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Volumn 60, Issue 7, 2011, Pages 1505-1564

Environmental harms, use conflicts, and neutral baselines in environmental law

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EID: 79955746530     PISSN: 00127086     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (17)

References (247)
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    • About EPA, EPA, http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/index.html (last visited Mar. 5, 2011) ("EPA's mission is to protect human health and the environment." (emphasis added)). Indeed, the EPA's name, which references "environmental protection," rather than just "environmental," demonstrates this tendency.
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    • ("Framing effects may render [regulatory] instruments subject to criticism to which other, competing instruments are not subject, even if in economic reality. .. the competing instruments could be subjected to the same criticism.").
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    • Note
    • Even activities that appear entirely confined to private land can affect public resources-for example, pavement on a private driveway can increase stormwater runoff, which contributes to the pollution of public rivers.
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    • Urban Stormwater Toxic Pollutants: Assessment, Sources, and Treatability
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    • See, e.g., Robert Pitt, Richard Field, Melinda Lalor & Michael Brown, Urban Stormwater Toxic Pollutants: Assessment, Sources, and Treatability, 67 WATER ENV'T RES. 260, 262 (1995) (noting the contribution of impervious source areas, such as pavement, to stormwater runoff pollution).
    • (1995) Water Env't Res , vol.67 , pp. 260
    • Pitt, R.1    Field, R.2    Lalor, M.3    Brown, M.4
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    • The Tragedy of the Commons
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    • See Garrett Hardin, The Tragedy of the Commons, 162 SCIENCE 1243, 1244-45 (1968).
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    • 0004174070 scopus 로고
    • (discussing the basic logic of collective action)
    • See generally RUSSELL HARDIN, COLLECTIVE ACTION 50-66 (1982) (discussing the basic logic of collective action).
    • (1982) Collective Action , pp. 50-66
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    • 79955731199 scopus 로고
    • (James E. Alt & Douglass C. North eds) (noting the generally recognized difficulties with collective action)
    • ELINOR OSTROM, GOVERNING THE COMMONS: THE EVOLUTION OF INSTITUTIONS FOR COLLECTIVE ACTION 6-7 (James E. Alt & Douglass C. North eds., 1990) (noting the generally recognized difficulties with collective action).
    • (1990) Governing The Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action , pp. 6-7
    • Ostrom, E.1
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    • 79955716499 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Our Environmental Rebels: An Average American Law Professor's Perspective on Environmental Advocacy and the Law
    • 518 ("The American jural system is based on a fundamental presumption that people bear no moral duties to refrain from exploiting the environment. .. .")
    • Cf. Peter Manus, Our Environmental Rebels: An Average American Law Professor's Perspective on Environmental Advocacy and the Law, 40 NEW ENG. L. REV. 499, 518 (2006) ("The American jural system is based on a fundamental presumption that people bear no moral duties to refrain from exploiting the environment. .. .").
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    • Manus, P.1
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    • 5844349570 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • ("[D]ue to the highly interrelated nature of the ecosystem, it is almost always a mistake to suppose that one can isolate a single discrete cause as the source of an environmental problem.")
    • See RICHARD J. LAZARUS, THE MAKING OF ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 33 (2004) ("[D]ue to the highly interrelated nature of the ecosystem, it is almost always a mistake to suppose that one can isolate a single discrete cause as the source of an environmental problem.").
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    • Scientists Battle over Grand Canyon Pollution
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    • See Mark Crawford, Scientists Battle over Grand Canyon Pollution, 247 SCIENCE 911, 911-12 (1990) (explaining the complexities of determining whether a coal-fired power plant on the Arizona-Utah border contributes to haze in the Grand Canyon).
    • (1990) Science , vol.247 , pp. 911
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    • Lisa Heinzerling, Reductionist Regulatory Reform, 8 FORDHAM ENVTL. L.J. 459, 460 (1997).
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    • 79955723380 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (Noting that "'protection of human health and the environment' appears like a mantra in virtually every one of our environmental laws" (citing Clean Air Act §§ 108-109, 302(h), 42 U.S.C. §§ 7408-7409, 7602(h) (2006); Clean Water Act § 303(c)(2)(A), 33 U.S.C. § 1313(c)(2)(A) (2006); Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 § 121(d)(1), 42 U.S.C. § 9621(d)(1); Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act § 3, 7 U.S.C. § 136 (2006); Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 § 1002, 42 U.S.C. § 6901 (2006); Toxic Substances Control Act § 2(a), 15 U.S.C. § 2601(a) (2006))).
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    • Working Both (Positivist) Ends Toward a New (Pragmatist) Middle in Environmental Law
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    • (Book review) ("Scientific research suggests that the concept of biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the key metric of ecosystem health.. .. Biodiversity measures the diversity of species in an ecosystem as an index of its health.").
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    • Are We Conserving What We Say We Are? Measuring Ecological Integrity Within Protected Areas
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    • See Jeffrey D. Parrish, David P. Braun & Robert S. Unnasch, Are We Conserving What We Say We Are? Measuring Ecological Integrity Within Protected Areas, 53 BIOSCIENCE 851, 852 (2003).
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    • Parrish, J.D.1    Braun, D.P.2    Unnasch, R.S.3
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    • Note
    • ("[W]e define ecological integrity as the ability of an ecological system to support and maintain a community of organisms that has species composition, diversity, and functional organization comparable to those of natural habitats within a region.").
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    • Landres, P.B.1    Verner, J.2    Thomas, J.W.3
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    • ("[A]n indicator species is an organism whose characteristics (e.g., presence or absence, population density, dispersion, reproductive success) are used as an index of attributes too difficult, inconvenient, or expensive to measure for other species or environmental conditions of interest.").
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    • Bunn, S.E.1    Davies, P.M.2    Mosisch, T.D.3
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    • Note
    • (Advocating the use of ecosystem-health measures, such as "the direct measurement of amounts of organic carbon produced and consumed within the system, and analysis of the fate of terrestrial and instream sources of organic matter in the aquatic food web").
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    • Declining Biodiversity: Why Species Matter and How Their Functions Might Be Restored in Californian Tidal Marshes
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    • See, e.g., Joy B. Zedler, John C. Callaway & Gary Sullivan, Declining Biodiversity: Why Species Matter and How Their Functions Might Be Restored in Californian Tidal Marshes, 51 BIOSCIENCE 1005, 1005 (2001) (noting that many conservationists and researchers are "[a]larmed by declining biodiversity").
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    • Zedler, J.B.1    Callaway, J.C.2    Sullivan, G.3
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    • Assessing and Monitoring Ecological Community Health in Marine Systems
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    • Hewitt, J.E.1    Anderson, M.J.2    Thrush, S.F.3
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    • Land Use and Biodiversity
    • 970 ("[T]here is no single objective measure of biodiversity. .. ." (emphasis omitted))
    • Christopher D. Stone, Land Use and Biodiversity, 27 ECOLOGY L.Q. 967, 970 (2001) ("[T]here is no single objective measure of biodiversity. .. ." (emphasis omitted)).
    • (2001) Ecology L.Q , vol.27 , pp. 967
    • Stone, C.D.1
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    • Ecological Health and the Northern Forest
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    • Stephen C. Trombulak, Ecological Health and the Northern Forest, 19 VT. L. REV. 283, 290 (1995) (noting that biodiversity is just one of many indicators of ecological health and that there are multiple measures of biodiversity).
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    • Relative Effects of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation on Population Extinction
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    • See, e.g., Lenore Fahrig, Relative Effects of Habitat Loss and Fragmentation on Population Extinction, 61 J. WILDLIFE MGMT. 603, 603 (1997) ("Destruction and fragmentation. .. of natural habitats are the 2 most important factors in the current species extinction event." (citation omitted)).
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    • Farms, Their Environmental Harms, and Environmental Law
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    • See, e.g., J.B. Ruhl, Farms, Their Environmental Harms, and Environmental Law, 27 ECOLOGY L.Q. 263, 274-91 (2000) (describing various environmental harms resulting from water pollution).
    • (2000) Ecology L.Q , vol.27 , pp. 263
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    • Why Intrinsic Value Is a Poor Basis for Conservation Decisions
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    • Lynn A. Maguire & James Justus, Why Intrinsic Value Is a Poor Basis for Conservation Decisions, 58 BIOSCIENCE 910, 910 (2008).
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    • Maguire, L.A.1    Justus, J.2
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    • Note
    • One could compare environmental effects by converting different effects to monetary values, but the monetary reductionism of cost-benefit analysis has been widely criticized on numerous bases, including its hidden biases.
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    • Pricing the Priceless: Cost-Benefit Analysis of Environmental Protection
    • 1584 ("Cost-benefit analysis cannot overcome its fatal flaw: it is completely reliant on the impossible attempt to price the priceless values of life, health, nature, and the future.")
    • See, e.g., Frank Ackerman & Lisa Heinzerling, Pricing the Priceless: Cost-Benefit Analysis of Environmental Protection, 150 U. PA. L. REV. 1553, 1584 (2002) ("Cost-benefit analysis cannot overcome its fatal flaw: it is completely reliant on the impossible attempt to price the priceless values of life, health, nature, and the future.").
    • (2002) U. Pa. L. Rev. , vol.150 , pp. 1553
    • Ackerman, F.1    Heinzerling, L.2
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    • Is Cost-Benefit Analysis Neutral?
    • 402 (concluding that cost-benefit analysis "is not neutral in practice and is, in many ways, antienvironmental in theory")
    • David M. Driesen, Is Cost-Benefit Analysis Neutral?, 77 U. COLO. L. REV. 335, 402 (2006) (concluding that cost-benefit analysis "is not neutral in practice and is, in many ways, antienvironmental in theory").
    • (2006) U. Colo. L. Rev , vol.77 , pp. 335
    • Driesen, D.M.1
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    • Sidney A. Shapiro & Christopher H. Schroeder, Beyond Cost-Benefit Analysis: A Pragmatic Reorientation, 32 HARV. ENVTL. L. REV. 433, 457 (2008).
