Legal mythmaking in a time of mass extinctions: Reconciling stories of origins with human destiny

Harvard Environmental Law Review

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 279-319

  Chen, Jim ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION; ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY; LEGAL SYSTEM; MASS EXTINCTION;

NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES; WESTERN HEMISPHERE; WORLD;

EID: 24044478387     PISSN: 01478257     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (547)

1. Though this Essay can hardly respond to the full range of issues raised by Holly Doremus, Constitutive Law and Environmental Policy, 22 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 295 (2003)
2. and William E. Scheuerman, Constitutionalism in an Age of Speed, 19 Const. Comment. 353 (2002), it does represent an embryonic effort to synthesize some of my reactions to those excellent articles.
3. See generally Cinzia Sartini Blum, The Other Modernism: F. T. Marinetti's Futurist Fiction of Power (1996);
4. Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Space, 1880-1918, at 119-23 (1983).
5. Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism, Le Figaro, Feb. 20, 1909,
6. cf. Michael L. Dertouzos, What Will Be: How the New World of Information Will Change Our Lives 9 (1997) (predicting that the ongoing "Information Revolution will trigger a ... sweeping transformation" of our lives, mostly for the better).
7. Milan Kundera, Slowness 2 (Linda Asher trans., 1996).
8. Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams 493 (Modern Library, 1996).
9. Marinetti, supra note 3, at 20-21.
10. Id. at 21-22.
11. See generally David R. Kinsley, Ecology and Religion (1995);
12. J. Baird Callicott, Earth's Insights: A Multicultural Survey of Ecological Ethics from the Mediterranean Basin to the Australian Outback 14 (1994) (identifying the "[h]istorical [r]oots of Western European [e]nvironmental [a]ttitudes and [v]alues");
13. John Passmore, Man's Responsibility for Nature (1974);
14. Jim Chen, Of Agriculture's First Dis-obedience and Its Fruit, 48 Vand. L. Rev. 1261 (1995);
15. Jim Chen, Webs of Life: Biodiversity Conservation as a Species of Information Policy, 89 Iowa L. Rev. 495, 598-602 (2004);
16. cf. Judith Green, Retrieving the Human Place in Nature, 17 Envtl. Ethics 381, 389-93 (1995) (discussing the impact of Aristotelian philosophy on contemporary environmental ethics).
17. Lynn White, The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis, 155 Sci. 1203, 1205 (1967).
18. Genesis 1:28. All biblical citations refer to the Revised Standard Version.
19. See John Copeland Nagle, Playing Noah, 82 Minn. L. Rev. 1171 (1998).
20. Kevin Shear McCann, The Diversity-Stability Debate, 405 Nature 228, 233 (2000) (describing this approach to biodiversity policy as "obvious").
21. Ecclesiastes 9:11.
22. See, e.g., Herbert Spencer, 1 The Principles of Biology 457 (1897);
23. Herbert Spencer, A Theory of Population, Deduced from the General Law of Animal Fertility, 57 The Westminster & Foreign Q. Rev. 468, 499-500 (1852);
24. cf. Julian Huxley, Evolution: The Modern Synthesis 564-65 (1942) (characterizing so-called "progress" in evolution as "increased control over and independence of the environment"). The literature on the misguided application of evolutionary principles in the social sciences is enormous.
25. One starting point would be Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (1992).
26. See David M. Raup, Extinction: Bad Genes or Bad Luck? 192 (1991).
27. See David Tilman et al., Habitat Destruction and the Extinction Debt, 371 Nature 65 (1994) (describing how dominant species actually face a higher risk of extinction in the wake of habitat destruction because they have invested more in competition on a geographically circumscribed scale relative to colonization of a broader range).
28. Stephen Jay Gould, Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin 73 (1996);
29. see also id. at 19-21 (arguing that diversity in life forms, not complexity as such, is the true hallmark of evolutionary success).
30. Raup, supra note 15, at 3-4;
31. cf. John Maynard Keynes, A Tract on Monetary Reform 80 (1923) ("In the long run we are all dead.").
32. Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Birthmark, in Hawthorne Selected Tales and Sketches 264, 266 (3d ed. 1970). Hawthorne's story speaks of " perfection ... wrought by toil and pain," not merely of survival.
33. Id. (emphasis added).
34. Paul Colinvaux, Why Big Fierce Animals Are Rare: An Ecologist's Perspective 27 (1978) ("[T]here are not fiercer dragons on the earth than there are ... because the energy supply will not stretch to the support of super-dragons.").
35. Id. at 214 (emphases added).
36. Edward O. Wilson, The Diversity of Life 272 (1992);
37. cf. Peter M. Vitousek et al., Human Appropriation of the Products of Photosynthesis, 36 BioSci. 368, 372 (1986) (reporting that humans co-opt approximately 40% of net primary production in terrestrial ecosystems and 25% of global net primary production, including photosynthesis in the oceans).
