Secretary shall, with public involvement and consistent with the terms and conditions of this Act, develop, maintain, and, when appropriate, revise land use plans which provide by tracts or areas for the use of the public lands."). Notwithstanding the distinction that can be made between externalities and open access resources, the two concepts are of course related and often arise in combination. Pollution externalities, for example, generally operate via the medium of an open access resource such as the ambient air or a waterway.
53. See Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons, 162 SCI. 1243, 1245 (1968). And the congestion effects of overusing an open access resource are a form of externality.
54. See Harold Demsetz, Toward a Theory of Property Rights, 57 AM. ECON. REV. 347, 351 (1967).
55. See, e.g., Clean Air Act § 109 (b) (1), 42 U. S. C. § 7409 (b) (1) (directing EPA to publish national primary ambient air quality standards "to protect the public health").
56. See, e.g., Clean Air Act §§ 169A-169B, 42 U. S. C. §§ 7491-7492 (establishing program to improve visibility in certain designated areas where "visibility is an important value").
57. See, e.g., ESA § 2 (b), 16 U. S. C. § 1531 (c) (1) (2012) (stating Congress's policy under the ESA "to conserve endangered species and threatened species").
58. See, e.g., TSCA § 6 (a), 15 U. S. C. § 2605 (a) (2012) (authorizing EPA to regulate substances that "present an unreasonable risk of injury to health or the environment");
59. Clean Water Act § 101, 33 U. S. C. § 1251 (a) (2) (2006) (establishing "the national goal that wherever attainable, an interim goal of water quality which provides for the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and provides for recreation in and on the water");
60. RCRA § 1003 (a) (4), 42 U. S. C. § 6902 (a) (4) (2006) (stating an objective of "assuring that hazardous waste management practices are conducted in a manner which protects human health and the environment");
61. CERCLA § 106 (a), 42 U. S. C. § 9606 (a) (2006) (authorizing the Attorney General to file an action in federal district court in the case of "an imminent and substantial endangerment to the public health or welfare or the environment because of an actual or threatened release of a hazardous substance from a facility").
62. See, e.g., Lakshman Guruswamy, Integrated Environmental Control: The Expanding Matrix, 22 ENVTL. L. 77, 83 (1992);
63. Nigel D. Key & Jonathan D. Kaplan, Multiple Environmental Externalities and Manure Management Policy, 32 J. AGRIC. & RESOURCE ECON. 115, 115 (2007);
64. Richard J. Lazarus, Environmental Law and the Supreme Court: Three Years Later, 19 PACE ENVTL. L. REV. 653, 662 (2002).
65. Rich Poirot, Paul Wishinski, Bret Schichtel & Phil Girton, Air Trajectory Pollution Climatology for the Lake Champlain Basin, in LAKE CHAMPLAIN IN TRANSITION: FROM RESEARCH TOWARD RESTORATION 25, 25-26 (Thomas O. Manley & Patricia L. Manley, eds., 1999) (noting that the Lake Champlain watershed is "clearly defined by fixed geographical boundaries", whereas "the spatial and temporal variations of emission sources and meteorological conditions, make it virtually impossible to develop a fixed definition of airshed" (emphasis in original)). Even where environmental laws attempt to regulate specifically to particular media, environmental media cannot be fully segregated. Contaminants in air pollution, for example, can pollute water or land through atmospheric deposition.
66. See Gary M. Lovett, Atmospheric Deposition of Nutrients and Pollutants in North America: An Ecological Perspective, 4 ECOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 629 (1994).
67. OFFICE OF TECH. ASSESSMENT, U. S. CONGRESS, OTA-ENV-634, ENVIRONMENTAL POUCY TOOLS: A USER'S GUIDE 81-142 (1995).
68. See, e.g., Clean Water Act § 301, 33 U. S. C. § 1311 (a) (2006) (prohibiting, with certain specified exceptions, "the discharge of any pollutant by any person").
69. See, e.g., NEPA § 102, 42 U. S. C. § 4332 (2) (C) (2006) (directing federal agencies to prepare environmental impact statements for proposed major federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the environment).
70. See, e.g., Clean Water Act § 313 (a), 33 U. S. C. § 1323 (a) (providing that federal facilities "shall be subject to, and comply with, all Federal, State, interstate, and local requirements, administrative authority, and process and sanctions respecting the control and abatement of water pollution in the same manner, and to the same extent as any nongovernmental entity");
71. Clean Air Act § 118 (a), 42 U. S. C. § 7418 (a) (2006) (providing that federal facilities "shall be subject to, and comply with, all Federal, State, interstate, and local requirements, administrative authority, and process and sanctions respecting the control and abatement of air pollution in the same manner, and to the same extent as any nongovernmental entity").
72. See, e.g., Clean Air Act § 110 (a) (2) (E), 42 U. S. C. § 7410 (a) (E) (requiring a state seeking EPA approval of its state implementation plans to provide assurances that it "will have adequate personnel, funding, and authority⋯ to carry out such implementation plan").
73. See, e.g., Greater Yellowstone Coal. V. Flowers, 359 F.3d 1257, 1274 (10th Cir. 2004).
74. See, e.g., Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Sept. 16, 1987, 261. L. M. 1541
75. 1522 U. N. T. S. 3.
76. See, e.g., Clean Water Act, 33 U. S. C. §§ 1251-1387 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
77. See, e.g., 40 C. F. R.
78. See, e.g., Envtl. Def. V. Duke Energy Corp., 549 U. S. 561 (2007);
79. Rapanos V. United States, 547 U. S. 715 (2006).
80. See, e.g., Michigan V. U. S. Army Corps of Eng'rs, 667 F.3d 765 (7th Cir. 2011) (asserting claims under the federal common law of public nuisance against federal and city agencies for allegedly managing the Chicago Area Waterway System in a manner that will allow invasive carp to move into the Great Lakes, causing an ecological disaster).
81. But see, e.g., Natural Res. Def. Council V. EPA, 643 F.3d 311, 320-21 (D. C. Cir. 2011) (holding that an EPA guidance document was actually a legislative rule that required notice and comment).
82. See, e.g., 42 U. S. C. §§ 7671-7671q (2006) (implementing the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer).
83. See, e.g., 40 C. F. R. §§ 1500. 1-1517.7 (implementing the National Environmental Policy Act).
84. See, e.g., Coal, for Responsible Regulation, Inc. V. EPA, 684 F.3d 102, 117-18 (D. C. Cir. 2012) (per curiam) (interpreting the language of Clean Air Act § 202 (a) (1)
85. 42 U. S. C. § 7521 (a) (1) (2006)
86. in light of the Supreme Court's decision in Massachusetts V. EPA, 549 U. S. 497 (2007)).
87. See, e.g., Inre Bell Petrol. Servs., Inc., 3 F.3d 889, 895 (5th Cir. 1993) (holding that Congress intended courts to draw on "traditional and evolving common law principles" to determine the scope of liability under CERCLA).
88. Our Mission and What We Do, EPA, http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/our-mission- and-what-we-do (last updated June 3, 2013) ("The mission of EPA is to protect human health and the environment").
89. See, e.g, Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 § 1, 16 U. S. C. § 528 (2012) ("It is the policy of the Congress that the national forests are established and shall be administered for outdoor recreation, range, timber, watershed, and wildlife and fish purposes.");
90. Water Resources Development Act of 2000, Pub. L. No. 106-541, 114 Stat. 2572 (2000) (authorizing the Corps of Engineers to undertake projects to, among other things, reduce flood damage, improve navigation, upgrade hydroelectric power generating facilities, restore aquatic ecosystems, and enhance beach recreation).
91. E.g., Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, supra note 51;
92. Agreement Between the United States of America and the United Mexican States on Cooperation for the Protection and Improvement of the Environment in the Border Area, U. S.-Mex., Aug. 14, 1983, 22 I. L. M. 1025.
93. E.g., Hazardous Sites Cleanup Act, 35 PA. CONS. STAT. ANN. §§ 6020. 101-1305 (West 2012).
94. See, e.g., Noise Control Ordinance of the County of Los Angeles, L. A., CAL., L. A. COUNTY CODE §§ 12. 08.010-.680.
95. See, e.g., 42 U. S. C. §§7671-7671q (2006 & Supp. 2011) (implementing the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer).
96. See DEL. CODE ANN. tit. 7, §§ 6301-6309 (2011) (adopting hazardous waste management provisions similar to RCRA).
97. See, e.g., Clean Water Act § 402 (b), 33 U. S. C. § 1342 (b) (2006) (allowing EPA to authorize state water pollution discharge permit programs implementing the Federal Clean Water Act).