    • (2008) Harv. Envtl. L. Rev , vol.32 , pp. 433
    • Shapiro, S.A.1    Schroeder, C.H.2
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    • Note
    • ("The results of [cost-benefit analysis] are not only inaccurate, they are often biased by the analyst's policy preferences or [by] the value judgments that are implicit in rational choice methodologies."); see also infra Part III.B.
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    • (2004) Widener L. Rev. , vol.10 , pp. 503
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    • Note
    • ("We often say that the purpose of environmental law is to protect the environment. But it is much more complicated than that. To begin with, environmental law has never been aimed simply at protecting the environment.").
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    • Judicial Activism and Restraint in the Supreme Court's Environmental Law Decisions
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    • Richard E. Levy & Robert L. Glicksman, Judicial Activism and Restraint in the Supreme Court's Environmental Law Decisions, 42 VAND. L. REV. 343, 376 n.147 (1989).
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    • Levy, R.E.1    Glicksman, R.L.2
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    • Note
    • ("[R]ecent environmental law decisions. .. emphasize that environmental statutes are compromise measures designed to achieve a variety of goals and that elevating environmental protection concerns above these other goals is too simplistic.").
  • 47
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    • The Unifying Role of Harm in Environmental Law
    • 900 ("Harm means different things to different people. .. .")
    • See Albert C. Lin, The Unifying Role of Harm in Environmental Law, 2006 WIS. L. REV. 897, 900 ("Harm means different things to different people. .. .").
    • (2006) Wis. L. Rev. , pp. 897
    • Lin, A.C.1
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    • Diversity: The Dangers of Black-and-White Conservation
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    • See John Wiens, Diversity: The Dangers of Black-and-White Conservation, 21 CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 1371, 1371 (2007).
    • (2007) Conservation Biology , vol.21 , pp. 1371
    • Wiens, J.1
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    • Note
    • ("The ways in which people relate to a conservation landscape are many and varied, some with clear economic benefits, some with quasi-economic benefits, and some that come only through the knowledge that we are protecting biodiversity because it is there. There are multiple constituencies for conservation, and to succeed we must aim to be relevant to them all.").
  • 50
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    • ("In order for there to be perceptible pollution, there must first be an understanding of systemic order, an environmental norm.")
    • See NEIL EVERNDEN, THE SOCIAL CREATION OF NATURE 5-6 (1992) ("In order for there to be perceptible pollution, there must first be an understanding of systemic order, an environmental norm.").
    • (1992) The Social Creation Of Nature , pp. 5-6
    • Evernden, N.1
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    • The Idea of Pollution
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    • John Copeland Nagle, The Idea of Pollution, 43 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 1, 46 (2009) (noting that the idea of pollution "presuppose[s] a baseline condition that is unpolluted").
    • (2009) U.C. Davis L. Rev. , vol.43 , pp. 1
    • Nagle, J.C.1
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    • Domesticated Nature: Shaping Landscapes and Ecosystems for Human Welfare
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    • Peter Kareiva, Sean Watts, Robert McDonald & Tim Boucher, Domesticated Nature: Shaping Landscapes and Ecosystems for Human Welfare, 316 SCIENCE 1866, 1866 (2007).
    • (2007) Science , vol.316 , pp. 1866
    • Kareiva, P.1    Watts, S.2    McDonald, R.3    Boucher, T.4
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    • Introduction: In Search of Nature
    • 25 (William Cronon ed)
    • See also William Cronon, Introduction: In Search of Nature, in UNCOMMON GROUND: TOWARD REINVENTING NATURE 23, 25 (William Cronon ed., 1995).
    • (1995) Uncommon Ground: Toward Reinventing Nature , pp. 23
    • Cronon, W.1
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    • 79955710170 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("The work of literary scholars, anthropologists, cultural historians, and critical theorists over the past several decades has yielded abundant evidence that 'nature' is not nearly so natural as it seems.").
  • 55
    • 0002301077 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The "Anthropocene
    • (Int'l Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Stockholm, Swed.), May, at 17, 17 available at (contending that human impacts on the planet are so extensive that people should "use the term 'anthropocene' for the current geological epoch")
    • Paul J. Crutzen & Eugene F. Stoermer, The "Anthropocene," GLOBAL CHANGE NEWSL. (Int'l Geosphere-Biosphere Programme, Stockholm, Swed.), May 2000, at 17, 17, available at http://www.igbp.kva.se/documents/resources/NL_41.pdf (contending that human impacts on the planet are so extensive that people should "use the term 'anthropocene' for the current geological epoch").
    • (2000) Global Change Newsl
    • Crutzen, P.J.1    Stoermer, E.F.2
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    • Can the Right to Autonomy Be Resuscitated After Glucksberg?
    • 745 ("[W]hat constitutes harm. .. will be governed by one's view of the good.")
    • John P. Safranek & Stephen J. Safranek, Can the Right to Autonomy Be Resuscitated After Glucksberg?, 69 U. COLO. L. REV. 731, 745 (1998) ("[W]hat constitutes harm. .. will be governed by one's view of the good.").
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    • Safranek, J.P.1    Safranek, S.J.2
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    • Environmental Harm: Political Not Biological
    • 81 ("The term 'environmental harm'. .. has no meaning in science, policy, or law.")
    • See Mark Sagoff, Environmental Harm: Political Not Biological, 22 J. AGRIC. & ENVTL. ETHICS 81, 81 (2009) ("The term 'environmental harm'. .. has no meaning in science, policy, or law.").
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    • Whitman v. Am. Trucking Ass'ns, 531 U.S. 457
    • Whitman v. Am. Trucking Ass'ns, 531 U.S. 457 (2001).
    • (2001)
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    • 79955735605 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 7401-7671q
    • Clean Air Act, 42 U.S.C. §§ 7401-7671q (2006).
    • (2006)
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    • 79955721521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Whitman, 531 U.S. at 466; see also Reserve Mining Co. v. EPA, 514 F.2d 492, 537 (8th Cir. 1975) (citing, as support for a decision not to enjoin environmental violations by the Reserve Mining Company, the possibility that "ill health effects resulting from the prolonged unemployment of the head of the family on a closing of the Reserve facility may be more certain than the harm from drinking Lake Superior water or breathing Silver Bay air").
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    • Note
    • Whitman, 531 U.S. at 466-68.
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    • 0003485299 scopus 로고
    • (arguing that a change to an ecosystem can have expansive consequences due to "a simple fact about ecosystems-everything is connected to everything else")
    • See, e.g., BARRY COMMONER, THE CLOSING CIRCLE: NATURE, MAN, AND TECHNOLOGY 33-39 (1971) (arguing that a change to an ecosystem can have expansive consequences due to "a simple fact about ecosystems-everything is connected to everything else").
    • (1971) The Closing Circle: Nature, Man, And Technology , pp. 33-39
    • Commoner, B.1
  • 63
    • 34247592255 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Environmental Law in the Political Ecosystem-Coping with the Reality of Politics
    • 480-81
    • Zygmunt J.B. Plater, Environmental Law in the Political Ecosystem-Coping with the Reality of Politics, 19 PACE ENVTL. L. REV. 423, 480-81 n.77 (2002).
    • (2002) Pace Envtl. L. Rev. , vol.19 , Issue.77 , pp. 423
    • Plater, Z.J.B.1
  • 64
    • 79955729896 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Environmental law's high purpose and aspiration is to make sense of the First Law of Ecology, that everything is connected to everything else.").
  • 66
    • 79955729679 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[The environmental perspective] starts from the premise of interconnectedness-that all human enterprises exist within one vast shared common context in which actions have collateral consequences that are relevant and should be considered. .. .").
  • 67
    • 0347109969 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Restoring What's Environmental About Environmental Law in the Supreme Court
    • 745-48
    • Richard J. Lazarus, Restoring What's Environmental About Environmental Law in the Supreme Court, 47 UCLA L. REV. 703, 745-48 (2000).
    • (2000) Ucla L. Rev. , vol.47 , pp. 703
    • Lazarus, R.J.1
  • 68
    • 79955731406 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (Noting that injuries that arise in environmental law often are irreversible, catastrophic, and continuing; physically and temporally distant from the actions that cause them; uncertain; resulting from multiple causes; and nonhuman and noneconomic).
  • 69
    • 79955746579 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Manifesto for the Radical Middle
    • 387 (praising Eco-Pragmatism as a "tour de force")
    • See, e.g., J.B. Ruhl, A Manifesto for the Radical Middle, 38 IDAHO L. REV. 385, 387 (2002) (praising Eco-Pragmatism as a "tour de force").
    • (2002) Idaho L. Rev. , vol.38 , pp. 385
    • Ruhl, J.B.1
  • 70
    • 0037846276 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Eco-Pragmatism and Ecology: What's Leopold Got to Do with It?
    • 1145 ("Many have sung the praises of Farber's eco-pragmatism. .. .")
    • see also Amy J. Wildermuth, Eco-Pragmatism and Ecology: What's Leopold Got to Do with It?, 87 MINN. L. REV. 1145, 1145 n.2 (2003) ("Many have sung the praises of Farber's eco-pragmatism. .. .").
    • (2003) Minn. L. Rev. , vol.87 , Issue.2 , pp. 1145
    • Wildermuth, A.J.1
  • 71
    • 38949129348 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Can Regulation Evolve? Lessons from a Study in Maladaptive Management
    • 307
    • See, e.g., Alejandro E. Camacho, Can Regulation Evolve? Lessons from a Study in Maladaptive Management, 55 UCLA L. REV. 293, 307 n.81 (2007).
    • (2007) Ucla L. Rev. , vol.55 , Issue.81 , pp. 293
    • Camacho, A.E.1
  • 72
    • 14944386332 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Genetics and Environmental Law: Redefining Public Health
    • 256
    • Jamie A. Grodsky, Genetics and Environmental Law: Redefining Public Health, 93 CALIF. L. REV. 171, 256 n.398 (2005).