38. See Sandra L. Postel et al., Human Appropriation of Renewable Fresh Water, 271 Sci. 785, 787 (1996).
39. William E. Rees, A Blot on the Land, 421 Nature 898, 898 (2003)
40. (summarizing Worldwide Fund for Nature, Living Planet Report 2002 4 (2002)).
41. For a discussion of the concept of an ecological footprint as a method for estimating the aggregate land and water area appropriated for human consumption and waste disposal, see Neil A. Campbell & Jane B. Reece, Biology 1170-71, glossary (6th ed. 2002).
42. See generally Peter M. Vitousek et al., Human Domination of Earth's Ecosystems, 277 Sci. 494 (1997).
43. Jared Diamond, World of the Living Dead, 100 Natural Hist. 30, 30 (1991).
44. See Nigel C. A. Pitman & Peter M. Jorgensen, Estimating the Size of the World's Threatened Flora, 298 Sci. 989 (2002).
45. Wilson, supra note 22, at 278;
46. see also Jeffrey A. McNeely et al., Conserving the World's Biological Diversity 41 (1990) (estimating a risk of a 25% loss in total biological diversity by 2010 or 2020).
47. See Nigel E. Stork, The Magnitude of Global Biodiversity and Its Decline, in The Living Planet in Crisis: Biodiversity Science and Policy 3, 24 (Joel Cracroft & Francesca T. Grifo eds., 1999).
48. See Wilson, supra note 22, at 280.
49. Thomas Gray, Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard 14 (Raven Press ed., 1938) (1751);
50. see also Robert Herrick, To the Virgins to Make Much of Time, in The Love Poems of Robert Herrick and John Donne 13, 13 (Louis Untermeyer ed., 1948) ("And this same flower that smiles today,/ Tomorrow will be dying.").
51. Lucinda Williams, I Lost It, on Car Wheels on a Gravel Road (Mercury Records 1998).
52. Wilson, supra note 22, at 254.
53. Id. at 330.
54. Endangered Species Act Oversight, Hearings Before the Subcomm. on Envtl. Pollution of the Senate Comm. on Env't and Pub. Works, 97th Cong. 366 (1981) (statement of Edward O. Wilson).
55. See David M. Raup, Cohort Analysis of Generic Survivorship, 4 Paleobiology 1, 10 (1978).
56. David M. Raup, Diversity Crises in the Geological Past, in Biodiversity, at 51, 54 (E. O. Wilson ed., 1988);
57. see also Werner Greuter, Extinctions in Mediterranean Areas, in Extinction Rates 88, 92 (John H. Lawton & Robert M. May eds., 1995) (discussing limits on the calculation of extinction rates and the adoption of conservative assumptions in response to those limits). Local endemic species exist in a single, limited place. The limits on such species' range increases the probability that their fossils will escape detection by paleontologists.
58. See Eldra P. Solomon et al., Biology 1227 (6th ed. 2002).
59. See Robert M. May et al., Assessing Extinction Rates, in Extinction Rates, supra note 37, at 1, 13.
60. See Robert M. May, How Many Species Are There on Earth?, 241 Sci. 1441, 1448 (1988).
61. I b i d.
62. The Phanerozoic eon, named for the Greek words for "visible life," comprises "the interval of time that represents the growth, development, and flourish[ing] of megascopic metazoans and metaphytes." The Encyclopedia of Paleontology 321 (Rhodes W. Fairbridge & David Jablonski eds., 1979).
63. See generally A. Hallam & P. B. Wignall, Mass Extinctions and Their Aftermath (1997).
64. See L. W. Alvarez et al., Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction, 208 Sci. 1095, 1095 (1980).
65. See generally Walter Alvarez, T. Rex and the Crater of Doom (1997);
66. L. W. Alvarez et al., supra note 43.
67. See, e.g., James Lawrence Powell, Night Comes to the Cretaceous 221 (1998) ("As even its bitterest opponents have to admit, the Alvarez theory has brought geology not only a new set of questions, but also a greatly improved set of sampling techniques and analytical methods for answering them.... These are the hallmarks of a fertile theory.").
68. But see Michael E. Williams, Catastrophic Versus Noncatastrophic Extinction of the Dinosaurs: Testing, Falsifiability, and the Burden of Proof, 68 J. Paleontology 183 (1994).
69. Raup, supra note 37, at 52;
70. see also Stephen Jay Gould, Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History 134 (1977) (describing the "great dying" of marine organisms "at the end of the Permian period" as "the most profound of several mass extinctions that have punctuated the evolution of life").