98. See, e.g., 22 U. S. C. § 262m-4 (2006) (supporting "the strengthening of educational programs within each multilateral development bank to improve the capacity of mid-level managers to initiate and manage environmental aspects of development activities, and to train officials of borrowing countries in the conduct of environmental analyses").
99. See, e.g., 33 U. S. C. § 1311 (a) (2006) ("Except as in compliance with this section and sections 1312, 1316, 1317, 1328, 1342, and 1344 of this title, the discharge of any pollutant by any person shall be unlawful.").
100. J. M. Balkin & Sanford Levinson, The Canons of Constitutional Law, 111 HARV. L. REV. 963, 975 (1998).
101. Cf. id. at 968 n. 24 (tracing the etymology and historical usage of the term). Different specific meanings involve different measures of significance or different types of items being sorted. Canon can mean a collection of the most important items in a field. See David Fontana, A Case for the Twenty-First Century Constitutional Canon: Schneiderman V. United States, 35 CONN. L. REV. 35, 90 n. 10 (2002)
102. (citing BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY 198 (7th ed. 1999));
103. Jill Elaine Hasday, The Canon of Family Law, 57 STAN. L. REV. 825, 825 (2004).
104. Canon can refer to a fundamental legal principle. BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY 234 (9th ed. 2009);
105. see, e.g., Cass R. Sunstein, Nondelegation Canons, 67 U. CHI. L. REV. 315, 316 (2000);
106. Amanda L. Tyler, Continuity, Coherence, and the Canons, 99 NW. U. L. REV. 1389, 1390 (2005). A canon can be an important theme or way of thinking about a field.
107. Mark Tushnet, The Canon (s) of Constitutional Law: An Introduction, 17 CONST. COMMENT. 187, 187 (2000). Canon can mean "an authority that can be invoked in the face of almost any counterevidence because it is its own evidence and stronger in its force than any other"-that is, an authority that "stops inquiry"
108. Stanley Fish, Not of an Age, but for All Time: Canons and Postmodernism, 43 J. LEGAL EDUC. 11, 12 (1993). Finally, canon law refers to a body of law developed within a particular religious tradition.
109. See BLACK'S LAW DICTIONARY 234 (9th ed. 2009);
110. see also, e.g., George La Piana, Book Review, 49 HARV. L. REV. 855, 855 (1936).
111. 42 U. S. C. §§ 7401-7671q (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
112. 33 U. S. C. §§ 1251-1387 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
113. 42 U. S. C. §§ 9601-9675 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
114. 42 U. S. C. §§ 6901-6992k (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
115. 42 U. S. C. §§ 4321-370h (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
116. 16 U. S. C. §§ 1531-1544 (2012).
117. Figure 2 indicates the number of state and federal cases decided since January 1, 2000, that mention each statute. Searches were run in the Westlaw and LexisNexis databases of all state and federal cases; the numbers reported are the average of the two databases. "NFMA" refers to the National Forest Management Act of 1976, 16 U. S. C. §§ 1600-1614 (2012).
118. "FLPMA" refers to the Federal Land Policy and Management Act, 43 U. S. C. §§ 1701-1787 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
119. "FIFRA" refers to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, 7 U. S. C. §§ 136-136y (2012).
120. "OPA" refers to the Oil Pollution Act of 1980, 33 U. S. C. §§ 2701-2762 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
121. Figure 3 indicates the number of law review articles published since January 1, 2000, that mention each statute. Searches were run in me Westlaw and LexisNexis databases of all U. S. and Canadian law journals; the numbers reported are the average of the two databases. "SDWA" refers to the Safe Drinking Water Act, 42 U. S. C. §§ 300f-300j-26 (2006).
122. Figure 4 indicates the frequency with which federal environmental statutes are substantially covered in ten leading environmental law casebooks. See ROBIN KUNDIS CRAIG, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW IN CONTEXT (3d ed. 2012);
123. HOLLY DOREMUS, ALBERT C. LIN & RONALD H. ROSENBERG, ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY LAW: PROBLEMS, CASES, AND READINGS (6th ed. 2012);
124. DANIEL A. FARBER, JODY FREEMAN & ANN E. CARLSON., CASES AND MATERIALS ON ENVIRONMENTAL LAW (8th ed. 2010);
125. ROBERT L. GLICKSMAN ET AL., ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION: LAW AND POLICY (4th ed. 2003);
126. CRAIG N. JOHNSTON, WILLIAM F. FUNK & VICTOR B. FLATT, LEGAL PROTECTION OF THE ENVIRONMENT (3d ed. 2010);
127. LINDA A. MALONE & WILLIAM M. TABB, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW, POLICY, AND PRACTICE (2d ed. 2011);
128. PETER S. MENELL & RICHARD B. STEWART, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND POLICY (1994);
129. ROBERT V. PERCTVAL, CHRISTOPHER H. SCHROEDER, ALAN S. MILLER & JAMES P. LEAPE, ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION: LAW, SCIENCE, AND POUCY (6th ed. 2009);
130. ZYGMUNT J. B. PLATER, ROBERT H. ABRAMS, ROBERT L. GRAHAM, LISA HEINZERLING, DAVID A. WIRTH & NOAH D. HALL, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND POUCY: NATURE, LAW, AND SOCIETY (4th ed. 2010);
131. RICHARD L. REVESZ, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW AND POLICY (2d ed. 2012).
132. See, e.g., Jerry L. Anderson, The Environmental Revolution at Twenty-Five, 26 RUTGERS L. J. 395, 396 (1995);
133. Denis Hayes, Environmental Law and Millennial Politics, 25 ENVTL. L. 953, 964 (1995);
134. Wallace E. Oates, On Environmental Federalism, 83 VA. L. REV. 1321, 1328 (1997);
135. See, e.g., Endangered Species Act of 1973, Pub. L. No. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884
136. (codified as amended at 16 U. S. C. §§ 1531-1544 (2012));
137. Clean Water Act, Pub. L. No. 91-224, 84 Stat. 91 (1970)
138. (codified as amended at 33 U. S. C. §§ 1251-1387 (2006 & Supp. V 2011));
139. National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Pub. L. No. 91-190, 83 Stat 852 (1970)
140. (codified as amended at 42 U. S. C. §§ 4321-4370h (2006 & Supp. V 2011));
141. Clean Air Act, Pub. L. No. 91-604, 84 Stat. 1676 (1970)
142. (codified at 42 U. S. C. §§ 7401-7671q (2006 & Supp. 2011))
143. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970, 35 Fed. Reg. 15, 623 (Oct. 6, 1970).
144. See, e.g., Noise Control Act of 1972, Pub. L. No. 92-574, 86 Stat. 1234 (1972)
145. (codified as amended at 42 U. S. C. §§4901-4918 (2006)).
146. See, e.g., KARL BOYD BROOKS, BEFORE EARTH DAY: THE ORIGINS OF AMERICAN ENVIRONMENTAL LAW, 1945-1970, at 14 (2009).
147. Davies, Alternative Energy and the Energy-Environment Disconnect, supra note 32, at 486 ("No matter how environmental law's historical taxonomy is built, it is plain that the 1970s were ground-shifting.").
148. See, e.g., David K. Hausman, Kerry Urges Eco-Awareness, HARV. CRIMSON, Apr. 23, 2007, http://www.mecrimson. eom/article/2007/4/23/kerry-urges-eco- awareness-sen-john-kerry/ (reporting speech in which Senator John Kerry "urged a return to the environmental activism of the early 1970s").
149. WILLIAM N ESKRIDGE, JR. & JOHN FEREJOHN, A REPUBLIC OF STATUTES 256, 301 (2010) (offering the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and Endangered Species Act as examples of "superstatutes" that comprise a "green constitution");
150. William N. Eskridge, Jr. & John Ferejohn, Super-Statutes, 50 DUKE L. J. 1215, 1242-46 (2001) (discussing the Endangered Species Act as a "superstatute" case study);
151. see also Jim Chen, Legal Mythmaking in a Time of Mass Extinctions: Reconciling Stories of Origins with Human Destiny, 29 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 279, 292 (2005) ("The National Environmental Policy Act of 1970 ('NEPA') and the Endangered Species Act of 1973 ('ESA') head the list of environmental 'super-statutes' whose 'institutional [and] normative' impact reaches issues ordinarily addressed through Constitutional law.'" (footnotes omitted)
152. See, e.g., Jonathan H. Adler, Jurisdictional Mismatch in Environmental Federalism, 14 N. Y. U. ENVTL. L. J. 130, 151 (2005);
153. Henry N. Butler & Jonathan R. Macey, Externalities and the Matching Principle: The Case for Reallocating Environmental Regulatory Authority, 14 YALE L. & POL'Y REV. 23 (1996);
154. Kirsten H. Engel, State Environmental Standard-Setting: Is There a "Race" and Is It "to the Bottom "?, 48 HASTINGS L. J. 271 (1997);
155. Daniel C. Esty, Revitalizing Environmental Federalism, 95 MICH. L. REV. 570 (1996);
156. Richard L. Revesz, Rehabilitating Interstate Competition: Rethinking the "Race-to-the-Bottom" Rationale for Federal Environmental Regulation, 67 N. Y. U. L. REV. 1210 (1992);
157. Scott R. Saleska & Kirsten H. Engel, "Facts Are Stubborn Things": An Empirical Reality Check in the Theoretical Debate over the Race-to-the-Bottom in State Environmental Standard-Setting, 8 CORNELL J. L. & PUB. POL'Y 55 (1998);
158. Peter P. Swire, The Race to Laxity and the Race to Undesirability: Explaining Failures in Competition Among Jurisdictions in Environmental Law, 14 YALE L. & POL'Y REV. 67 (1996).