    • (2005) Calif. L. Rev. , vol.93 , Issue.398 , pp. 171
    • Grodsky, J.A.1
  • 73
    • 23844550364 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Order Without Social Norms: How Personal Norm Activation Can Protect the Environment
    • 1140
    • Michael P. Vandenbergh, Order Without Social Norms: How Personal Norm Activation Can Protect the Environment, 99 NW. U. L. REV. 1101, 1140 n.166 (2005).
    • (2005) Nw. U. L. Rev , vol.99 , Issue.166 , pp. 1101
    • Vandenbergh, M.P.1
  • 74
    • 79955742939 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Consultants' Republic
    • 2048 (book review)
    • Douglas A. Kysar, The Consultants' Republic, 121 HARV. L. REV. 2041, 2048 n.20 (2008) (book review).
    • (2008) Harv. L. Rev , vol.121 , Issue.20 , pp. 2041
    • Kysar, D.A.1
  • 75
    • 0037846287 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Pragmatic Ecologist: Environmental Protection as a Jurisdynamic Experience
    • Symposium
    • Symposium, The Pragmatic Ecologist: Environmental Protection as a Jurisdynamic Experience, 97 MINN. L. REV. 847 (2003).
    • (2003) Minn. L. Rev , vol.97 , pp. 847
  • 76
    • 0008410788 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Biotic Land-Use
    • 202 (J. Baird Callicott & Eric T. Freyfogle eds)
    • (Quoting Aldo Leopold, Biotic Land-Use, in FOR THE HEALTH OF THE LAND 198, 202 (J. Baird Callicott & Eric T. Freyfogle eds., 1999)).
    • (1999) For The Health Of The Land , pp. 198
    • Leopold, Q.A.1
  • 77
    • 0002984751 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Decline of the Hydropower Czar and the Rise of Agency Pluralism in Hydroelectric Licensing
    • 114
    • See, e.g., Michael C. Blumm & Viki A. Nadol, The Decline of the Hydropower Czar and the Rise of Agency Pluralism in Hydroelectric Licensing, 26 COLUM. J. ENVTL. L. 81, 114 n.219 (2001).
    • (2001) Colum. J. Envtl. L , vol.26 , Issue.219 , pp. 81
    • Blumm, M.C.1    Nadol, V.A.2
  • 78
    • 79955736061 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (Noting the importance of the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission's selection of a baseline to its decisions whether to relicense an existing hydropower project).
  • 79
    • 79955743885 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A NEPA Climate Paradox: Taking Greenhouse Gases into Account in Threshold Significance Determinations
    • 57-58
    • Madeline June Kass, A NEPA Climate Paradox: Taking Greenhouse Gases into Account in Threshold Significance Determinations, 42 IND. L. REV. 47, 57-58 (2009).
    • (2009) Ind. L. Rev , vol.42 , pp. 47
    • Kass, M.J.1
  • 80
    • 79955713653 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (Noting the absence of clear baselines for determining which environmental impacts qualify as significant under the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321-4370h (2006)).
  • 81
    • 33846140468 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Comment, Adaptive Management and NEPA: How a Nonequilibrium View of Ecosystems Mandates Flexible Regulation
    • 872-73
    • Julie Thrower, Comment, Adaptive Management and NEPA: How a Nonequilibrium View of Ecosystems Mandates Flexible Regulation, 33 ECOLOGY L.Q. 871, 872-73 (2006).
    • (2006) ECOLOGY L.Q , vol.33 , pp. 871
    • Thrower, J.1
  • 82
    • 79955708300 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Recognition of the constantly changing nature of ecosystems has undermined the foundational assumptions of NEPA, challenging the notion that we can establish baselines to identify an 'undisturbed' ecosystem."). The problem of baselines, although particularly acute in environmental policy, is not unique to that arena. Scholars have noted baseline problems in other areas of the law as well.
  • 83
    • 79955743884 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Tempest in an Empty Teapot: Why the Constitution Does Not Regulate Gerrymandering
    • 16-17
    • See, e.g., Larry Alexander & Saikrishna B. Prakash, Tempest in an Empty Teapot: Why the Constitution Does Not Regulate Gerrymandering, 50 WM. & MARY L. REV. 1, 16-17 (2008).
    • (2008) Wm. & Mary L. Rev. , vol.50 , pp. 1
    • Alexander, L.1    Prakash, S.B.2
  • 84
    • 79955719957 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("For people to speak of such gerrymanders as vote diluting, they must have in mind some ideal demographic baseline.").
  • 85
    • 18144375949 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Intellectual Property Isolationism and the Average Cost Thesis
    • 1086
    • John F. Duffy, Intellectual Property Isolationism and the Average Cost Thesis, 83 TEX. L. REV. 1077, 1086 (2005).
    • (2005) Tex. L. Rev. , vol.83 , pp. 1077
    • Duffy, J.F.1
  • 86
    • 79955710419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Negative externalities can be distinguished from positive externalities only by identifying a baseline, and the choice of a baseline is generally considered arbitrary as a matter of theory.").
  • 87
    • 84867807284 scopus 로고
    • Allocational Sanctions: The Problem of Negative Rights in a Positive State
    • 1352
    • Seth F. Kreimer, Allocational Sanctions: The Problem of Negative Rights in a Positive State, 132 U. PA. L. REV. 1293, 1352 (1984).
    • (1984) U. Pa. L. Rev. , vol.132 , pp. 1293
    • Kreimer, S.F.1
  • 88
    • 79955710970 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[T]he distinction between liberty-expanding offers and liberty-reducing threats turns on the establishment of an acceptable baseline against which to measure a person's position after imposition of an allocation.").
  • 89
    • 62249117089 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Federal Courts as a Franchise: Rethinking the Justifications for Federal Question Jurisdiction
    • 150
    • Gil Seinfeld, The Federal Courts as a Franchise: Rethinking the Justifications for Federal Question Jurisdiction, 97 CALIF. L. REV. 95, 150 (2009).
    • (2009) Calif. L. Rev. , vol.97 , pp. 95
    • Seinfeld, G.1
  • 90
    • 79955745139 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[A]cknowledging the fact that the benefits of federal court access are concentrated on identifiable parties introduces a 'baseline' problem to the task of jurisdictional allocation.").
  • 91
    • 34248380152 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • On Discounting Regulatory Benefits: Risk, Money, and Intergenerational Equity
    • 200
    • Cass R. Sunstein & Arden Rowell, On Discounting Regulatory Benefits: Risk, Money, and Intergenerational Equity, 74 U. CHI. L. REV. 171, 200 (2007).
    • (2007) U. Chi. L. Rev. , vol.74 , pp. 171
    • Sunstein, C.R.1    Rowell, A.2
  • 92
    • 79955743160 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("In short, it is necessary to identify the baseline against which any 'compensation' [to future generations] must be paid, and the real work is being done by that baseline, not by the idea of compensation.").
  • 93
    • 68349093626 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • From Theory into Practice: Introducing the Reference Class Problem
    • 245
    • See Paul Roberts, From Theory into Practice: Introducing the Reference Class Problem, 11 INT'L. J. EVIDENCE & PROOF 243, 245 (2007).
    • (2007) Int'l. J. Evidence & Proof , vol.11 , pp. 243
    • Roberts, P.1
  • 94
    • 79955706100 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Every factual generalisation implies a reference class. .. ."). Professor Edward Cheng has summarized the reference-class problem as follows: "Inference often involves abstracting a person (or event or thing) to a few salient characteristics, and then comparing that person [or event or thing] with others having the same or similar characteristics.
  • 95
    • 74349105256 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Practical Solution to the Reference Class Problem
    • But the problem becomes: How does one choose the comparison group?" 2085
    • But the problem becomes: How does one choose the comparison group?" Edward K. Cheng, A Practical Solution to the Reference Class Problem, 109 COLUM. L. REV. 2081, 2085 (2009).
    • (2009) Colum. L. Rev. , vol.109 , pp. 2081
    • Cheng, E.K.1
  • 96
    • 50049086920 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Bottlenecks and Baselines: Tackling Information Deficits in Environmental Regulation
    • Difficulties also arise with the unavailability of information to serve as a baseline. 1435
    • Difficulties also arise with the unavailability of information to serve as a baseline. See, e.g., Bradley C. Karkkainen, Bottlenecks and Baselines: Tackling Information Deficits in Environmental Regulation, 86 TEX. L. REV. 1409, 1435 (2008).
    • (2008) Tex. L. Rev. , vol.86 , pp. 1409
    • Karkkainen, B.C.1
  • 97
    • 79955713432 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Another recurring problem across the landscape of environmental law and policy is the lack of good baseline information on environmental conditions and stressors."). In this Article, however, I am focused on conceptual problems with baselines.
  • 98
    • 79955743662 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Press Release, EPA, Clear Skies Legislation Introduced in Congress Proposal Will Improve Air Quality, Prevent Premature Deaths, Illnesses (July 29, 2002), available at
    • Press Release, EPA, Clear Skies Legislation Introduced in Congress Proposal Will Improve Air Quality, Prevent Premature Deaths, Illnesses (July 29, 2002), available at http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/b1ab9f485b098972852562e7004dc686/c1b111b0d87d591385256c0500625054.
  • 99
    • 61349106049 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Saving Lives Through Administrative Law and Economics
    • 470
    • See also John D. Graham, Saving Lives Through Administrative Law and Economics, 157 U. PA. L. REV. 395, 470 (2008).
    • (2008) U. Pa. L. Rev. , vol.157 , pp. 395
    • Graham, J.D.1
  • 100
    • 79955734926 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Clear Skies called for a uniform, nationwide 70% reduction in three pollutants (sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and mercury).").
  • 101
    • 79955714751 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Press Release, EPA, New EPA Data Show Dramatic Air Quality Improvements from Clear Skies Initiative (July 1, 2002), available at
    • Press Release, EPA, New EPA Data Show Dramatic Air Quality Improvements from Clear Skies Initiative (July 1, 2002), available at http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/b1ab9f485b098972852562e7004dc686/3feaba8793ea23c885256be9005c5e75.