71. See generally D. H. Erwin, The End-Permian Mass Extinction, 21 Ann. Rev. Ecology & Systematics 69 (1990).
72. See Michael J. Benton, When Life Nearly Died: The Greatest Mass Extinction of All Time 9 (2003);
73. cf. Peter Douglas Ward, Gorgon: Paleontology, Obsession, and the Greatest Catastrophe in Earth's History 13 (2004).
74. See generally Benton, supra note 47, at 254-77.
75. See Henk Visscher et al., Environmental Mutagenesis During the End-Permian Ecological Crisis, 101 Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. 12,952 (2004).
76. See Norman Newell, Crises in the History of Life, Sci. Am., Feb. 1963, at 76, 91;
77. James W. Valentine & Eldridge M. Moores, Plate-Tectonic Regulation of Faunal Diversity and Sea Level: A Model, 228 Nature 657, 657 (1970).
78. See I. H. Campbell et al., Synchronism of Siberian Traps and the Permian-Triassic Boundary, 258 Sci. 1760 (1992);
79. P. R. Renne et al., Synchrony and Causal Relations Between Permian-Triassic Boundary Crises and Siberian Flood Volcanism, 269 Sci. 1413 (1995).
80. See Hallam & Wignall, supra note 42.
81. See P. B. Wignall, Extent and Duration of the Permo-Triassic Superanoxic Event, in Catastrophic Events & Mass Extinctions: Impacts and Beyond 241 (2000).
82. See Gerald R. Dickens et al., Dissociation of Oceanic Methane Hydrate as a Cause of the Carbon Isotope Excursion at the End of the Paleocene, 10 Paleoceanography 965 (1995);
83. Richard A. Kerr, Climate Change: A Smoking Gun for an Ancient Methane Discharge, 286 Sci. 1465 (1999);
84. Quirin Schiermeier, Rapid Climate Change: Gas Leak!, 423 Nature 681 (2003).
85. See Asish R. Basu et al., Chondritic Meteorite Fragments Associated with the Permian-Triassic Boundary in Antarctica, 302 Sci. 1388 (2003);
86. Luann Becker et al., Impact Event at the Permian-Triassic Boundary: Evidence from Extraterrestrial Noble Gases in Fullerene, 291 Sci. 1530 (2001).
87. See A. L. Melott et al., Did a Gamma-Ray Burst Initiate the Late Ordovician Mass Extinction?, 3 Int'l J. Astrobiology 55 (2004);
88. cf. Robert L. Anstey et al., Patterns of Bryozoan Endemism Through the Ordovician-Silurian Transition, 29 Paleobiology 305 (2003) (discussing the role of biogeography in the end-Ordovician extinction).
89. Gabrielle Walker, Snowball Earth: The Story of the Great Global Catastrophe That Spawned Life as We Know It 203-04 (2003);
90. see also Paul F. Hoffman et al., A Neo-Proterozoic Snowball Earth, 281 Sci. 1342 (1998);
91. Richard A. Kerr, An Appealing Snowball Earth That's Still Hard to Swallow, 287 Sci 1734 (2001);
92. Richard A. Kerr, Did an Ancient Deep Freeze Nearly Doom Life?, 281 Sci. 1259 (1998). Gamma ray bursts separate nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the Earth's atmosphere. The resulting smog of nitrogen oxides would have cooled the Earth and triggered an ice age.
93. See Melott et al., supra note 56, at 57-59.
94. See generally Paul F. Hoffman & Daniel P. Schrag, The Snowball Earth Hypothesis: Testing the Limits of Global Change, 14 Terra Nova 129, 129 (2002);
95. W. T. Hyde et al., Neoproterozoic "Snowball Earth" Simulations with a Coupled Climate/Ice-Sheet Model, 405 Nature 425 (2000).
96. See, e.g., Stephen P. Hesselbo et al., Terrestrial and Marine Extinctions at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary Synchronized with Major Carbon-Cycle Perturbation: A Link to Initiation of Massive Volcanism?, 30 Geology 251, 253 (2002).
97. 2 Levels Across the Triassic/Jurassic Boundary, 411 Nature 675 (2001).
98. See A. Hallam et al., Discussion on the Sea-Level Change and Facies Development Across Potential Triassic-Jurassic Boundary Horizons, 161 J. Geological Soc'y, London 1053 (2004);
99. J. C. McElwain et al., Fossil Plants and Global Warming at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary, 285 Sci. 1386 (1999).
100. See P. E. Olsen et al., Ascent of Dinosaurs Linked to an Iridium Anomaly at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary, 296 Sci. 1305 (2002).
101. See generally George R. McGhee, Jr., The Late Devonian Mass Extinction: The Frasnian-Famennian Crisis (Columbia University, Critical Moments in Paleobiology and Earth History Series, 1996).