159. 16 U. S. C. §§ 1531-1544 (2012).
160. 42 U. S. C. §§ 4321-4370h (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
161. The ESA has been called "one of the most potent environmental laws", J. B. Ruhl & James Salzman, Climate Change, Dead Zones, and Massive Problems in the Administrative State: A Guide for Whittling Away, 98 CALIF. L. REV. 59, 59 (2010)
162. and "one of America's best-known and most important environmental laws", Reed D. Benson, Dams, Duties, and Discretion: Bureau of Reclamation Water Project Operations and the Endangered Species Act, 33 COLUM. J. ENVTL. L. 1, 9 (2008).
163. NEPA is often called the "Magna Carta" of environmental law. See, e.g., Richard J. Lazarus, Judging Environmental Law, 18 TUL. ENVTL. L. J. 201, 209 (2004);
164. Daniel R. Mandelker, The National Environmental Policy Act: A Review of Its Experience and Problems, 32 WASH. U. J. L. & POL'Y 293, 293 (2010).
165. ESA § 2 (b), 16 U. S. C. § 1531 (b) ("The purposes of this chapter are to provide a means whereby the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved, to provide a program for the conservation of such endangered species and threatened species, and to take such steps as may be appropriate to achieve the purposes of the treaties and conventions set forth in subsection (a) of this section. ");
166. NEPA § 2, 42 U. S. C. § 4321 ("The purposes of this chapter are: To declare a national policy which will encourage productive and enjoyable harmony between man and his environment; to promote efforts which will prevent or eliminate damage to the environment and biosphere and stimulate the health and welfare of man; to enrich the understanding of the ecological systems and natural resources important to the Nation; and to establish a Council on Environmental Quality.").
167. Congress enacted NEPA in 1970, see National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, Pub. L. No. 91-190, 83 Stat. 852(1970), and the ESA in 1973
168. see Endangered Species Act of 1973, Pub. L. No. 93-205, 87 Stat. 884.
169. Alyson C. Floumoy, Heather Halter & Christina Storz, Harnessing the Power of Information to Protect Our Public Natural Resource Legacy, 86 TEX. L. REV. 1575, 1591-92 (2008) (referring to NEPA as a resource statute);
170. Alyson C. Floumoy, Preserving Dynamic Systems: Wetlands, Ecology and Law, 7 DUKE ENVTL. L. & POL'Y F. 105, 107 n. 12 (1996) (referring to the ESA as a resource statute);
171. Oliver A. Houck, Of Bats, Birds and B-A-T: The Convergent Evolution of Environmental Law, 63 MISS. L. J. 403, 464 (1994) (referring to NEPA as a resource statute).
172. See, e.g., CHRISTINE A. KLEIN, FEDERICO CHEEVER & BRET C. BIRDSONG, NATURAL RESOURCES LAW: A PLACE-BASED BOOK OF PROBLEMS AND CASES 123-84, 759-823 (2005);
173. JAMES RASBAND, JAMES SALZMAN & MARK SQUILLACE, NATURAL RESOURCES LAW AND POLICY 258-92, 348-440 (2d ed. 2009).
174. See, e.g., ESA §4, 16 U. S. C. §1533 (delegating authority to list species as endangered or threatened to the Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Commerce).
175. See, e.g., ESA § 7 (a) (2), 16 U. S. C. § 1536 (a) (2) (requiring "[e]ach Federal agency" to insure that its actions are "not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any endangered species or threatened species").
176. NEPA § 102, 42 U. S. C. § 4332 (2006).
177. NEPA § 102 (2XC), 42 U. S. C. § 4332 (2) (C).
178. See 40 C. F. R. §§ 1501. 4 (b) - (c), 1508.9 (2011).
179. See 40 C. F. R. § 1508. 13 (2011).
180. See generally Dep't of Transp. V. Pub. Citizen, 541 U. S. 752, 756-58 (2004) (providing an overview of EISs, Environmental Assessments, and Findings of No Significant Impact).
181. Coliseum Square Ass'n V. Jackson, 465 F.3d 215, 237-38 (5th Cir. 2006).
182. Cal. Wilderness Coal V. U. S. Dep't of Energy, 631 F.3d 1072, 1096-98 (9th Cir. 2011).
183. See Marsh V. Ore. Natural Res. Council, 490 U. S. 360, 364-67 (1989).
184. ESA § 9 (a) (1) (B), 16 U. S. C. § 1538 (a) (l) (B) (2012).
185. ESA § 7 (a) (2), 16 U. S. C. § 1536 (a) (2).
186. See Fla. Key Deer V. Paulison, 522 F.3d 1133, 1141-44 (11th Cir. 2008) (holding that the ESA § 7 applies to FEMA's administration of the National Flood Insurance Program).
187. Ctr. for Biological Diversity V. Rumsfeld, 198 F. Supp. 2d 1139, 1143 (D. Ariz. 2002).
188. Sierra Club V. U. S. Dep't of Energy, 255 F. Supp. 2d 1177, 1190 (D. Colo. 2002).
189. See Fla. Key Deer, 522 F.3d at 1141-44.
190. See, e.g., Federal Lands Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA) § 202 (c) (3), 43 U. S. C. § 1712 (c) (3) (2006) (instructing the Secretary of the Interior, in the management of public lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management, to "give priority to the designation and protection of areas of critical environmental concern").
191. Clean Water Act § 404, 33 U. S. C. § 1344(2006), which regulates the placement of dredge and fill material in waters of the United States, presents an interesting question of classification. Although the Clean Water Act overall is a canonical pollution statute, the dredge-and-fill program under section 404 is often viewed instead as a wetlands protection provision more associated with natural resources law.
192. See, e.g., JEFFREY M. GABA, ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 88 (4th ed. 2009) (observing that section 404 "is typically not addressed in detail in environmental law casebooks");
193. Oliver A. Houck, Retaking the Exam: How Environmental Law Failed New Orleans and the Gulf Coast South and How It Might Yet Succeed, 81 TUL. L. REV. 1059, 1070 (2007) ("Originally seen as a pollution control program, section 404 quickly became a wetlands-development control program as well-").
194. See, e.g., FLPMA § 202 (c) (1), 43 U. S. C. § 1712 (c) (1) (instructing the Secretary of the Interior, in the management of the same public lands, to "observe the principles of multiple use and sustained yield", which are defined to include the potential extraction of timber and minerals);see also Lazarus, supra note 9, at 178 ("Natural resources laws historically equated the public interest with the economic exploitation and development of natural resources, although resource conservation and 'public trust doctrine' principles had emerged as a significant counterweight by the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries-").
195. See, e.g., National Park Service Organic Act, 16 U. S. C. §§ 1-18f-3 (2012) (administered by the National Park Service);
196. National Forest Management Act of 1976, 16 U. S. C. §§ 1600-1614 (administered by the Forest Service);
197. Federal Lands Policy and Management Act of 1976, 43 U. S. C. §§ 1701-1787 (2006 & Supp. V 2011) (administered by the Bureau of Land Management).
198. 42 U. S. C. §§ 300f to 300j-26 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
199. 15 U. S. C. §§ 2601-2697 (2012).
200. 7 U. S. C. §§136-136y (2012).
201. 42 U. S. C. §§ 11001-11050 (2006).
202. See, e.g., DEL. CODE ANN. tit. 7, §§ 6301-6309 (2011) (adopting hazardous waste management provisions similar to RCRA);
203. 415 ILL. COMP. STAT. ANN. 5/11-/13.7 (West 2011 & Supp. 2013) (adopting water pollution provisions similar to the Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act).