  • 102
    • 79955729463 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Press Release, Nat'l Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin., President Announces Clear Skies & Global Climate Change Initiatives (Feb. 14 2002) available at
    • Press Release, Nat'l Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin., President Announces Clear Skies & Global Climate Change Initiatives (Feb. 14, 2002), available at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2002/02/20020214-5.html.
  • 103
    • 79955719261 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Press Release, Senator Sheldon Whitehouse, In Morning Speech, Whitehouse Sharply Criticizes Political Influence at EPA (May 2, 2008), available at
    • Press Release, Senator Sheldon Whitehouse, In Morning Speech, Whitehouse Sharply Criticizes Political Influence at EPA (May 2, 2008), available at http://whitehouse.senate.gov/newsroom/speeches/speech/?id=a9de6a3a-8f71-4472-a52a-03e959597e01.
  • 104
    • 79955716283 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Press Release, Natural Res. Def. Council, Clear Skies Would Let Plants Pollute More, Study Concludes (Jan. 13 2005), available at (follow "Clear Skies would let plants pollute more study concludes" hyperlink)
    • Press Release, Natural Res. Def. Council, Clear Skies Would Let Plants Pollute More, Study Concludes (Jan. 13, 2005), available at http://www.nrdc.org/bushrecord/airenergy_powerplants.asp (follow "Clear Skies would let plants pollute more, study concludes" hyperlink).
  • 105
    • 79955720838 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EPA (last visited Mar. 5 2011)
    • Clear Skies: Frequent Questions, EPA, http://www.epa.gov/air/clearskies/faqs.html (last visited Mar. 5, 2011).
    • Clear Skies: Frequent Questions
  • 106
    • 79955740982 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Energy Vendors, Environmentalists at Odds over 'Clear Skies,'
    • Oct. 1
    • See Ken Baumel, Energy Vendors, Environmentalists at Odds over 'Clear Skies,' NE. PA. BUS. J., Oct. 1, 2002, http://www.allbusiness.com/government/environmental-regulations/1105612-1.html.
    • (2002) Ne. Pa. Bus. J
    • Baumel, K.1
  • 107
    • 79955731650 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Clean Water Act § 316(b), 33 U.S.C. § 1326(b) (2006). The Clean Water Act is codified at 33 U.S.C. §§ 1251-1387.
  • 108
    • 79955717161 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System-Final Regulations to Establish Requirements for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Phase II Existing Facilities, 69 Fed. Reg. 41,576, 41,605 (July 9, 2004).
  • 109
    • 79955734247 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, Inc., 129 S. Ct. 1498, 1504 (2009).
  • 110
    • 79955709721 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System-Final Regulations to Establish Requirements for Cooling Water Intake Structures at Phase II Existing Facilities, 69 Fed. Reg. at 41,601-06.
  • 111
    • 84928442380 scopus 로고
    • Playing the Baseline: Civil Rights, Environmental Law, and Statutory Interpretation
    • 678 (reviewing CASS R. SUNSTEIN, AFTER THE RIGHTS REVOLUTION: RECONCEIVING THE REGULATORY STATE (1990)
    • Daniel A. Farber, Playing the Baseline: Civil Rights, Environmental Law, and Statutory Interpretation, 91 COLUM. L. REV. 676, 678 n.12 (1991) (reviewing CASS R. SUNSTEIN, AFTER THE RIGHTS REVOLUTION: RECONCEIVING THE REGULATORY STATE (1990)).
    • (1991) Colum. L. Rev , vol.91 , Issue.12 , pp. 676
    • Farber, D.A.1
  • 112
    • 79955723379 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Envtl. Servs. (TOC), Inc., 528 U.S. 167 (2000).
  • 113
    • 79955709012 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Envtl. Servs. (TOC), Inc., 956 F. Supp. 588, 602 (D.S.C. 1997), vacated, 149 F.3d 303 (4th Cir. 1998), rev'd, 528 U.S. 167 (2000).
  • 114
    • 79955716948 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Laidlaw, 528 U.S. at 181-83, 198.
  • 115
    • 79955739272 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Island Pig Eradication Completed
    • Aug. 30 at B3
    • Gregory W. Griggs, Island Pig Eradication Completed, L.A. TIMES, Aug. 30, 2007, at B3.
    • (2007) L.A. Times
    • Griggs, G.W.1
  • 116
    • 79955738495 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Restoring Santa Cruz Island
    • (last visited Mar. 5 2011) (indicating that the feral pig program was "the most important action that [could] be taken to protect and restore" the island)
    • See Restoring Santa Cruz Island, NAT'L PARK SERV., http://www.nps.gov/chis/naturescience/restoring-santa-cruz-island.htm (last visited Mar. 5, 2011) (indicating that the feral pig program was "the most important action that [could] be taken to protect and restore" the island).
    • Nat'l Park Serv
  • 117
    • 79955724953 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Santa Cruz Island Pigs
    • (last visited Mar. 5 2011) (describing the program as a "horrific event")
    • See Santa Cruz Island Pigs, IN DEF. OF ANIMALS WILDLIFE CAMPAIGN, http://www.idausa.org/campaigns/wildlife/santa_cruz_island_pigs.html (last visited Mar. 5, 2011) (describing the program as a "horrific event").
    • Def. Of Animals Wildlife Campaign
  • 118
    • 79955707411 scopus 로고
    • ("USE implies availing oneself of something as a means or instrument to an end."). Perhaps reflecting this intuition, some scholars have drawn distinctions between the different means by which people derive value from an environmental resource. Some distinguish use value from nonuse value
    • But see WEBSTER'S NINTH NEW COLLEGIATE DICTIONARY 1299 (1984) ("USE implies availing oneself of something as a means or instrument to an end."). Perhaps reflecting this intuition, some scholars have drawn distinctions between the different means by which people derive value from an environmental resource. Some distinguish use value from nonuse value.
    • (1984) Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary , pp. 1299
  • 119
    • 33744771975 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Integration of Natural Area Values: Conceptual Foundations and Methodological Approaches
    • 11
    • E.g., Michael Lockwood, Integration of Natural Area Values: Conceptual Foundations and Methodological Approaches, 12 AUSTRALASIAN J. ENVTL. MGMT. 8, 11 (2005).
    • (2005) Australasian J. Envtl. Mgmt. , vol.12 , pp. 8
    • Lockwood, M.1
  • 120
    • 0030471492 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Values and Economics in Environmental Management: A Perspective and Critique
    • 398
    • Thomas A. More, James R. Averill & Thomas H. Stevens, Values and Economics in Environmental Management: A Perspective and Critique, 48 J. ENVTL. MGMT. 397, 398 (1996).
    • (1996) J. Envtl. Mgmt. , vol.48 , pp. 397
    • More, T.A.1    Averill, J.R.2    Stevens, T.H.3
  • 121
    • 0000446030 scopus 로고
    • Existence Value in a Total Valuation Framework
    • Some further classify use value into current use value, option value, and quasi-option value. 267 (Robert D. Rowe & Lauraine G. Chestnut eds)
    • Some further classify use value into current use value, option value, and quasi-option value. E.g., Alan Randall & John R. Stoll, Existence Value in a Total Valuation Framework, in MANAGING AIR QUALITY AND SCENIC RESOURCES AT NATIONAL PARKS AND WILDERNESS AREAS 265, 267 (Robert D. Rowe & Lauraine G. Chestnut eds., 1983).
    • (1983) Managing Air Quality And Scenic Resources At National Parks And Wilderness Areas , pp. 265
    • Randall, A.1    Stoll, J.R.2
  • 122
    • 79955718365 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Mount St. Helens Remembered: 'God is speaking,'
    • May 14 (noting that ash from the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 clogged auto engine air filters)
    • But see Ross Anderson, Mount St. Helens Remembered: 'God is speaking,' SEATTLE TIMES, May 14, 2000, http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/special/helens/story1.html (noting that ash from the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 clogged auto engine air filters).
    • (2000) Seattle Times
    • Anderson, R.1
  • 123
    • 0003454690 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EPA (last visited Mar. 5 2011) (noting that during London's "killer fog" of 1952, "[t]he smog was so thick that buses could not run without guides walking ahead of them carrying lanterns")
    • The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act, EPA, http://epa.gov/air/caa/peg/understand.html (last visited Mar. 5, 2011) (noting that during London's "killer fog" of 1952, "[t]he smog was so thick that buses could not run without guides walking ahead of them carrying lanterns").
    • The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act
  • 124
    • 79955717870 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The nature of environmental problems is such that some authors who present normative perspectives on environmental problems perceive themselves as being in conflict with, or at least in contradistinction to, anthropocentrism. Cf. NAT'L RESEARCH COUNCIL, VALUING ECOSYSTEM SERVICES: TOWARD BETTER ENVIRONMENTAL DECISION-MAKING 35-36 (2004) (discussing the relationship and distinctions among intrinsic value, deontological value, and anthropocentric value). The use-conflict framework's relationship to anthropocentrism thus bears comment. The use-conflict framework is anthropocentric, but only to the extent that all lawmaking processes must be. That is, humans decide the content of law, so a value is reflected in the law only to the extent that a human participant in the lawmaking process is persuaded to act upon the value.
  • 125
    • 4344688413 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Existence Value and Other of Life's Ills
    • (Peter J. Hill & Roger E. Meiners eds) ("Of course, if natural resources 'have value independent of human beings,' humans must acknowledge that value if there is to be any recognition of such value. .. .")
    • Donald J. Boudreaux & Roger E. Meiners, Existence Value and Other of Life's Ills, in WHO OWNS THE ENVIRONMENT? 153, 181 n.2 (Peter J. Hill & Roger E. Meiners eds., 1998) ("Of course, if natural resources 'have value independent of human beings,' humans must acknowledge that value if there is to be any recognition of such value. .. .").