102. Eutrophication occurs as a higher level of nutrients in a body of water generates a higher level of overall biological productivity. See Solomon et al., supra note 37, at 1220-21.
103. See generally Thomas J. Algeo et al., Late Devonian Oceanic Anoxic Events and Biotic Crises: "Rooted" in the Evolution of Vascular Land Plants?, 5 Geological Soc'y Am. Today 45, 64-66 (1995);
104. Thomas J. Algeo & Stephen E. Scheckler, Terrestrial-Marine Teleconnections in the Devonian: Links Between the Evolution of Land Plants, Weathering Processes, and Marine Anoxic Events, 353 Phil. Transactions Royal Soc'y London Series B 113 (1998).
105. See generally James F. Kasting & Janet L. Siefert, Life and the Evolution of Earth's Atmosphere, 296 Sci. 1066 (2002).
106. The second of four eons in geological history, the Archaean is regarded as beginning 4.3 to 3.8 billion years ago. The name Archaean is derived from the Greek word for "beginning." See The Oxford Companion to the Earth 33 (Paul L. Hancock & Brian J. Skinner eds., 2000).
107. See Brooks B. Ellwood et al., Impact Ejecta Layer from the Mid-Devonian: Possible Connection to Global Mass Extinctions, 300 Sci. 1734 (2003).
108. See generally Geological Implications of Impacts of Large Asteroids and Comets on the Earth (L. T. Silver & P. H. Schultz eds., 1982).
109. See David M. Raup & J. John Sepkoski, Jr., Periodicity of Extinctions in the Geologic Past, 81 Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. 801 (1984);
110. David M. Raup & J. John Sepkoski, Jr., Periodic Extinction of Families and Genera, 231 Sci. 833 (1986).
111. See Marc Davis et al., Extinction of Species by Periodic Comet Showers, 308 Nature 715 (1984);
112. David M. Raup, The Nemesis Affair: A Story of the Death of Dinosaurs and the Ways of Science (1985).
113. See Antoni Hoffman, Patterns of Family Extinction Depend on Definition and Geological Timescale, 315 Nature 659 (1985);
114. Richard A. Kerr, Periodic Extinctions and Impacts Challenged, 227 Sci. 1451 (1985).
115. For entertaining accounts of the scientific fury over the impact theory and the periodicity debate, see Richard Fortey, Life: A Natural History of the First Four billion Years of Life on Earth 238-60 (1997);
116. Charles Officer & Jake Page, The Great Dinosaur Extinction Controversy (1996);
117. Raup, supra note 69.
118. See Ricard V. Solé et al., Self-Similarity of Extinction Statistics in the Fossil Record, 388 Nature 764 (1997).
119. See generally Per Bak, How Nature Works: The Science of Self-Organized Criticality (1996);
120. Manfred Schroeder, Fractals, Chaos, Power Laws: Minutes from an Infinite Paradise 103-19 (1991).
121. For applications of power laws by a legal scholar, see Daniel A. Farber, Probabilities Behaving Badly: Complexity Theory and Environmental Uncertainty, 37 U.C. Davis L. Rev. 145, 154 (2003) (noting that "Supreme Court opinions ... appear to follow a power law in terms of their frequency of citation");
122. Daniel A. Farber, Earthquakes and Tremors in Statutory Interpretation: An Empirical Study of the Dynamics of Interpretation, 89 Minn. L. Rev. 848 (2005).
123. For explanations of the inverse relationship between population density and body size, a biologically critical phenomenon, see, for example, Robert Henry Peters, The Ecological Implications of Body Size (1983);
124. Chris Carbone & John L. Gittleman, A Common Rule for the Scaling of Carnivore Density, 295 Sci. 2273 (2002);
125. Pablo A. Marquet, Of Predators, Prey, and Power Laws, 295 Sci. 2229 (2002);
126. David R. Morse et al., Fractal Dimension of Vegetation and the Distribution of Arthropod Body Lengths, 314 Nature 731 (1985).
127. Cf. Paul B. Wignall, Large Igneous Provinces and Mass Extinctions, 53 Earth-Sci. Reviews 1 (2001) (disputing the presence of a general connection between volcanic activity and mass extinctions).
128. See generally Niles Eldredge, Life in the Balance: Humanity and the Biodiversity Crisis (1998).
129. Compare Jared M. Diamond, Quaternary Megafaunal Extinctions: Variations on a Theme by Paganini, 16 J. Archaeological Sci. 167 (1989) (observing that many large mammals became extinct upon the arrival of humans in the Americas, 11,000 years before the present)
130. with John Alroy, A Multispecies Overkill Simulation of the End-Pleistocene Megafaunal Mass Extinction, 292 Sci. 1893 (2001) (modeling the mass extinction event at the end of Pleistocene epoch as one of overkill by humans).