204. See, e.g., Jessica Bulman-Pozen & Heather K. Gerken, Uncooperative Federalism, 118 YALE L. J. 1256, 1276 (2009) ("Since the 1970s, states have implemented and enforced most of the United States's major environmental statutes.");
205. William W. Buzbee, Asymmetrical Regulation: Risk, Preemption, and the Floor/Ceiling Distinction, 82 N. Y. U. L. REV. 1547, 1565 (2007) (noting that federal environmental statutes often allow state governments to assume implementation and enforcement of a program if state laws are at least as stringent as federal requirements).
206. See, e.g., Clean Water Act § 402 (b), 33 U. S. C. § 1342 (b) (2006) (allowing EPA to authorize state water pollution discharge permit programs implementing the Federal Clean Water Act).
207. Compare, e.g., Neb. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 71-5301. 01 (LexisNexis 2008) (prohibiting the use of lead pipes, plumbing fixtures, solder, or flux in public water systems or plumbing that provides water for human consumption)
208. with Safe Drinking Water Act § 1417 (a) (1) (A), 42 U. S. C. § 300g-6 (a) (l) (A) (2006 & Supp. V 2011) (same).
209. See Bulman-Pozen & Gerken, supra note 133, at 1276-77 (citing John P. Dwyer, The Practice of Federalism Under the Clean Air Act, 54 MD. L. REV. 1183 (1995)).
210. Compare CERCLA § 101(14), 42 U. S. C. § 9601 (14) (2006) (stating that hazardous substance "does not include petroleum")
211. with WASH. REV. CODE ANN. § 70. 105D.020 (10Xd) (West 2011) (defining hazardous substance to include "[p]etroleum or petroleum products").
212. Compare 40 C. F. R. § 122. 2 (2013) (tying the definition of "waters of the United States" covered by the Clean Water Act to the waters' effect on foreign and interstate commerce)
213. with 35 PA. STAT. ANN. § 691. 1 (West 2003) (defining "Waters of the Commonwealth" covered by the Clean Streams Law "to include any and all⋯ bodies or channels of conveyance of surface and underground water, or parts thereof, whether natural or artificial, within or on the boundaries of this Commonwealth").
214. See, e.g., United States V. Fountain, 277 F.3d 714, 717 (5th Cir. 2001) (construing the Lacey Act by inquiring "whether Congress used terms which have a specific common-law meaning").
215. See, e.g., Gearhardt V. Am. Reinforced Paper Co., 244 F.2d 920, 922 (7th Cir. 1957) (affirming judgment for plaintiff where defendant negligently caused a fire that damaged plaintiffs property in violation of Illinois state law).
216. See Clean Air Act §§ 601-618, 42 U. S. C. §§ 7671-7671q (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
217. See, e.g., ALA. CODE §§ 9-13-1 to -274 (LexisNexis 2001 & Supp. 2012) state-owned forests);
218. S. C. CODE ANN. §§ 49-29-10 to -230 (2008 & Supp. 2012) (state scenic rivers).
219. See, e.g., Heather Hughes, Securitization and Suburbia, 90 OR. L. REV. 359, 369 n. 23 (2011) (contending that "private ordering [is] central to the concerns of environmental law");
220. Michael P. Vandenbergh, The Private Life of Public Law, 105 COLUM. L. REV. 2029, 2033 (2005) (arguing that "second-order agreements" among private actors create incentives that affect the implementation of public law regulation).
221. See, e.g., ALAN A. ALTSHULER & JOSÉ A. GÓMEZ- IBÁÑEZ, REGULATION FOR REVENUE: THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF LAND USE EXACTIONS (1993);
222. DANIEL R. MANDELKER, CAROL NECOLE BROWN, STUART MECK, DWIGHT H. MERRIAM, PETER W. SALSICH, JR., NANCY E. STROUD & JULIE A. TAPPENDORF, PLANNING AND CONTROL OF LAND DEVELOPMENT (8th ed. 2011).
223. Embedded environmental laws differ from legal fields or concepts that merely overlap in application with environmental law. Bankruptcy law, for example, often applies in circumstances in which environmental law also applies. See, e.g., Cal. Dep't of Health Servs. V. Jensen, 995 F.2d 925 (9th Cir. 1993) (addressing whether claim against business owners for costs of cleanup of hazardous waste at their former business property was discharged in their bankruptcy);
224. Penn Terra Ltd. V. Pa. Dep't of Envtl. Res., 733 F.2d 267 (3d Cir. 1984)
225. see, e.g., Jason S. Brookner, Environmental Claims in Bankruptcy: An Overview, 112 BANKING L. J. 124 (1995);
226. Stanley M. Spracker & James D. Barnette, The Treatment of Environmental Matters in Bankruptcy Cases, 11 BANKR. DEV. J. 85(1995), but does not by itself transform bankruptcy laws into environmental laws.
227. Pub. L. No. 109-58, 119 Stat 594.
228. 42 U. S. C. § 7545).
229. Pub. L. No. 101-549, 104 Stat 2399.
230. 29 U. S. C. §§651-678 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
231. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 § 304 (a), 29 U. S. C. § 655.
232. Electric Consumers Protection Act of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99-495, § 3 (b), 100 Stat 1243, 1243-44 (amending Federal Power Act § 10 (a), 16 U. S. C. § 803 (aXl), to add "the adequate protection, mitigation, and enhancement offish and wildlife (including related spawning grounds and habitat) " to the required elements of any hydropower licenses approved by the Federal Power Commission (now the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission)).
233. Energy Policy Act of 2005 § 1501, 119 Stat at 1067-76 (amending Clean Air Act §211).
234. 26 U. S. C. §§4681-4682 (2006).
235. Department of Transportation Act § 4 (f), 80 Stat, at 934
236. (codified as amended at 49 U. S. C. § 303).
237. 16 U. S. C. § 803 (a) (1) (2012).
238. 7 U. S. C. §§ 7701-7786 (2012).
239. 25 U. S. C. §§2701-2721 (2006).
240. 42 U. S. C. §§ 7671-7671q (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
241. Pub. L. No. 96-193, 94 Stat. 50
242. (codified as amended at 49 U. S. C. A. §§ 47501-47510 (West 2007 & Supp. 2013)).
243. 7 U. S. C. §§ 6501-6522 (2012).
244. Pub. L. No. 99-198, 99 Stat. 1354. The Food Security Act (FSA) contains two environmental provisions-known as Sodbuster, FSA §§ 1211-1213
245. 16 U. S. C. §§ 3811-3813 (2012)
246. and Swampbuster, FSA §§ 1221-1223, 16 U. S. C. §§ 3821-3823-that condition farmers' eligibility for many federal farm program benefits on minimum standards of protection for certain environmentally sensitive lands. Sodbuster denies eligibility to farmers who convert highly erodible land to crop production without an approved soil conservation system.
247. 16 U. S. C. §3811. Swampbuster denies eligibility to farmers who convert a wetland to crop production.
248. 16 U. S. C. § 3821.
249. 16 U. S. C. §803.
250. 49 U. S. C. § 303 (2006).
251. 26 U. S. C. §§ 4681-4682 (2006).
252. 16 U. S. C. §§3811-3813.
253. 49 U. S. C. § 303.
254. 49 U. S. C. §§5101-5128 (2006 & Supp. V 2011). As previously mentioned, see supra Part I. B.2, there are interesting parallels between the implementation of NEPA and the ESA and the implementation of embedded environmental laws. Like the administration of embedded environmental laws, NEPA analyses and ESA consultations are often undertaken by agencies that are not environmental specialists.
255. See, e.g., Fla. Key Deer V. Paulison, 522 F.3d 1133 (11th Cir. 2008) (applying section 7 of the ESA to Federal Emergency Management Agency);
256. Am. Bird Conservancy, Inc. V. FCC, 516 F.3d 1027, 1029 (D. C. Cir. 2008) (per curiam) (applying NEPA to Federal Communications Commission);
257. Soc'y Hill Towers Owners' Ass'n V. Rendell, 210 F.3d 168, 173 (3d Cir. 2000) (applying NEPA to Department of Housing and Urban Development). Agencies apply NEPA and the ESA in conjunction with their administration of other non-environmental statutes
258. see, e.g., Fla. Key Deer, 522 F.3d at 1141-44 (applying section 7 of the ESA to the Federal Emergency Management Agency's implementation of the National Flood Insurance Act);
259. Am. Bird Conservancy, 516 F.3d at 1032-34 (applying NEPA to Federal Communications Commission implementation of the Communications Act of 1934);
260. Soc'y Hill Towers Owners' Ass'n, 210 F.3d at 173 (applying NEPA to Department of Housing and Urban Development's implementation of the Housing and Community Development Act of 1974), just as agencies often apply embedded environmental laws in conjunction with their administration of broader non-environmental programs. For example, the Department of Transportation implements section 4 (f)'s environmental requirements in conjunction with its broader administration of transportation funding under the Department of Transportation Act
261. see, e.g., Laguna Greenbelt, Inc. V. U. S. Dep't of Transp., 42 F.3d 517 (9th Cir. 1994) (per curiam), and the Department of Agriculture implements
262. see, e.g., Gunn V. U. S. Dep't of Agric, 118 F.3d 1233 (8th Cir. 1997). In both types of situations, the presence of the environmental law-NEPA, the ESA, or an embedded environmental statute-integrates environmental concerns with other policy objectives.