    • (1998) Who Owns The Environment? , vol.181 , Issue.2 , pp. 153
    • Boudreaux, D.J.1    Meiners, R.E.2
  • 126
    • 0011506750 scopus 로고
    • Natural Resource Damage Valuation
    • 296
    • Frank B. Cross, Natural Resource Damage Valuation, 42 VAND. L. REV. 269, 296 (1989).
    • (1989) Vand. L. Rev. , vol.42 , pp. 269
    • Cross, F.B.1
  • 127
    • 79955721726 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Enlightened human preference thus may capture at least a portion of intrinsic value, but the preference is predicated necessarily on an informed human understanding of intrinsic value, not on the value itself."). The content of the human values represented in environmental lawmaking is, however, not necessarily anthropocentric, and the use-conflict framework recognizes that uses are not limited to material benefits that flow directly from environmental resources to humans. People often derive benefits from the environment through an appreciation that is separate from any direct material benefit to themselves. They may appreciate that other humans now or in future generations will breathe clean air, that wildlife and plants benefit from clean air, or even the mere existence of clean air now or in the future. All of these indirectly derived benefits (as well as the more direct benefits) qualify as uses under the use-conflict framework by virtue of the benefits people derive from them. People's appreciation of these benefits reflects the values they hold, be they anthropocentric or not. Thus, the process of environmental lawmaking- which is the focus of the use-conflict framework-necessarily is anthropocentric, even if the substance of environmental law need not be.
  • 128
    • 0009567480 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Pragmatism and Environmental Thought
    • 33 (Andrew Light & Eric Katz eds) ("[H]uman experience, the human perspective on value, is the only thing we know as humans.")
    • See Kelly A. Parker, Pragmatism and Environmental Thought, in ENVIRONMENTAL PRAGMATISM 21, 33 (Andrew Light & Eric Katz eds., 1996) ("[H]uman experience, the human perspective on value, is the only thing we know as humans.").
    • (1996) Environmental Pragmatism , pp. 21
    • Parker, K.A.1
  • 129
    • 74149091415 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Candid Approach
    • 16
    • Valentí Rull, The Candid Approach, 11 EMBO REP. 14, 16 (2010).
    • (2010) Embo Rep , vol.11 , pp. 14
    • Rull, V.1
  • 130
    • 79955719723 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("In the end, all the reasons. .. for preserving biodiversity, whether commercial, sustainable, moral, ethical, or candid, are still anthropocentric because humans assess the value of nature on the basis of their material and cultural needs.").
  • 131
    • 79955721966 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • See, e.g., Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 § 2, 16 U.S.C. § 529 (2006) ("The establishment and maintenance of areas of wilderness are consistent with [the statute's principles of multiple use and sustained yield]."); Federal Land Policy and Management Act § 103(c), 43 U.S.C. § 1702(c) (2006) (defining "multiple use" to include "natural scenic, scientific and historical values").
  • 132
    • 77952424326 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Ecosystem Services & Natural Capital: Reconceiving Environmental Management
    • 464
    • Barton H. Thompson, Jr., Ecosystem Services & Natural Capital: Reconceiving Environmental Management, 17 N.Y.U. ENVTL. L.J. 460, 464 (2008).
    • (2008) N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J , vol.17 , pp. 460
    • Thompson Jr., B.H.1
  • 133
    • 36348959098 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Defining, Valuing, and Providing Ecosystem Goods and Services
    • 334
    • See also Thomas C. Brown, John C. Bergstron & John B. Loomis, Defining, Valuing, and Providing Ecosystem Goods and Services, 47 NAT. RESOURCES J. 329, 334 (2007).
    • (2007) Nat. Resources J , vol.47 , pp. 329
    • Brown, T.C.1    Bergstron, J.C.2    Loomis, J.B.3
  • 134
    • 79955725400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("We define ecosystem goods and services generally as the flows from an ecosystem that are of relatively immediate benefit to humans and occur naturally.").
  • 136
    • 79955710643 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Ecosystem services are the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that make them up, sustain and fulfill human life.").
  • 137
    • 57149107777 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Defining and Classifying Ecosystem Services for Decision Making
    • 645
    • Brendan Fisher, R. Kerry Turner & Paul Morling, Defining and Classifying Ecosystem Services for Decision Making, 68 ECOLOGICAL ECON. 643, 645 (2009).
    • (2009) Ecological Econ , vol.68 , pp. 643
    • Fisher, B.1    Turner, R.K.2    Morling, P.3
  • 138
    • 79955744609 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[E]cosystem services are the aspects of ecosystems utilized (actively or passively) to produce human wellbeing. The key points are that 1) services must be ecological phenomena and 2) that they do not have to be directly utilized." (emphasis omitted)).
  • 139
    • 28644436570 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Environmental Values
    • 339 ("The goods and services that flow from ecosystem functions are often taken for granted.")
    • See also Thomas Dietz, Amy Fitzgerald & Rachel Shwom, Environmental Values, 30 ANN. REV. ENVTL. RESOURCES 335, 339 (2005) ("The goods and services that flow from ecosystem functions are often taken for granted.").
    • (2005) Ann. Rev. Envtl. Resources , vol.30 , pp. 335
    • Dietz, T.1    Fitzgerald, A.2    Shwom, R.3
  • 140
    • 78249284420 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Law and Policy Beginnings of Ecosystem Services
    • 157-58
    • See J.B. Ruhl & James Salzman, The Law and Policy Beginnings of Ecosystem Services, 22 J. LAND USE & ENVTL. L. 157, 157-58 (2007).
    • (2007) J. Land Use & Envtl L , vol.22 , pp. 157
    • Ruhl, J.B.1    Salzman, J.2
  • 141
    • 79955717872 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (Listing "purifying air and water, detoxifying and decomposing waste, renewing soil fertility, regulating climate, mitigating droughts and floods, controlling pests, and pollinating vegetation" as examples of ecosystem services).
  • 142
    • 22944481827 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Creating Markets for Ecosystem Services: Notes from the Field
    • 882 (listing "water purification and pollination" as examples of ecosystem services)
    • James Salzman, Creating Markets for Ecosystem Services: Notes from the Field, 80 N.Y.U. L. REV. 870, 882 (2005) (listing "water purification and pollination" as examples of ecosystem services).
    • (2005) N.Y.U. L. Rev. , vol.80 , pp. 870
    • Salzman, J.1
  • 144
    • 0345801235 scopus 로고
    • Enforcing Property Rights: Extending Property Rights Theory to Congestible and Environmental Goods
    • 588
    • See David W. Barnes, Enforcing Property Rights: Extending Property Rights Theory to Congestible and Environmental Goods, 10 B.C. ENVTL. AFF. L. REV. 583, 588 (1983).
    • (1983) B.C. Envtl. Aff. L. Rev. , vol.10 , pp. 583
    • Barnes, D.W.1
  • 145
    • 79955735850 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("For the pure public good, any number of simultaneous users may consume the resource without interfering with another's consumption.").
  • 146
    • 69849095664 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Nonrivalry and Price Discrimination in Copyright Economics
    • 1805
    • John P. Conley & Christopher S. Yoo, Nonrivalry and Price Discrimination in Copyright Economics, 157 U. PA. L. REV. 1801, 1805 (2009).
    • (2009) U. Pa. L. Rev. , vol.157 , pp. 1801
    • Conley, J.P.1    Yoo, C.S.2
  • 147
    • 79955713225 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (Explaining that pure public goods "are nonrival, which means that the consumption of the good by one consumer does not reduce the supply available for consumption by others").
  • 148
    • 0001042793 scopus 로고
    • Aspects of Public Expenditure Theories
    • 335
    • Paul A. Samuelson, Aspects of Public Expenditure Theories, 40 REV. ECON. & STAT. 332, 335 (1958).
    • (1958) Rev. Econ. & Stat , vol.40 , pp. 332
    • Samuelson, P.A.1
  • 149
    • 0038086319 scopus 로고
    • Federal User Fees: A Legal and Economic Analysis
    • 802
    • Clayton P. Gillette & Thomas D. Hopkins, Federal User Fees: A Legal and Economic Analysis, 67 B.U. L. REV. 795, 802 n.23 (1987).
    • (1987) B.U. L. Rev. , vol.67 , Issue.23 , pp. 795
    • Gillette, C.P.1    Hopkins, T.D.2
  • 150
    • 79955715858 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[G]oods may have 'public' characteristics without being 'pure' public goods. For instance, congested public goods, like highways or national parks, may exist in which use is nonrival up to a point, although additional users may reduce the enjoyment of other users.").
  • 151
    • 0006914518 scopus 로고
    • Rethinking Environmental Controls: Management Strategies for Common Resources
    • (defining a congestible resource as one for which some joint usage is possible, but for which conflicts among uses arise after some point)
    • Carol M. Rose, Rethinking Environmental Controls: Management Strategies for Common Resources, 1991 DUKE L.J. 1, 6 (defining a congestible resource as one for which some joint usage is possible, but for which conflicts among uses arise after some point).
    • (1991) Duke L.J , vol.1 , pp. 6
    • Rose, C.M.1
  • 152
    • 79955710969 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • It may be, however, that only the hiker perceives the conflict. The rancher who grazes cattle in the meadow does not perceive a conflict with the hiker-unless the hiker bothers the cattle or tries to prevent the rancher from grazing the cattle in the meadow.
  • 153
    • 0347025911 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Imagined Risks and Cost-Benefit Analysis
    • 377 (explaining the differences in perception between the public and experts)
    • See, e.g., Robert A. Pollak, Imagined Risks and Cost-Benefit Analysis, 88 AM. ECON. REV. 376, 377 (1998) (explaining the differences in perception between the public and experts).
    • (1998) Am. Econ. Rev , vol.88 , pp. 376
    • Pollak, R.A.1
  • 154
    • 0039349161 scopus 로고
    • Trouble in Happyville
    • 131 (presenting a hypothetical problem about water quality and the differences in the perception of risk)
    • Paul R. Portney, Trouble in Happyville, 11 J. POL'Y ANALYSIS & MGMT. 131, 131 (1992) (presenting a hypothetical problem about water quality and the differences in the perception of risk).