131. See generally Quaternary Extinctions: A Prehistoric Revolution (Paul S. Martin & Richard G. Klein eds., 1984).
132. For perspectives on the fierce debate over the extent to which human colonization affected the ecology of North America, see generally Tim Flannery, The Eternal Frontier: An Eco-History of North America and Its Peoples 194-95 (2001);
133. Alice Beck Kehoe, America Before the European Invasions (2002);
134. Shepard Ketch III, The Ecological Indian: Myth and History (1999);
135. Ted Steinberg, Down to Earth: Nature's Role in American History 11 (2002).
136. On mammoths, enshrined in the romantic imagination as the signature mammals of the Pleistocene, see Richard Stone, Mammoth: The Resurrection of an Ice Age Giant (2001);
137. R. Dale Guthrie, Radiocarbon Evidence of Mid-Holocene Mammoths Stranded on an Alaskan Bering Sea Island, 429 Nature 746 (2004).
138. F. Stuart Chapin III et al., Consequences of Changing Biodiversity, 405 Nature 234, 241 (2000).
139. See E. O. Wilson, The Current State of Biological Diversity, in Biodiversity, supra note 37, at 3, 5;
140. Mark A. Urbanski, Note, Chemical Prospecting, Biodiversity Conservation, and the Importance of International Protection of Intellectual Property Rights in Biological Materials, 2 Buff. J. Int'l L. 131, 133 (1995).
141. Wilson, supra note 22, at 273.
142. May, supra note 39, at 1448.
143. Cf. David Takacs, The Idea of Biodiversity: Philosophies of Paradise 92 (1996) (urging ecologists to lead as "masters of ignorance" by advising policymakers to eschew irreversible actions until they fully understand the consequences).
144. For provocative criticism of the precautionary principle implicit in this approach, see Frank B. Cross, Paradoxical Perils of the Precautionary Principle, 53 Wash. & Lee L. Rev. 851 (1996);
145. Frank B. Cross, The Subtle Vices Behind Environmental Values, 8 Duke Envtl. L. & Pol'y F. 151 (1997).
146. For discussion of the precautionary principle generally, see Perspectives on the Precautionary Principle (Ronnie Harding & Elizabeth Fisher eds., 1999);
147. Protecting Public Health and the Environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle (Carolyn Raffensperger & Joel A. Tickner eds., 1999);
148. Gail Charnley & E. Donald Elliot, Risk Versus Protection: Environmental Law and Public Health Protection, 32 Envtl. L. Rep. (Envtl. L. Inst.) 10,363 (2002);
149. Neil A. Manson, Formulating the Precautionary Principle, 24 Envtl. Ethics 263 (2002);
150. Jonathan B. Wiener, Whose Precaution After All? A Comment on the Comparison and Evolution of Risk Regulatory Systems, 13 Duke J. Comp. & Int'l L. 207 (2003).
151. See generally Gretchen C. Daily & Katherine Ellison, The New Economy of Nature: The Quest to Make Conservation Profitable (2002);
152. Panel on Biodiversity and Ecosystems, President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology, Teaming with Life: Investing in Science to Understand and Use America's Living Capital (1998);
153. Nature's Services: Societal Dependence on Natural Ecosystems (Gretchen C. Daily ed., 1997);
154. James Salzman, Valuing Ecosystem Services, 24 Ecology L.Q. 887 (1997) (book review);
155. Graciela Chichilnisky & Geoffrey Heal, Economic Returns from the Biosphere, 391 Nature 629 (1998);
156. Janet S. Herman et al., Groundwater Ecosystems and the Service of Water Purification, 20 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 479 (2001);
157. John B. Loomis & Douglas S. White, Economic Benefits of Rare and Endangered Species: Summary and Meta-Analysis, 18 Ecological Econ. 197 (1996);
158. H. A. Mooney et al., Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Basic Principles, in Global Biodiversity Assessment 275 (Vernon Hilton Heywood & R. T. Watson eds., 1995);
159. James Salzman & J. B. Ruhl, Currencies and the Commodification of Environmental Law, 53 Stan. L. Rev. 607 (2000);
160. James Salzman et al., Protecting Ecosystem Services: Science, Economics, and Law, 20 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 309 (2001);
161. Barton H. Thompson, Jr., Markets for Nature, 25 Wm. & Mary Envtl. L. & Pol'y Rev. 261 (2000);
162. Barton H. Thompson, Jr., People or Prairie Chickens: The Uncertain Search for Optimal Biodiversity, 51 Stan. L. Rev. 1127 (1999).
163. Chapin et al., supra note 76, at 239.
164. See J.A. Thomas et al., Comparative Losses of British Butterflies, Birds, and Plants and the Global Extinction Crisis, 303 Sci. 1879 (2004).