263. See, e.g., 40 C. F. R. §§ 60. 40Da-.52Da (2013) (setting forth Standards of Performance for Electric Utility Steam Generating Units).
264. See, e.g., 29 C. F. R. §§ 531. 1-.60 (2013) (regulating wage payments under the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938).
265. Cf. Eric Biber, The More the Merrier: Multiple Agencies and the Future of Administrative Law Scholarship, 125 HARV. L. REV. F. 78, 79(2012), http://www.harvardlawreview.org/media/pdf/forvoll25-biber.pdf ("A key question is whether you want to manage the externality-causing activity separately from the externality, or together.").
266. See David A. Weisbach & Jacob Nussim, The Integration of Tax and Spending Programs, 113 YALE L. J. 955, 988-97 (2004).
267. See, e.g., Commission Guidance Regarding Disclosure Related to Climate Change, 75 Fed. Reg. 6290 (Feb. 8, 2010)
268. (to be codified at 17 C. F. R. pts. 211, 231, 241).
269. See generally John W. Bagby, Paula C. Murray & Eric T. Andrews, How Green Was My Balance Sheet?: Corporate Liability and Environmental Disclosure, 14 VA. ENVTL. L. J. 225 (1995).
270. See Regulation S-K, 17 C. F. R. pt. 229 (2013).
271. See Daniel J. Fiorino, Toward a New System of Environmental Regulation: The Case for an Industry Sector Approach, 26 ENVTL. L. 457, 480 (1996) ("[A] truly new regulatory system cannot be implemented within the existing legal framework-").
272. Even the massive and dramatic Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, Pub. L. No. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399, which significantly revamped the Clean Air Act and were many times longer than the original Clean Air Act of 1970, for the most part added new elements to existing programs and did not replace the existing statutory programs.
273. Our Mission and What We Do, supra note 61 ("The mission of EPA is to protect human health and the environment.").
274. See, e.g., 21 U. S. C. § 349 (2006) (directing the Secretary of Health and Human Services to consult with EPA after it has issued a new drinking water regulation under the Safe Drinking Water Act regarding whether to promulgate regulations applying the EPA regulation to bottled drinking water).
275. See OFFICE OF INSPECTOR GEN., EPA, REP. NO. LL-P-0136, EPA NEEDS BETTER AGENCY-WIDE CONTROLS OVER STAFF RESOURCES 1 (2011) (reporting that the Agency employed somewhat over 18, 000 people during fiscal years 2006-2010).
276. See Todd S. Aagaard, A Functional Approach to Risks and Uncertainties Under NEPA, 1 MICH. J. ENVTL. & ADMIN. L. 87, 115 (2012);
277. cf. Eric Biber, Too Many Things to Do: How to Deal with the Dysfunctions of Multiple-Goal Agencies, 33 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 1, 6-30 (2009) (describing the tendency of multiple-goal agencies to focus on certain primary goals at the expense of secondary goals).
278. See Lakshman Guruswamy, Integration & Biocomplexity, 27 ECOLOGY L. Q. 1191, 1233 (2001) (referring to EPA Administrator as "harassed and overburdened");
279. William D. Ruckelshaus, Stopping the Pendulum, Envtl. F., Nov./Dec. 1995, at 25, 26 ("Any senior EPA official will tell you that the agency has the resources to do not much more than ten percent of the things Congress has charged it to do.").
280. See, e.g., 139 CONG. REC. 31174 (Nov. 20, 1993) (statement of Sen. Baucus) (criticizing "EPA's bloated bureaucratic process").
281. See Elena Kagan, Presidential Administration, 114 HARV. L. REV. 2245, 2263 (2001) (noting bureaucracies' tendency toward "inertia and torpor").
282. See Clean Water Act § 404, 33 U. S. C. § 1344 (2006).
283. Jonathan B. Wiener, Radiative Forcing: Climate Policy to Break the Logjam in Environmental Law, 17 N. Y. U. ENVTL. L. J. 210, 218 (2008).
284. For other examples of the ample academic literature noting the problems of fragmentation, see, for example, James M. Buchanan & Yong J. Yoon, Symmetric Tragedies: Commons and Anticommons, 43 J. L. & ECON. 1, 11-12 (2000);
285. Jody Freeman & Jim Rossi, Agency Coordination in Shared Regulatory Space, 125 HARV. L. REV. 1131, 1147-18 (2012);
286. Samuel J. Rascoff & Richard L. Revesz, The Biases of Risk Tradeoff Analysis: Towards Parity in Environmental and Health-and-Safety Regulation, 69 U. CHI. L. REV. 1763, 1814-15 (2002).
287. See, e.g., John Boozman, Regulation Overload, SENATE. GOV (Jan. 22, 2013), http://www.boozman. senate.gov/public/index.cfm/2013/l/regulation- overload (assailing "excessive regulations" by various federal agencies, and citing EPA as the "biggest offender").
288. Environmental legislation may, however, be more politically viable than alternatives. Pennsylvania's recently enacted Act 13, governing natural gas drilling in the state, imposes charges on unconventional natural gas wells. The Republican governor, Tom Corbett, has successfully defended the charges as an impact fee rather than a tax. See Brad Bumsted, Corbett Disputes Claim that Impact Fee Is Tax, PITT. TRIB.-REV., Nov. 22, 2011 (noting Governor Corbett's argument that the levy on unconventional natural gas drilling is not a tax but "a fee to cover government costs associated with drilling").
289. But see Elizabeth Stelle & Nathan Benefield, What's the Difference Between a Tax and a Fee?, COMMONWEALTH FOUND. (May 31, 2011), http://www.commonwealthoundation.org/poluicyblog/detail/whats-the-difference- between-a-tax-and-a-fee ("[T]here are many reasons why [the impact fee] more closely represents a tax than a fee."). Evidently new taxes can be even more politically combustible than new environmental regulation.
290. Cf. Jacob E. Gersen & Anne Joseph O'Connell, Deadlines in Administrative Law, 156 U. PA. L. REV. 923, 949 n. 84 (2008) ("The EPA's pattern of missing statutory deadlines has been well documented.").
291. See Todd S. Aagaard, Regulatory Overlap, Overlapping Legal Fields, and Statutory Discontinuities, 29 VA. ENVTL. L. J. 237, 292-94 (2011) (noting that redundant delegations of regulatory authority can increase the likelihood of successful regulatory action).
292. But see RICHARD N. L. ANDREWS, MANAGING THE ENVIRONMENT, MANAGING OURSELVES: A HISTORY OF AMERICAN ENVIRONMENTAL POUCY 209 (2d ed. 2006) (noting that industries in the 1960s "acquired a powerful new interest in obtaining moderate and uniform federal standards that would preempt more stringent and inconsistent state and local standards", laying the foundation for a national Clean Air Act).
293. See Robert V. Percival, Environmental Federalism: Historical Roots and Contemporary Models, 54 MD. L. REV. 1141, 1144 (1995) ("State and local governments argue that federal regulations infringe on their autonomy and sovereignty, and that they impose costly unfunded mandates states can ill afford.").
294. Roger P. Hansen & Theodore A. Wolff, Reviewing NEPA's Past: Improving NEPA's Future, 13 ENVTL. PRAC. 235, 246 (2011) ("The problem with amending NEPA is that it opens a Pandora's box of amendments offered by vocal NEPA opponents to weaken, water down, or even eliminate NEPA or its effectiveness.").
295. See, e.g., MINORITY STAFF OF S. COMM. ON ENV'T & PUB. WORKS, 111TH CONG., EPA'S ANTI-INDUSTRIAL POLICY: "THREATENING JOBS AND AMERICA'S MANUFACTURING BASE" (2010).
296. But see Jeff Nesmith, Senators Attack Mercury Proposal; EPA Accused of Pro-industry Bias, ATLANTA J.-CONST., Apr. 13, 2004, at 3A (reporting senators' allegation that proposed EPA regulation showed pro-industry bias).