    • (1992) J. Pol'y Analysis & Mgmt , vol.11 , pp. 131
    • Portney, P.R.1
  • 155
    • 79955718588 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, Inc., 129 S. Ct. 1498 (2009).
  • 156
    • 79955710169 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • To say that all available options involve environmental harms is not to equate their environmental effects but rather to highlight the need for a framework that can differentiate among environmental effects in ways that reflect differences that matter to people's decisions.
  • 157
    • 79955710418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Entergy, 129 S. Ct. at 1505.
  • 158
    • 79955720837 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Envtl. Servs. (TOC), Inc., 528 U.S. 167, 181-83 (2000).
  • 159
    • 79955714515 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • To some extent, then-although he did not articulate it as such-Justice Scalia's disagreement with the majority seems based on a judgment that the plaintiffs' concerns about Laidlaw's mercury discharges were unreasonable, and therefore that the plaintiffs' decisions to change their use of the North Tyger River lacked a causal nexus to Laidlaw's mercury discharges. On the other hand, however, Justice Scalia rejected the plaintiffs' standing allegations on the ground that "[o]ngoing 'concerns' about the environment" were akin to a mere "threat" of injury and did not suffice to constitute an Article III injury, id., a point that focuses on environmental harm and seems to ignore the plaintiffs' allegations that their concerns led them to change their actual use of the river.
  • 160
    • 79955713224 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • This is not to say that the use-conflict framework would have required a finding that the plaintiffs had standing. A court might have concluded, consistent with the framework, that the plaintiffs' concern over Laidlaw's discharges was unreasonable and that their impaired use of the river therefore lacked a sufficient causal link to Laidlaw's violations.
  • 161
    • 79955716728 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • As a step in this process of segmented decisionmaking, environmental lawmakers often make decisions in terms of environmental-quality indicators. For example, the Clean Air Act directs the EPA to establish National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for air pollutants; states must then develop implementation plans that will limit air pollution to levels below the standards. See 42 U.S.C. §§ 7409-7410 (2006). One could interpret environmental law's reliance on environmental quality indicators as supporting an environmental-harm framework. Arguably, environmental quality indicators reflect a focus on environmental quality, rather than environmental uses. But almost no one cares directly about environmentalquality indicators. Rather, lawmakers choose a particular environmental-quality standard as a rough proxy for facilitating certain uses that are preferred and consistent with the standard. NAAQS, for example, are set at levels that are thought to prevent particular health effects from air pollution. See, e.g., National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Lead, 73 Fed. Reg. 66,964 (Nov. 12, 2008) (codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 50, 51, 53, 58) (noting that the EPA made the NAAQS for lead more stringent to reduce the incidence of adverse neurological, cardiovascular, immunological, and other health impacts in children). Lawmakers choose to regulate an air pollutant at a certain level because that level allows some balancing of uses. Even when an environmental-quality standard appears to reflect a single use, it inevitably strikes a balance among uses in some respect. The NAAQS, for example, although set at levels "requisite to protect the public health" and "requisite to protect the public welfare" from the adverse effects of air pollution, 42 U.S.C. § 7409(b), are not set at levels that make air completely healthy to breathe, see, e.g., National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Ozone, 73 Fed. Reg. 16,436, 16,478 (Mar. 27, 2008) (codified at 40 C.F.R. pts. 50, 58) (noting "evidence that some healthy individuals will experience lung function decrements and respiratory symptoms" even at levels below the NAAQS for ozone). Moreover, Congress has delayed deadlines for attaining compliance with the NAAQS for areas in which states are having great difficulty in reducing air pollution by sufficient magnitudes to meet the standards. See, e.g., 42 U.S.C. § 7511 (classifying states and assigning dates for compliance based on the severity of air pollution).
  • 162
    • 0013065921 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Rethinking Cost-Benefit Analysis
    • 167 ("The reputation of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) among American academics has never been as poor as it is today, while its popularity among agencies in the United States government has never been greater.")
    • See Matthew D. Adler & Eric A. Posner, Rethinking Cost-Benefit Analysis, 109 YALE L.J. 165, 167 (1999) ("The reputation of cost-benefit analysis (CBA) among American academics has never been as poor as it is today, while its popularity among agencies in the United States government has never been greater.").
    • (1999) Yale L.J , vol.109 , pp. 165
    • Adler, M.D.1    Posner, E.A.2
  • 163
    • 79955706302 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • It Might Have Been: Risk, Precaution and Opportunity Costs
    • 17
    • Douglas A. Kysar, It Might Have Been: Risk, Precaution and Opportunity Costs, 22 J. LAND USE & ENVTL. L. 1, 17 (2006).
    • (2006) J. Land Use & Envtl. L , vol.22 , pp. 1
    • Kysar, D.A.1
  • 164
    • 23844520081 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • In Defense of Absolutes: Combating the Politics of Power in Environmental Law
    • 1455-56
    • Amy Sinden, In Defense of Absolutes: Combating the Politics of Power in Environmental Law, 90 IOWA L. REV. 1405, 1455-56 (2005).
    • (2005) Iowa L. Rev. , vol.90 , pp. 1405
    • Sinden, A.1
  • 165
    • 79955739683 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[O]ne of the most troubling aspect[s] of CBA lies in its false promise of determinacy-its pretense of objectivity and scientific accuracy. When a number gets attached to something that is actually based on a host of controversial assumptions and approximations, value judgments become hidden behind a false veneer of scientific objectivity.").
  • 169
    • 0036134421 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Use of Life Cycle Assessment in Environmental Management
    • 133 (discussing the steps of life-cycle assessment)
    • Stuart Ross & David Evans, Use of Life Cycle Assessment in Environmental Management, 29 ENVTL. MGMT. 132, 133 (2002) (discussing the steps of life-cycle assessment).
    • (2002) Envtl. Mgmt. , vol.29 , pp. 132
    • Ross, S.1    Evans, D.2
  • 170
    • 79955711675 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Consideration of environmental uses also becomes complicated when people derive satisfaction from someone else's use of an environmental resource-for example, a person's satisfaction from the expectation that Yosemite National Park will be preserved in a condition that will allow his grandchildren to enjoy it. Whether and how such altruistic appreciation should be recognized and weighed in the lawmaking process poses interesting questions and additional complications.
  • 171
    • 54549112044 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Climate Change: The China Problem
    • 944
    • See, e.g., Michael P. Vandenbergh, Climate Change: The China Problem, 81 S. CAL. L. REV. 905, 944 (2008).
    • (2008) S. Cal. L. Rev , vol.81 , pp. 905
    • Vandenbergh, M.P.1
  • 172
    • 79955714285 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Empirical studies have concluded that firms identified in TRI data releases as being among the highest emitters in their industrial sectors experienced an abnormal negative effect on firm stock value and subsequently reduced emissions more than those who were among the lowest emitters, even where emissions reductions were not mandated by law.").
  • 173
    • 21944449183 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Valuing Ecosystem Services
    • 901
    • Cf. James Salzman, Valuing Ecosystem Services, 24 ECOLOGY L.Q. 887, 901 (1997).
    • (1997) Ecology L.Q , vol.24 , pp. 887
    • Salzman, J.1
  • 174
    • 79955717160 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("As our understanding of ecological services develops. .. it well may be possible with a degree of certainty to establish connections between identifiable injuries and specific harms to services such as pollination or water retention.").
  • 175
    • 0033850046 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Narrative Valuation in a Policy Judgment Context
    • 316
    • Terre Satterfield, Paul Slovic & Robin Gregory, Narrative Valuation in a Policy Judgment Context, 34 ECOLOGICAL ECON. 315, 316 (2000).
    • (2000) Ecological Econ , vol.34 , pp. 315
    • Satterfield, T.1    Slovic, P.2    Gregory, R.3
  • 176
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    • The Concept of Value in Resource Allocation
    • 231
    • See also Thomas C. Brown, The Concept of Value in Resource Allocation, 60 LAND ECON. 231, 231 (1984).
    • (1984) Land Econ , vol.60 , pp. 231
    • Brown, T.C.1
  • 179
    • 79955740112 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (Defining values as "enduring belief[s] that a specific mode of conduct. .. is personally and socially preferable to alternative modes of conduct or end-states of existence").
  • 180
    • 84910049487 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Shaping the Future: The Dialectic of Law and Environmental Values
    • 241
    • Holly Doremus, Shaping the Future: The Dialectic of Law and Environmental Values, 37 U.C. DAVIS L. REV. 233, 241 (2003).
    • (2003) U.C. Davis L. Rev. , vol.37 , pp. 233
    • Doremus, H.1
  • 181
    • 79955721965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("By values, I mean the attitudes toward things and people that provide the underlying motivations for human behavior.").
  • 182
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    • Toward a Universal Psychological Structure of Human Values
    • 551
    • Shalom H. Schwartz & Wolfgang Bilsky, Toward a Universal Psychological Structure of Human Values, 53 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 550, 551 (1987).
    • (1987) J. Personality & Soc. Psychol. , vol.53 , pp. 550
    • Schwartz, S.H.1    Bilsky, W.2
  • 183
    • 79955706099 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[V]alues are (a) concepts or beliefs, (b) about desirable end states or behaviors, (c) that transcend specific situations, (d) guide selection or evaluation of behavior and events, and (e) are ordered by relative importance.").
  • 184
    • 84934563589 scopus 로고
    • Information, Values, and Opinion
    • 1216
    • John Zaller, Information, Values, and Opinion, 85 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 1215, 1216 (1991).
    • (1991) Am. Pol. Sci. Rev. , vol.85 , pp. 1215
    • Zaller, J.1
  • 185
    • 79955741840 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Values, as I use the term, refers to any relatively stable, individuallevel predisposition to accept or reject particular types of arguments." (emphasis omitted)).