165. See, e.g., May et al., supra note 38;
166. Robert M. May & Kerry Tregonning, Global Conservation and U.K. Government Policy, in Conservation in a Changing World 287 (Georgina M. Mace et al. eds., 1998);
167. Stuart L. Pimm et al., The Future of Biodiversity, 269 Sci. 347 (1995).
168. See Thomas et al., supra note 83, at 1880.
169. See id. at 1879-80.
170. Id. at 1880;
171. see also The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language 1452 (3d ed. 1992) (defining "propagule" as "[a]ny of various usually vegetative portions of a plant, such as a bud or other offshoot, that aid in dispersal of the species and from which a new individual may develop").
172. See generally Andreas Erhardt & Jeremy A. Thomas, Lepidoptera as Indicators of Change in the Semi-Natural Grasslands of Lowland and Upland Europe, in The Conservation of Insects and their Habitats 213 (N. Mark Collins & J. A. Thomas eds., 1991);
173. Amy E. M. Waltz & W. Wallace Covington, Ecological Restoration Treatments Increase Butterfly Richness and Abundance: Mechanisms of Response, 12 Restoration Ecology 85 (2004).
174. See Michael L. McKinney, High Rates of Extinction and Threat in Poorly Studied Taxa, 13 Conservation Biology 1273 (1999).
175. Thomas et al., supra note 83, at 1881.
176. Further confirmation of the overall threat to biodiversity comes through the first global assessment of amphibians, which are "more threatened and are declining more rapidly than either birds or mammals." Simon N. Stuart et al., Status and Trends of Amphibian Declines and Extinctions Worldwide, 306 Sci. 1783, 1783 (2004).
177. See Environmental Protection Agency, Science Advisory Board, Reducing Risk: Setting Priorities and Strategies for Environmental Protection 13 (1990).
178. Stephen M. Nickelsburg, Note, Mere Volunteers? The Promise and Limits of Community-Based Environmental Protection, 84 Va. L. Rev. 1371, 1409 (1998).
179. Daniel A. Farber, Stretching the Margins: The Geographic Nexus in Environmental Law, 48 Stan. L. Rev. 1247, 1271 (1996).
180. Arg. Const., ch. II, § 41.
181. I b i d.
182. India Const., pt. IV, art. 48A.
183. Poland Const., ch. II, art. 74.
184. U.N. Conference on Environment and Development, Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, U.N. Doc. A/CONF.151/5/Rev.1 (June 14, 1992) (principle 3) [hereinafter Rio Declaration].
185. Planned Parenthood of S.E. Pa. v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833, 901 (1992).
186. See generally Doremus, supra note 1.
187. 42 U.S.C. §§ 4321-4370f (2000).
188. 16 U.S.C. §§ 1531-1544 (2000).
189. William N. Eskridge, Jr. & John Ferejohn, Super-Statutes, 50 Duke L.J. 1215, 1216 (2001).
190. See generally The Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality: 20th Annual Report (1990) (commemorating NEPA's twentieth anniversary);
191. Jerry L. Anderson, The Environmental Revolution at Twenty-Five, 26 Rutgers L.J. 395 (1995).
192. See Daniel A. Farber, Is the Supreme Court Irrelevant? Reflections on the Judicial Role in Environmental Law, 81 Minn. L. Rev. 547, 547-48 (1997).
193. 42 U.S.C. § 4331(a) (2000).
194. Id. § 4331(b)(1).
195. See Edith Brown Weiss, Our Rights and Obligations to Future Generations for the Environment, 84 Am. J. Int'l L. 198, 201-02 (1990).
196. See generally Donald Edward Davis, Ecophilosophy: A Field Guide to the Literature (1989);
197. Roderick Frazier Nash, The Rights of Nature: A History of Environmental Ethics (1989);
198. Edith Brown Weiss, In Fairness to Future Generations: International Law, Common Patrimony, and Intergenerational Equity (1989);
199. Annette Baier, For the Sake of Future Generations, in Earthbound: New Introductory Essays in Environmental Ethics 214 (Tom Regan ed., 1984);
200. Dan M. Berkovitz, Pariahs and Prophets: Nuclear Energy, Global Warming, and Intergenerational Justice, 17 Colum. J. Envtl. L. 245 (1992);
201. Daniel A. Farber & Paul A. Hemmersbaugh, The Shadow of the Future: Discount Rates, Later Generations, and the Environment, 46 Vand. L. Rev. 267, 289 (1993) (discussing intergenerational equity in cost-benefit analysis);
202. Lawrence B. Solum, To Our Children's Children's Children: The Problems of Intergenerational Ethics, 35 Loy. L.A. L. Rev. 163 (2001);
203. Edith Brown Weiss, The Planetary Trust: Conservation and Intergenerational Equity, 11 Ecology L.Q. 495 (1984).
204. 42 U.S.C. § 4332 (2000).