297. See Steven G. Calabresi, Some Normative Arguments for the Unitary Executive, 48 ARK. L. REV. 23, 84 n. 148 (1995) (contending that industry-specific agencies are susceptible to capture by their respective industries).
298. Richard J. Lazarus, Congressional Descent: The Demise of Deliberative Democracy in Environmental Law, 94 GEO. L. J. 619, 635-36 (2006).
299. Perhaps the most (in) famous environmental appropriations rider is the Energy and Water Development Appropriation Act, 1980, Pub. L. No. 96-69, 93 Stat. 437, 449-50 (1979)
300. which overrode the Supreme Court's decision in Tennessee Valley Authority V. Hill, 437 U. S. 153(1978), holding that the ESA prohibited completion of the Tellico Dam project in Tennessee because it would destroy the endangered snail darter's habitat.
301. Id. at 622; see also Sandra Beth Zellmer, Sacrificing Legislative Integrity at the Altar of Appropriations Riders: A Constitutional Crisis, 21 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 457, 476 (1997).
302. But see Scott H. Segal & Jonathan H. Adler, Appropriations Riders and Environmental Reform: How Appropriate? 13 (Competitive Enterprise Institute Entl. Discussion Paper 95-3, 1995) (arguing that appropriations riders are a beneficial "means of holding unresponsive agencies in check"). Not all environmental appropriations riders are "anti-environmental"
303. See, e.g., Department of the Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2006, Pub. L. No. 109-54, §§ 104-106, 119 Stat. 499, 521-22 (2005) (restricting offshore oil and gas leasing in certain areas);
304. H. R. REP. NO. 111-316, at 109 (2009) (directing EPA "to carry out a study on the relationship between hydraulic fracturing and drinking water").
305. 49 U. S. C. § 303 (2006).
306. 16 U. S. C. §§ 3811-3813 (2012);
307. 26 U. S. C. §§ 4681-4682 (2006);
308. see also 26 C. F. R. § 52. 4682-1 (2013).
309. Pub. L. No. 101-239, 103 Stat. 2106.
310. The tax came to be enacted through an "almost serendipitous consensus." Thomas A. Barthold, Issues in the Design of Environmental Excise Taxes, J. ECON. PERSP., Winter 1994, at 133, 136.
311. The World Resources Institute had advocated for a tax on ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons in a 1986 report. J. Andrew Hoerner, Taxing Pollution, in OZONE PROTECTION IN THE UNITED STATES 39, 39 (Elizabeth Cook ed., 1996).
312. In 1989, President George H. W. Bush, following an earlier similar proposal from EPA under the Reagan Administration, see Protection of Stratospheric Ozone, 53 Fed. Reg. 30, 604 (proposed Aug. 12, 1988) (advance notice of proposed rulemaking asking for public comment on a possible fee or auction for ozone-depleting substances), proposed to restrict the consumption and production of chemicals that deplete stratospheric ozone by auctioning the rights to produce such chemicals.
313. Protection of Stratospheric Ozone, 53 Fed. Reg. 30, 566 (Aug. 12, 1988)
314. (codified at 40 C. F. R. §§ 82. 1-.13 (2013)).
315. The Clean Air Act provisions are codified at 42 U. S. C. §§ 7671-7671m (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
316. John C. Dernbach, Sustainable Development as a Framework for National Governance, 49 CASE W. RES. L. REV. 1, 93 (1998).
317. 23 U. S. C. §§ 101-190 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
318. 42 U. S. C. §7506 (2006).
319. See generally Arnold W. Reitze, Jr., Improving Transportation-Related Air Quality Under the Clean Air Act's Conformity Requirement and the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991, 3 ENVTL. LAW. 631 (1997) (describing the background of this conformity requirement).
320. Pub. L. No. 102-240, § 1008, 105 Stat. 1914, 1932.
321. See, e.g., Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc. V. U. S. Dep't. of Agric, 613 F.3d 76 (2d Cir. 2010) (applying NEPA and the Plant Protection Act to the Department of Agriculture's regulation of importation of solid wood packaging material);
322. Laguna Greenbelt, Inc. V. U. S. Dep't of Transp., 42 F.3d 517 (9th Cir. 1994) (applying NEPA and section 4 (f) to the Federal Highway Administration's approval of a tollroad project).
323. This is not to say, however, that an agency can or should attempt to meld the statutes entirely. See, e.g., Citizens Against Burlington, Inc. V. Busey, 938 F.2d 190, 203 (D. C. Cir. 1991) (noting that "[a]lthough an agency's analysis under NEPA and the Transportation Act might proceed in similar tracks, the two statutes are not precisely the same", and proceeding to identify differences therein).
324. See generally, e.g., BRUCE A. ACKERMAN & WILLIAM T. HASSLER, CLEAN COAL/DIRTY AIR (1981).
325. Pub. L. No. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399.
326. Congress enacted two somewhat significant environmental statutes in 1996-the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-170, 110 Stat. 1489
327. and the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, 110 Stat. 1613-but neither would qualify as part of the environmental law canon, a major environmental law on the order of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, or the landmark legislation of the 1970s.
328. For example, although the Clean Air Act is not well-suited to address climate change, in the absence of climate change legislation, EPA has been forced to take regulatory action to address climate change under the Clean Air Act. See Massachusetts V. EPA, 549 U. S. 497 (2007) (holding that EPA could avoid taking regulatory action under the Clean Air Act with respect to greenhouse gas emissions from new motor vehicles only if it were to determine that such greenhouse gas emissions do not contribute to climate change).
329. Pub. L. No. 109-479, 120 Stat. 3575 (2007).
330. 16 U. S. C. §§ 1801-1891d (2012).
331. See Robin Kundis Craig, Taking the Long View of Ocean Ecosystems: Historical Science, Marine Restoration, and the Oceans Act of 2000, 29 ECOLOGY L. Q. 649, 668 (2002).
332. Pub. L. No. 110-246, 122 Stat. 1651.
333. 16 U. S. C. §§3371-3378 (2012).
334. Pub. L. No. 110-246, § 8204, 122 Stat. at 2052-56.
335. Pub. L. No. 111-11, 123 Stat. 991.
336. See Congress Votes 'Yes' to Sweeping Public Lands Protection Act, ENV'T NEWS SERVICE NEWSWIRE, Mar. 25, 2009, http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/mar2009/ 2009-03-25-01.asp.
337. See NAT'L OCEANIC & ATMOSPHERIC ADMIN., MAGNUSON-STEVENS REAUTHORIZATION ACT FACT SHEET (2008), available at http://www.noaa.gov/ factsheets/new%20version/magstevens.pdf.
338. See, e.g., Implementation of Revised Lacey Act Provisions, 76 Fed. Reg. 10, 874 (Feb. 28, 2011).
339. See Omnibus Public Land Management Act, 123 Stat. 993-95 (identifying the agency associated with each set of new authorizations).
340. See Allison A. Freeman, Attention Turns to House as Magnuson Breezes Through Senate, ENV'T & ENERGY DAILY, June 20, 2006 (quoting a statement approving elements of the legislation by a representative of the National Fisheries Institute, a fishing industry group).
341. See Dan Berman, Illegal Timber, Omnibus Parks Bills Lead House Suspension Calendar, ENV'T & ENERGY DAILY, Dec. 3, 2007.
342. See, e.g., Omnibus Public Land Act §§ 7001-7003, 9101-9115, 123 Stat, at 1183-89, 1298-1321.
343. See Bill Summary & Status: H. R. 5946, LIBRARY CONG., http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?dl09:HR05946R.
344. See Bill Summary & Status: H. R. 146, LIBRARY CONG., http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d111:HR00146:R (noting the Omnibus Public Land Act passed the Senate by a 77-20 vote and the House by a 285-140 vote);
345. H. R. 2419 (110th): Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, GOVTRACK. US, https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/110/hr2419 (noting the legislation passed the House by a 318-106 vote and the Senate by a 79-14 vote, followed by similar votes to override President Bush's veto).
346. See Illegal Logging: Lacey Act, AM. FOREST & PAPER ASS'N (July 2013), http://www.afendpa.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/lacey-act- one-pager-july-2013.pdf?sfvrsn=2.
347. See, e.g., Omnibus Public Land Management Act §§ 1506, 9106, 123 Stat. at 1040, 1304-09.
348. Lauren Morello & Allison A. Freeman, Magnuson-Stevens Still in Play as Activists Plan for Dem Congress, ENV'T & ENERGY DAILY, Nov. 10, 2006;
349. Allison Freeman Winter, Stevens Attempts to Revive Magnuson with New Proposal, ENV'T & ENERGY DAILY, Dec. 7, 2006;
350. Allison Freeman Winter, Last-Gasp Attempts at Magnuson Dead in Water-Rep. Gilchrest, ENV'T & ENERGY DAILY, Dec. 6, 2006.