  • 186
    • 33744752460 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Value Choices and American Public Opinion
    • 706-07
    • William G. Jacoby, Value Choices and American Public Opinion, 50 AM. J. POL. SCI. 706, 706-07 (2006).
    • (2006) Am. J. Pol. Sci. , vol.50 , pp. 706
    • Jacoby, W.G.1
  • 187
    • 79955719722 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Individual actors compose decisions from values that are a product of individual experience, predisposition and understanding, as shaped by a complex of social, cultural, environmental and economic influences. Such composition constitutes an act of integration. .. .").
  • 188
    • 1442356438 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Implicit Connections with Nature
    • Attitudes refers to a person's evaluative judgment about something. 31
    • Attitudes refers to a person's evaluative judgment about something. See P. Wesley Schultz, Chris Shriver, Jennifer J. Tabanico & Azar M. Khazian, Implicit Connections with Nature, 24 J. ENVTL. PSYCHOL. 31, 31 (2004).
    • (2004) J. Envtl. Psychol. , vol.24 , pp. 31
    • Schultz, P.W.1    Shriver, C.2    Tabanico, J.J.3    Khazian, A.M.4
  • 189
    • 84979359298 scopus 로고
    • The Value Basis of Environmental Concern
    • Paul C. Stern & Thomas Dietz, The Value Basis of Environmental Concern, 50 J. SOC. ISSUES 65, 67 (1994).
    • (1994) J. Soc. , vol.50 , Issue.65 , pp. 67
    • Stern, P.C.1    Dietz, T.2
  • 190
    • 79955730110 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[P]eople construct their attitudes on the basis of their expectations about how the attitude object (such as an environmental condition) affects the particular sets of people or things they value.").
  • 191
    • 0003813122 scopus 로고
    • (reporting that individuals prefer familiar odors over unfamiliar odors)
    • See, e.g., TRYGG ENGEN, ODOR SENSATION & MEMORY 111 (1991) (reporting that individuals prefer familiar odors over unfamiliar odors).
    • (1991) Odor Sensation & Memory , pp. 111
    • Engen, T.1
  • 193
    • 79955715857 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (Reporting that people prefer familiar risks over unfamiliar ones).
  • 194
    • 51649155754 scopus 로고
    • Verbal and Behavioral Responses to Familiar and Unfamiliar Music
    • 327 (finding that study subjects significantly favored familiar music over unfamiliar music)
    • David J. Hargreaves, Verbal and Behavioral Responses to Familiar and Unfamiliar Music, 6 CURRENT PSYCHOL. RES. & REVS. 323, 327 (1987) (finding that study subjects significantly favored familiar music over unfamiliar music).
    • (1987) Current Psychol. Res. & Revs , vol.6 , pp. 323
    • Hargreaves, D.J.1
  • 195
    • 0035539137 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Mere Exposure Effect: An Uncertainty Reduction Explanation Revisited
    • 1255
    • Angela Y. Lee, The Mere Exposure Effect: An Uncertainty Reduction Explanation Revisited, 27 PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. BULL. 1255, 1255 (2001).
    • (2001) Personality & Soc. Psychol. Bull. , vol.27 , pp. 1255
    • Lee, A.Y.1
  • 196
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    • Experimental Tests of the Endowment Effect and the Coase Theorem
    • 1326
    • Daniel Kahneman, Jack L. Knetsch & Richard H. Thaler, Experimental Tests of the Endowment Effect and the Coase Theorem, 98 J. POL. ECON. 1325, 1326 (1990).
    • (1990) J. Pol. Econ. , vol.98 , pp. 1325
    • Kahneman, D.1    Knetsch, J.L.2    Thaler, R.H.3
  • 197
    • 0035672686 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Structure of Environmental Concern: Concern for Self, Other People, and the Biosphere
    • 336
    • P. Wesley Schultz, The Structure of Environmental Concern: Concern for Self, Other People, and the Biosphere, 21 J. ENVTL. PSYCH. 327, 336 (2001).
    • (2001) J. Envtl. Psych. , vol.21 , pp. 327
    • Schultz, P.W.1
  • 199
    • 0034470412 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Empathizing with Nature: The Effects of Perspective Taking on Concern for Environmental Issues
    • [hereinafter Schultz, Empathizing with Nature] ("These objects are valued because they are included in a person's cognitive representation of self.")
    • see also P. Wesley Schultz, Empathizing with Nature: The Effects of Perspective Taking on Concern for Environmental Issues, 56 J. SOC. ISSUES 391, 401 (2000) [hereinafter Schultz, Empathizing with Nature] ("These objects are valued because they are included in a person's cognitive representation of self.").
    • (2000) J. Soc. , vol.56 , Issue.391 , pp. 401
    • Schultz, P.W.1
  • 200
    • 84936408613 scopus 로고
    • Moral Pluralism and the Environment
    • 19-20
    • See Andrew Brennan, Moral Pluralism and the Environment, 1 ENVTL. VALUES 15, 19-20 (1992).
    • (1992) Envtl. Values , vol.1 , pp. 15
    • Brennan, A.1
  • 202
    • 79955737433 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (Discussing Norton's theory of demand values and transformative values). On the related question of whether outdoor contact increases one's likelihood of holding environmentalist values, anthropologists Willett Kempton, James Boster, and Jennifer Hartley note, "Only a few studies have investigated the relationship of outdoor contact with environmental sentiment, some finding a statistically significant but weak relationship.".
  • 204
    • 16544393130 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Drivers of Natural Resource-Based Political Conflict
    • 307-08 (identifying "competing human values" as the core of political conflicts)
    • Martin Nie, Drivers of Natural Resource-Based Political Conflict, 36 POL'Y SCI. 307, 307-08 (2003) (identifying "competing human values" as the core of political conflicts).
    • (2003) Pol'y Sci , vol.36 , pp. 307
    • Nie, M.1
  • 205
    • 79955740111 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • This is not to suggest that a person could only be concerned about her own breathing and not that of others. Breather thus may vicariously benefit when others breathe clean air and may perceive a use conflict when Polluter's emissions affect others' breathing-not hers. But in the absence of a perceived risk to a use that concerns Breather, she is unlikely to care about Polluter's emissions.
  • 206
    • 79955716498 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • People's uses of environmental resources are what give the resources meaning to them; uses reflect values, but they also shape values. Thus, in conceptualizing environmental decisionmaking, values do not stand in an unequivocally prior or superior position to uses.
  • 207
    • 0005303153 scopus 로고
    • Baseline Questions in Legal Reasoning: The Example of Property in Jobs
    • 915
    • Jack M. Beermann & Joseph William Singer, Baseline Questions in Legal Reasoning: The Example of Property in Jobs, 23 GA. L. REV. 911, 915 (1989).
    • (1989) Ga. L. Rev. , vol.23 , pp. 911
    • Beermann, J.M.1    Singer, J.W.2
  • 208
    • 79955746373 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Ideology and observation combine to form empirical baselines, or starting points, against which all situations are measured. Empirical observations are thus tied to a normative vision of the world. One's social vision, as embodied in empirical baselines, allows one, in the absence of clear evidence, to evaluate competing empirical claims. Ideology affects a person's judgment about which stories to believe.").
  • 209
    • 0002071502 scopus 로고
    • The Problem of Social Cost
    • R.H. Coase, The Problem of Social Cost, 3 J.L. & ECON. 1 (1960).
    • (1960) J.L. & Econ. , vol.3 , pp. 1
    • Coase, R.H.1
  • 210
    • 79955715856 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Having made the reciprocity observation, Coase went on to address its normative implications. From the perspective of welfare economics, the normative prescription for resolving a conflict between conflicting land uses should seek the efficient outcome, which maximizes the overall value of the land uses.
  • 211
    • 0042465009 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Property Rights and Liability Rules: The Ex Ante View of the Cathedral
    • 609
    • Lucian Arye Bebchuk, Property Rights and Liability Rules: The Ex Ante View of the Cathedral, 100 MICH. L. REV. 601, 609 (2001).
    • (2001) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.100 , pp. 601
    • Bebchuk, L.A.1
  • 212
    • 62649090146 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Property and Relative Status
    • 767
    • See, e.g., Nestor M. Davidson, Property and Relative Status, 107 MICH. L. REV. 757, 767 (2009).
    • (2009) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.107 , pp. 757
    • Davidson, N.M.1
  • 213
    • 79955721519 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Where conflicts over resources arise, a corresponding preference is often found for legal rules that facilitate bargaining-again, with the presumption that clear property rights do just that.").
  • 214
    • 77949824419 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Contracting to Preserve Open Science: Consideration-Based Regulation in Patent Law
    • 971-72
    • Peter Lee, Contracting to Preserve Open Science: Consideration-Based Regulation in Patent Law, 58 EMORY L.J. 889, 971-72 (2009).
    • (2009) Emory L.J , vol.58 , pp. 889
    • Lee, P.1
  • 215
    • 79955714934 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Coase famously posited that in the absence of transaction costs, parties would freely negotiate over the disposition of resources to achieve efficient outcomes.").
  • 216
    • 67949084993 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Toward Procedural Optionality: Private Ordering of Public Adjudication
    • 517
    • Robert J. Rhee, Toward Procedural Optionality: Private Ordering of Public Adjudication, 84 N.Y.U. L. REV. 514, 517 (2009).
    • (2009) N.Y.U. L. Rev. , vol.84 , pp. 514
    • Rhee, R.J.1
  • 217
    • 79955719721 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Coase argued that absent transaction costs, parties can efficiently rearrange rights irrespective of their initial assignment.").
  • 218
    • 59349094667 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Price of Public Action: Constitutional Doctrine and the Judicial Manipulation of Legislative Enactment Costs
    • 28
    • Matthew C. Stephenson, The Price of Public Action: Constitutional Doctrine and the Judicial Manipulation of Legislative Enactment Costs, 118 YALE L.J. 2, 28 n.53 (2008).