205. See Daniel A. Farber, Eco-Pragmatism: Making Sensible Environmental Decisions in an Uncertain World 125-27 (1999);
206. Nicholas Yost, NEPA's Promise - Partially Fulfilled, 20 Envtl. L. 533, 536 (1990).
207. See, e.g., Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. v. Fla. Gulf Coast Bldg. & Constr. Trades Concil, 485 U.S. 568, 575 (1988);
208. NLRB v. Catholic Bishop, 440 U.S. 490, 499-01 (1979);
209. Murray v. The Charming Betsy, 6 U.S. (2 Cranch) 64, 118 (1804);
210. cf., e.g., Almendarez-Torres v. United States, 523 U.S. 224, 237-38 (1998) (asserting that courts ought to avoid interpreting the Constitution when some other basis for decision fairly presents itself);
211. Spector Motor Serv., Inc. v. McLaughlin, 323 U.S. 101, 105 (1944) (same);
212. Ashwander v. TVA, 297 U.S. 288, 347 (1936) (Brandeis, J., concurring) (same).
213. See William N. Eskridge, Jr. & Philip P. Frickey, Quasi-Constitutional Law: Clear Statement Rules as Constitutional Lawmaking, 45 Vand. L. Rev. 593, 599 (1992);
214. William N. Eskridge, Jr. & Philip P. Frickey, The Supreme Court, 1993 Term - Foreword: Law as Equilibrium, 108 Harv. L. Rev. 26, 81-87 (1994).
215. For cases suggesting that the current Supreme Court is aggressively transforming the constitutional avoidance canon into "a roving commission to construe all meaningful life out of regulatory statutes that offend a majority of Justices," Jim Chen, Filburn's Legacy, 52 Emory L.J. 1719, 1754 (2003),
216. see Solid Waste Agency of N. Cook County v. U.S. Army Corps of Eng'rs, 531 U.S. 159, 174 (2001) (invalidating the Corps's "Migratory Bird Rule" in order "to avoid the significant constitutional and federalism questions raised" by this interpretation of the term "navigable waters" within the Clean Water Act);
217. Jones v. United States, 529 U.S. 848, 859 (2000)
218. (holding that the federal arson statute "covers only property currently used in commerce or in an activity affecting commerce," in order to avoid casting doubt on the statute's constitutionality after United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549 (1995)).
219. 42 U.S.C. § 4332(c)(iv), (v) (2000);
220. see also 40 C.F.R. § 1502.16 (2004) (requiring consideration of "any irreversible or irretrievable commitments of resources" in an environmental impact statement's discussion of environmental consequences).
221. 40 C.F.R. § 1508.8 (2004).
222. See generally Walter V. Reid, Strategies for Conserving Biodiversity, 39 Env't 16 (1997)
223. (assessing the impact of works such as Global Biodiversity Assessment, supra note 81, and the work of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change).
224. Robertson v. Methow Valley Citizens Council, 490 U.S. 332, 350 (1989);
225. accord Morongo Band of Mission Indians v. Fed. Aviation Adm'n, 161 F.3d 569, 575 (9th Cir. 1998) ("NEPA exists to ensure a process, not a result.");
226. see also Strycker's Bay Neighborhood Council, Inc. v. Karlen, 444 U.S. 223, 227-28 (1980) (per curiam);
227. Vt. Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 435 U.S. 519, 558 (1978).
228. See, e.g., Baltimore Gas & Elec. Co. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 462 U.S. 87, 103 (1983).
229. For a thoughtful look at NEPA's shortcomings and a proposal for improving the statute's performance, see Bradley C. Karkkainen, Toward a Smarter NEPA: Monitoring and Managing Government's Environmental Performance, 102 Colum. L. Rev. 903 (2002).
230. See, e.g., Marsh v. Or. Natural Res. Council, 490 U.S. 360, 376-77 (1989);
231. Kleppe v. Sierra Club, 427 U.S. 390, 410 n.21 (1976).
232. Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Comm., Inc. v. U.S. Atomic Energy Comm'n, 449 F.2d 1109, 1117 (D.C. Cir. 1971).
233. On the relative merits of piercing "hard look" review of administrative discretion relative to those of the more deferential "soft look" alternative, see generally Richard J. Pierce, Jr., Judicial Review of Agency Actions in a Period of Diminishing Agency Resources, 49 Admin. L. Rev. 61 (1997).
234. Compare Salameda v. INS, 70 F.3d 447, 452 (7th Cir. 1995) (Posner, J.) (refusing to treat "resource constraints" and "understaffing" as "defense[s] to a violation of principles of administrative law") with id. at 458 (Easterbrook, J., dissenting) (urging judicial accommodation of the "inevitability of error in a large population of [administrative] decisions," lest excessively harsh judicial review force agencies to "lavish scarce time and energy on non-issues in simple cases").