351. See Patrick O'Connor, House GOP Derails Public Lands Bill, POLITICO (Mar. 11, 2009, 2:25 PM EDT), http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0309/19894.html;
352. R. J. Smith, Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009 on House Floor Today-170 Bills in One; Half Have Had No Hearings, AMY RIDENOUR'S NAT'L CENTER BLOG (Mar. 11, 2009, 3:01 AM), http://www.conservativeblog.org/amyridenour/2009/ 3/11/ornnibus-public-land-management-act-of-2009-on-house-floor-to.html.
353. See, e.g., Federal Water Power Act of 1920, 41 Stat. 1063, 1068
354. (codified as amended at 16 U. S. C. § 803 (a) (2012));
355. Department of Transportation Act, Pub. L. No. 89-670, § 4 (f), 80 Stat. 931, 934 (1966)
356. (codified as amended at 49 U. S. C. § 303 (2006)).
357. Food Security Act of 1985, Pub. L. No. 99-198, §§ 1221-1223, 99 Stat. 1354
358. (codified as amended at 16 U. S. C. §§ 3821-3823 (2012)) (Swampbuster).
359. Energy Policy Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-58, § 1501, 119 Stat. 594, 1067-76
360. (amending Clean Air Act § 211, 42 U. S. C. § 7545).
361. See Jonathan Cannon, A Bargain for Clean Water, 17 N. Y. U. ENVTL. L. J. 608, 616 (2008) ("Unregulated nonpoint source pollution is solely responsible for failure of 30 to 50 percent of U. S. waterbodies to meet water quality standards and is a contributing factor in an even larger percentage.").
362. Jody A. Roberts, Collision Course? Science, Law, and Regulation in the Emerging Science of Low Dose Toxicity, 20 VILL. ENVTL. L. J. 1, 6-7 (2009);
363. see also Daniel A. Farber, Environmental Protection as a Learning Experience, 27 LOY. L. A. L. REV. 791, 791 (1994) ("The expansion of scientific knowledge has revealed new environmental problems⋯.").
364. See John A. Bogdanski, Reflections on the Environmental Impacts of Federal Tax Subsidies for Oil, Gas, and Timber Production, 15 LEWIS & CLARK L. Rev. 323, 325-28 (2011);
365. Roberta Mann, Waiting to Exhale?: Global Warming and Tax Policy, 51 AM. U. L. REV. 1135, 1164-68 (2002);
366. Temi Kolarova, Comment, Oil and Taxes: Refocusing the Tax Policy Question in the Aftermath of the BP Oil Spill, 42 SETON HALL L. REV. 351, 357-660
367. See, e.g., Sara C. Bronin, The Quiet Revolution Revived: Sustainable Design, Land Use Regulation, and the States, 93 MINN. L. REV. 231 (2008);
368. John R. Nolon, Comparative Land Use Law: Patterns of Sustainability, 23 PACE ENVTL. L. REV. 855 (2006).
369. See, e.g., Davies, Alternative Energy and the Energy-Environment Disconnect, supra note 32;
370. Amy J. Wildermuth, The Next Step: The Integration of Energy Law and Environmental Law, 31 UTAH ENVTL. L. REV. 369 (2011).
371. See, e.g., Jason J. Czarnezki, Food, Law & the Environment: Informational and Structural Changes for a Sustainable Food System, 31 UTAH ENVTL. L. REV. 263 (2011);
372. Neil D. Hamilton, The Role of Law in Promoting Sustainable Agriculture: Reflections on Ten Years of Experience in the United States, 3 DRAKE J. AGRIC. L. 423 (1998);
373. Michael R. Taylor, The Emerging Merger of Agricultural and Environmental Policy: Building a New Vision for the Future of American Agriculture, 20 VA. ENVTL. L. J. 169, 170 (2001);
374. Many of these proposals to expand the reach of environmental concerns in the law invoke the principle of sustainability as a conceptual foundation. See, e.g., Robert L. Glicksman, Sustainable Federal Land Management: Protecting Ecological Integrity and Preserving Environmental Principal, 44 TULSA L. REV. 147, 151 (2008);
375. Hamilton, supra note 276; Nolon, supra note 274. The ambiguity of the related terms sustainability and sustainable development have led some scholars, however, to doubt their usefulness as conceptual anchors. See Holly Doremus, The Rhetoric and Reality of Nature Protection: Toward a New Discourse, 57 WASH. & LEE L. REV. 11, 64 (2000) ("The problem with the sustainable development concept is that it is subject to a variety of interpretations. ");
376. Glicksman, supra, at 148 ("The various formulations of sustainability have been criticized as, among other things, vague, slippery, oxymoronic, a 'mask[er] [of] failed consensus', and a reflection of political correctness." (footnotes omitted)); J. B. Ruhl, Law for Sustainable Development: Work Continues on the Rubik's Cube, 44 TULSA L. REV. 1, 1-2 (2008) (noting that the concept of sustainable development is in part "window dressing", "a way of masking over problems", "a way of demanding more than is possible", and "a way of promising more than is possible", "which goes a long way toward explaining why it has become so powerful a policy concept").
377. Cf. John C. Dernbach, Achieving Sustainable Development: The Centrality and Multiple Facets of Integrated Decisionmaking, 10 IND. J. GLOBAL LEGAL STUD. 247, 250 (2003) (arguing that integrated decision making-decision making that integrates environmental and other objectives-is the foundation of sustainable development).
378. Clean Air Act § 202 (a) (3) (A) (i), 42 U. S. C. § 7521 (a) (3) (A) (i) (2006).
379. Canonical environmental statutes do, however, sometimes contain individual provisions that pursue objectives entirely independent of the statute's overall environmental protection goal. Clean Water Act § 513, 33 U. S. C. § 1372(2006), for example, requires laborers and mechanics constructing treatment works using federal grants under the Clean Water Act to be paid prevailing wages. It is a labor law, administered by the Labor Department, but otherwise embedded in an environmental statute.
380. NEPA, by requiring federal agencies to evaluate the environmental impacts of their proposed actions even when those actions are taken pursuant to non-environmental statutes, does some of the work of integrating environmental concerns into non-environmental law. But NEPA's requirements are purely procedural and not substantive-it requires agencies only to consider the environmental effects of their proposed actions, not to give any weight to environmental concerns. See Robertson V. Methow Valley Citizens Council, 490 U. S. 332, 350 (1989). This significantly limits NEPA's efficacy and makes the statute an imperfect substitute for substantive environmental requirements.
381. Cf. The National Environmental Policy Act 40th Anniversary Symposium, 40 ENVTL. L. REP. 11, 183, 11, 195 (2010) (transcribing an unidentified audience member's comment that "NEPA is procedural, it is in many instances window-dressing").
382. See 42 U. S. C. § 12709 (2006 & Supp. V 2011) (requiring Secretary to establish standards);
383. see also U. S. GOV'T ACCOUNTABILITY OFFICE, GAO-09-46, GREEN AFFORDABLE HOUSING 11 (2008) (concluding that HUD had taken "positive steps" to promote energy efficiency but could do more within its existing authority).
384. See Richard J. Lazarus, Super Wicked Problems and Climate Change: Restraining the Present to Liberate the Future, 94 CORNELL L. REV. 1153, 1159-60 (2009) (explaining that climate change is a "super wicked problem" because of its "enormous interdependencies, uncertainties, circularities, and conflicting stakeholders", because "the longer it takes to address the problem, the harder it will be to do so", because ""those who are in the best position to address the problem⋯ [have] the least immediate incentive to act", and because of "the absence of an existing institutional framework of government with the ability to develop, implement, and maintain the laws necessary to address a problem of climate change's tremendous spatial and temporal scope");
385. see also Kelly Levin, Benjamin Cashore, Steven Bernstein & Graeme Auld, Playing It Forward: Path Dependency, Progressive Incrementalism, and the "Super Wicked" Problem of Global Climate Change, 5-7 (June 3, 2010), available at http://environment.research.yale.edu/documents/downloads/0-9/2010- super-wicked-levin-cashore-bernstein-auld.pdf (originating the term "super wicked" and applying it to the problem of climate change).