    • (2008) Yale L.J. , vol.118 , Issue.53 , pp. 2
    • Stephenson, M.C.1
  • 219
    • 79955738832 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[T]he Coasean argument [is] that an absolute property rule. .. would achieve [a socially efficient] result when transaction costs are zero, because open-market bargaining will always cause the property to be assigned to the party that places a higher value on it."). But one need not agree with the normative argument to benefit from Coase's descriptive observations regarding the reciprocity of use conflicts. Indeed, Coase himself did not advocate private ordering as the solution for all land-use conflicts. To the contrary, he readily understood that a situation in which transaction costs are negligible is "a very unrealistic assumption.".
  • 220
    • 79955738096 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • Although Coase recognized the problems that may arise by relying on private ordering to resolve use conflicts, he did not see governmental regulation as a panacea. Regulation is associated with its own set of costs and difficulties, leading Coase to conclude that "direct governmental regulation will not necessarily give better results than leaving the problem to be solved by the market or the firm.".
  • 221
    • 0346422517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Parody Lost/Pragmatism Regained: The Ironic History of the Coase Theorem
    • 400 (using the cement-plant example to explain the Coase Theorem)
    • See, e.g., Daniel A. Farber, Parody Lost/Pragmatism Regained: The Ironic History of the Coase Theorem, 83 VA. L. REV. 397, 400 (1997) (using the cement-plant example to explain the Coase Theorem).
    • (1997) Va. L. Rev. , vol.83 , pp. 397
    • Farber, D.A.1
  • 222
    • 77954720356 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • II, Re-validating the Doctrine of Anticipatory Nuisance
    • 715-17 (same)
    • George P. Smith, II, Re-validating the Doctrine of Anticipatory Nuisance, 29 VT. L. REV. 687, 715-17 (2005) (same).
    • (2005) Vt. L. Rev. , vol.29 , pp. 687
    • Smith, G.P.1
  • 223
    • 3042734240 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Exclusion and Property Rules in the Law of Nuisance
    • 1038-40 [hereinafter Smith, Exclusion and Property Rules] (same)
    • Henry E. Smith, Exclusion and Property Rules in the Law of Nuisance, 90 VA. L. REV. 965, 1038-40 (2004) [hereinafter Smith, Exclusion and Property Rules] (same).
    • (2004) Va. L. Rev. , vol.90 , pp. 965
    • Smith, H.E.1
  • 224
    • 79955715158 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • E.g., Boomer v. Atl. Cement Co., 257 N.E.2d 870, 871-72 (N.Y. 1970).
  • 225
    • 0342283496 scopus 로고
    • The Problem of Transaction Costs
    • 1679
    • See Pierre Schlag, The Problem of Transaction Costs, 62 S. CAL. L. REV. 1661, 1679 n.37 (1989).
    • (1989) S. Cal. L. Rev. , vol.62 , Issue.37 , pp. 1661
    • Schlag, P.1
  • 226
    • 0043045358 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Points of Intersection: Discontinuities at the Junction of Criminal Law and the Regulatory State
    • ("Instead of a fixed, formalist baseline.. ., Coase viewed baselines as up for grabs. .. .")
    • Louis Michael Seidman, Points of Intersection: Discontinuities at the Junction of Criminal Law and the Regulatory State, 7 J. CONTEMP. LEGAL ISSUES 97, 122-23 (1996) ("Instead of a fixed, formalist baseline.. ., Coase viewed baselines as up for grabs. .. .").
    • (1996) J. Contemp. Legal , vol.7 , Issue.97 , pp. 122-123
    • Seidman, L.M.1
  • 227
    • 79955746995 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • The use-conflict framework, in addition to incorporating Coase's reciprocity observation, takes into account the full range of relationships among uses, which are not limited to conflicts. Although use conflicts create problems, synergies and compatibilities among uses also play an important role in shaping human relationships with environmental resources and in defining options for managing those relationships.
  • 228
    • 79955728234 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • In fact, however, a neutral baseline that treats entitlements as initially unallocated merely strips away normative assumptions-not all normative judgments-and requires any weighing of interests to be justified, rather than presumed.
  • 229
    • 85029464109 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • EPA (last updated Apr. 2003) (noting that approximately 65,615 residents of Omaha, Nebraska live on soil contaminated by lead, primarily from air emissions from a leadsmelting facility)
    • See, e.g., NPL Site Narrative for Omaha Lead, EPA, http://www.epa.gov/superfund/sites/npl/nar1660.htm (last updated Apr. 2003) (noting that approximately 65,615 residents of Omaha, Nebraska live on soil contaminated by lead, primarily from air emissions from a leadsmelting facility).
    • NPL Site Narrative for Omaha Lead
  • 230
    • 79955730323 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • See also National Priorities List for Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, 68 Fed. Reg. 23,077, 23,081 (Apr. 30, 2003) (including Omaha Lead in its list of sites).
  • 231
    • 26644452912 scopus 로고
    • A Century of Air Pollution Control Law: What's Worked; What's Failed; What Might Work
    • 1597-98 (noting how tall smokestacks from industrial sources broadly disperse air pollution)
    • See, e.g., Arnold W. Reitze, Jr., A Century of Air Pollution Control Law: What's Worked; What's Failed; What Might Work, 21 ENVTL. L. 1549, 1597-98 (1991) (noting how tall smokestacks from industrial sources broadly disperse air pollution).
    • (1991) Envtl. L , vol.21 , pp. 1549
    • Reitze Jr., A.W.1
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    • 0000905294 scopus 로고
    • Regulatory Failure, Administrative Incentives and the New Clean Air Act
    • 1673
    • See also Howard Latin, Regulatory Failure, Administrative Incentives and the New Clean Air Act, 21 ENVTL. L. 1647, 1673 (1991).
    • (1991) Envtl. L. , vol.21 , pp. 1647
    • Latin, H.1
  • 233
    • 79955709944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Industry representatives appear regularly in agency proceedings and can usually afford to offer detailed comments and criticisms on possible agency decisions, while environmental groups intervene on an intermittent basis and the unorganized public seldom participates at all.").
  • 234
    • 0000599191 scopus 로고
    • Selling Pollution, Forcing Democracy
    • 305
    • See Lisa Heinzerling, Selling Pollution, Forcing Democracy, 14 STAN. ENVTL. L.J. 300, 305 (1995).
    • (1995) Stan. Envtl. L.J , vol.14 , pp. 300
    • Heinzerling, L.1
  • 235
    • 79955729083 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[T]he environmental consequences of unregulated market transactions are not reflected in price, and thus these consequences, and their effects on others, are not taken into account in market behavior.").
  • 237
    • 79955732931 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[T]here is no escaping the theoretical requirement that a judgment of significance and importance must be made if theory is to be more than a vast rubbish heap of miscellaneous facts described in a multitude of incommensurable terminologies.").
  • 238
    • 0040223979 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Concept of Law Revisited
    • 1713 ("[D]escribing is always done from the point of view of certain values and in that way expresses those values.")
    • Leslie Green, The Concept of Law Revisited, 94 MICH. L. REV. 1687, 1713 (1996) ("[D]escribing is always done from the point of view of certain values and in that way expresses those values.").
    • (1996) Mich. L. Rev. , vol.94 , pp. 1687
    • Green, L.1
  • 240
    • 79955707410 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • (noting Max Weber's position that explanation required "a frame of reference which was inherently abstractive and selective with respect to the facts treated as relevant and their mode of statement").
  • 241
    • 36248974832 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cultural Cognition and Public Policy
    • 150
    • See, e.g., Dan M. Kahan & Donald Braman, Cultural Cognition and Public Policy, 24 YALE L. & POL'Y REV. 149, 150 (2006).
    • (2006) Yale L. & Pol'y Rev , vol.24 , pp. 149
    • Kahan, D.M.1    Braman, D.2
  • 242
    • 79955707882 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("[C]ulture is prior to facts in the cognitive sense that what citizens believe about the empirical consequences of those policies derives from their cultural worldviews. Based on a variety of overlapping psychological mechanisms, individuals accept or reject empirical claims about the consequences of controversial policies based on their vision of a good society.").
  • 243
    • 38049031944 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Cognitively Illiberal State
    • 118-25 ("[T]o the extent that it is driven by affect, risk perception is necessarily conditioned by culture.")
    • see also Dan M. Kahan, The Cognitively Illiberal State, 60 STAN. L. REV. 115, 118-25 (2007) ("[T]o the extent that it is driven by affect, risk perception is necessarily conditioned by culture.").
    • (2007) Stan. L. Rev. , vol.60 , pp. 115
    • Kahan, D.M.1
  • 244
    • 33847770153 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Fear of Democracy: A Cultural Evaluation of Sunstein on Risk
    • 1083-88
    • Dan M. Kahan, Paul Slovic, Donald Braman & John Gastil, Fear of Democracy: A Cultural Evaluation of Sunstein on Risk, 119 HARV. L. REV. 1071, 1083-88 (2006).
    • (2006) Harv. L. Rev. , vol.119 , pp. 1071
    • Kahan, D.M.1    Slovic, P.2    Braman, D.3    Gastil, J.4
  • 245
    • 84924493795 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Reviewing ("The claim behind cultural cognition is that culture is prior to facts in societal disputes over risk.")
    • (Reviewing CASS R. SUNSTEIN, LAWS OF FEAR: BEYOND THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE (2005)) ("The claim behind cultural cognition is that culture is prior to facts in societal disputes over risk.").
    • (2005) Laws of Fear: Beyond The Precautionary Principle
    • Sunstein, C.R.1
  • 246
    • 0347802046 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Congress, Science, and Environmental Policy
    • 184
    • See Wendy E. Wagner, Congress, Science, and Environmental Policy, 1999 U. ILL. L. REV. 181, 184.
    • (1999) U. Ill. L. Rev. , pp. 181
    • Wagner, W.E.1
  • 247
    • 79955716947 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Note
    • ("Rather than shying away from scientific facts and figures in the development of environmental law as one might expect, Congress may often be relying too heavily on the scientific enterprise to guide its lawmaking in the area of environmental protection.").


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