386. See generally Carl Hulse & David M. Herszenhorn, Democrats Call Off Climate Bill Effort in Senate, N. Y. TIMES, July 23, 2010, at A15;
387. Elizabeth Kolbert, Uncomfortable Climate, NEW YORKER, Nov. 22, 2010, at 53.
388. See Climate Change: Regulatory Initiatives, EPA, http://www.epa.gov/ climatechange/EPAactivities/regulatory-initiatives.html (last updated Sept. 24, 2013).
389. See Res. for the Future, Summary of Notable Market-Based Climate Change Bills Introduced in the 111th Congress, RFF. ORG (May 12, 2010), http://www.rff.org/Documents/Features/111th%20-Legislation-Table-Graph.pdf.
390. See, e.g., HOWARD A. LATIN, CLIMATE CHANGE POLICY FAILURES: WHY CONVENTIONAL MITIGATION APPROACHES CANNOT SUCCEED 162-70 (2012);
391. MCKINSEY & CO., PATHWAYS TO A LOW-CARBON ECONOMY 32-34, 59-129 (2009);
392. TED NORDHAUS & MICHAEL SHELLENBERGER, THE EMERGING CLIMATE CONSENSUS: GLOBAL WARMING POUCY IN A POST-ENVIRONMENTAL WORLD 14(2009), available at http://www.thebreakthrough.org/blog/PDF/EmergingClimateConsensus.pdf.
393. See, e.g., PEW CTR. FOR GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE, POLICIES TO REDUCE EMISSIONS FROM THE TRANSPORTATION SECTOR 3 (2008) ("[S]ector-speciflc measures to promote energy efficiency and low carbon technologies may be needed to ensure significant GHG reductions from transportation. ");
394. Brian F. Havel & Gabriel S. Sanchez, Toward an International Aviation Emissions Agreement, 36 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 351, 385 (2012) (arguing in favor of an international greenhouse gas emissions reduction agreement specific to the aviation sector);
395. Jake Schmidt, Ned Helme, Jin Lee & Mark Houdashelt, Sector-Based Approach to the Post-2012 Climate Change Policy Architecture, 8 CLIMATE POL'Y 494 (2008) (arguing the advantages of a sector-based approach).
396. JOHN FABIAN WITT, THE ACCIDENTAL REPUBLIC 9 (2004) ("[B]oth of the conventional historical accounts [of the development of modern American accident law] tacitly assume a determinate relation between a particular course of social change (industrialization) or a new intellectual development (changing ideas about causation) and a particular regime or doctrinal structure in accident law.").
397. See, e.g., JOHN FINNIS, NATURAL LAW AND NATURAL RIGHTS 9-11 (2d ed. 2011);
398. John Gardner, Nearly Natural Law, 52 AM. J. JURIS. 1, 10-18 (2007).
399. JOSEPH RAZ, PRACTICAL REASON AND NORMS 150 (1999) (contrasting "typical cases" in which the signature traits of a category "are manifested to a very high degree" and "borderline cases" "in which all or some [traits] are present only to a lesser degree"); see Gardner, supra note 291, at 15 n. 25 ("There are various limit cases in which one or other of these features is lacking, while others remain. ").
400. Scholars who have used the central-versus-peripheral case framework have tended to attach a direct normative superiority to the central case. See, e.g., Gardner, supra note 291, at 3 (describing the central case as "the case that shows how the other cases⋯ ought to be"). But one can move from the normative, wherein the central case represents what the category ought to be, to the descriptive, wherein, for example, the central case represents what the category is generally thought to be. Of course, even identifying certain characteristics of a law as salient makes an indirectly evaluative judgment, insofar as it indicates that those characteristics are important to a normative evaluation of the law. See JULIE DICKSON, EVALUATION AND LEGAL THEORY 51-67 (2001).
401. See supra note 23; see also, e.g., Johnston et al., supra note 85, at 1. ("Environmental Law is law designed to protect the environment, and the plants and animals that rely on it, including us."); Lazarus, supra note 9, at 1 ("[Environmental law regulates human activity in order to limit ecological impacts that threaten public health and biodiversity."); Michael C. Blumm, Studying Environmental Law: A Brief Overview and Readings for a Seminar, 12 J. ENERGY NAT. RESOURCES & ENVTL. L. 309, 310 (1992) ("Environmental law is a loose amalgam of common law and (increasingly) statutory provisions designed to protect public health, ecosystems, and dependent animal and plant species.").
402. Keith Kloor, The Great Schism in the Environmental Movement, SLATE (Dec. 12, 2012, 8:30 AM), http://www.slate.com/articles/health-and-science/science/ 2012/12/modern-green-movement-eco-pragmatists-are-challenging-traditional- environmentalists.html;
403. see also William Cronon, The Trouble with Wilderness; or, Getting Back to the Wrong Nature, in UNCOMMON GROUND: TOWARD REINVENTING NATURE 69 (William Cronon ed., 1995).
404. See Energy Policy and Conservation Act (EPCA), Pub. L. No. 94-163, § 2, 89 Stat. 871, 874 (1975).
405. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA), Pub. L. No. 110-140, 121 Stat. 1492. The EISA, although still focused on energy independence and security, includes among its aims references to concerns that are clearly environmental-for example, "clean renewable fuels" and "greenhouse gas capture and storage"
406. 121 Stat, at 1492.
407. 49 U. S. C. §§ 5101-5128 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
408. 49 U. S. C. §§ 60101-60140.
409. See 49 U. S. C. § 5101 ("The purpose of this chapter is to protect against the risks to life, property, and the environment that are inherent in the transportation of hazardous material in intrastate, interstate, and foreign commerce.");
410. 49 U. S. C. § 60102 (a) ("The purpose of this chapter is to provide adequate protection against risks to life and property posed by pipeline transportation and pipeline facilities by improving the regulatory and enforcement authority of the Secretary of Transportation. ").
411. 21 U. S. C. §§ 301-399d (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
412. Pub. L. No. 104-170, 110 Stat. 1489 (1996).
413. 21 U. S. C. §346a (b).
414. See, e.g., Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), 7 U. S. C. §§136-136 (y) (2012).
415. See, e.g., H. R. 6311, The Non-native Wildlife Invasion Prevention Act: Hearing Before the Subcomm. on Fisheries, Wildlife & Oceans of the H. Comm. on Natural Res., 110th Cong. 31 (2008) (statement of Marc Gaden, Ph. D., Legislative Liaison, Great Lakes Fishery Commission) (noting the sea lamprey "laid waste to the [Great Lakes] fishery after it invaded the Upper Great Lakes in the 1920s");
416. Thomas H. Fritts & Dawn Leasman-Tanner, The Brown Treesnake on Guam, USGS. GOV (2001) http://www.fort.usgs.gov/resources/education/bts/ (noting the proliferation of normative brown tree snakes on Guam has wiped out much of the island's population of birds and small mammals).
417. 7 U. S. C. §7701 (1) (2012) ("[T]he detection, control, eradication, suppression, prevention, or retardation of the spread of plant pests or noxious weeds is necessary for the protection of the agriculture, environment, and economy of the United States.").
418. For example, uie National Park Service Organic Act directs the Park Service to manage national parks, monuments, and reservations "to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and the wild life therein and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations." National Park Service Organic Act § 1, 16 U. S. C. § 1 (2012).
419. A 1955 statute, for example, authorizes the Secretary of the Interior to assist the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in controlling and draining water from anthracite mine formations to "conserve natural resources", because "the presence of large volumes of water in anthracite coal formations involves serious wastage of the fuel resources of the Nation. " 30 U. S. C. § 571 (2006).
420. For example, the Department of Agriculture's soil conservation programs tie the abatement of soil erosion to a variety of concerns, some environmental and some not, although the program focuses overall on maintaining agricultural productivity. 16 U. S. C. 590a ("[I]t is declared to be the policy of Congress to provide permanently for the control and prevention of soil erosion to preserve soil, water, and related resources, promote soil and water quality, control floods, prevent impairment of reservoirs, and maintain the navigability of rivers and harbors, protect public health, public lands and relieve unemployment-").
421. Pub. L. No. 99-198, 99 Stat. 1354 (1985).
422. See H. R. REP. No. 99-271, pt. 1, at 78 (1985)
423. reprinted in 1985 U. S. C. C. A. N. 1103, 1180.
424. See S. REP. No. 99-145, at 14 (1985)
425. reprintedin 1985 U. S. C. C. A. N. 1676, 1969-70.
426. See Clean Water Act § 404, 33 U. S. C. § 1344 (2006) (establishing a permit program for discharges of dredged or fill material into waters of the United States-a program that regulates the filling of wetlands).
427. 29 U. S. C. §§ 651-678 (2006 & Supp. V 2011).
428. 15 U. S. C. §§ 2601-2695d (2012).