235. For an extended academic debate over "hard" and "soft" look in the context of "deossifying" administrative law, Thomas O. McGarity, Some Thoughts on "Deossifying" the Rulemaking Process, 41 Duke L.J. 1385, 1453 (1992);
236. Mark Seidenfeld, Demystifying Deossification: Rethinking Recent Proposals to Modify Judicial Review of Notice and Comment Rulemaking, 75 Tex. L. Rev. 483 (1997);
237. Thomas O. McGarity, The Courts and the Ossification of Rulemaking: A Response to Professor Seidenfeld, 75 Tex. L. Rev. 525 (1997);
238. Mark Seidenfeld, Hard Look Review in a World of Techno-Bureaucratic Decisionmaking: A Reply to Professor McGarity, 75 Tex. L. Rev. 559 (1997).
239. Fred P. Bosselman, Extinction and the Law: Protection of Religiously-Motivated Behavior, 68 Chi.-Kent L. Rev. 15, 15 (1992).
240. Cf. Thomas v. Peterson, 753 F.2d 754, 764 (9th Cir. 1985) ("The procedural requirements of the [Endangered Species Act] are analogous to those of NEPA ....").
241. See generally, e.g., Gus Speth, Red Sky at Morning: America and the Crisis of the Global Environment (2004);
242. Richard J. Lazarus, A Different Kind of "Republican" Moment in Environmental Law, 87 Minn. L. Rev. 999 (2003),
243. reprinted in The Jurisdynamics of Environmental Protection: Change and the Pragmatic Voice in Environmental law 369 (Jim Chen,ed., 2003) [hereinafter Jurisdynamics].
244. TVA v. Hill, 437 U.S. 153, 180 (1978).
245. Id. at 174;
246. accord e.g., Forest Conservation Council v. Rosboro Lumber Co., 50 F.3d 781, 787 (9th Cir. 1995);
247. Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe of Indians v. U.S. Dep't of the Navy, 898 F.2d 1410, 1417 (9th Cir. 1990).
248. See, e.g., Dean Lueck, The Law and Politics of Federal Wildlife Preservation, in Political Environmentalism: Going Behind the Green Curtain 61, 72-80 (Terry L. Anderson ed., 2000).
249. On the listing of the northern spotted owl as an endangered species and the designation of its critical habitat, see Seattle Audubon Soc'y v. Moseley, 80 F.3d 1401, 1403-04 (9th Cir. 1996);
250. cf. Christopher Cole, Species Conservation in the United States: The Ultimate Failure of the Endangered Species Act and Other Land Use Laws, 72 B.U. L. Rev. 343, 350-54 (1992) (describing the Act as unduly harsh and ineffective).
251. Michael J. Bean, Overcoming Unintended Consequences of Endangered Species Regulation, 38 Idaho L. Rev. 409, 415 (2002)
252. (quoting Nat'l Ass'n of Home Builders, Developer's Guide to Endangered Species Regulation 109 (1996));
253. see also George Cameron Coggins & Anne Fleishel Harris, The Greening of American Law?: The Recent Evolution of Federal Law for Preserving Floral Diversity, 27 Nat. Res. J. 247, 297 (1987).
254. Shi-Ling Hsu, A Game-Theoretic Approach to Regulatory Negotiation and a Framework for Empirical Analysis, 26 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 33, 58 (2002).
255. See Dean Lueck & Jeffrey A. Michael, Preemptive Habitat Destruction Under the Endangered Species Act, 46 J.L. & Econ. 27 (2003) (documenting higher harvest rates near woodpecker habitat and speculating that timber owners are harvesting before woodpeckers - and the land-use restrictions that follow them - move in).
256. See 16 U.S.C. § 1533(d) (2000).
257. See Emergency Supplemental Appropriations & Rescissions for the Department of Defense to Preserve & Enhance Military Readiness Act of 1995, Pub. L. No. 104-6, 109 Stat. 73, 86 (1995).
258. See Suspension of the Proviso Limiting Implementation of Subsections (a), (b), (c), (e), (g), or (i) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (16 U.S.C. § 1533) Contained in the Omnibus Consolidated Rescissions and Appropriations Act of 1996 (H.R. 3019), 61 Fed. Reg. 24,667 (May 16, 1996).
259. See generally Jason M. Patlis, Riders on the Storm, Or Navigating the Crosswinds of Appropriations and Administration of the Endangered Species Act: A Play in Five Acts, 16 Tul. Envtl. L.J. 257 (2003).
260. See Jared Diamond, "Normal" Extinctions of Isolated Populations, in Extinctions 191 (M. H. Nitecki ed., 1984);
261. Jared Diamond, Overview of Recent Extinctions, in Conservation for the Twenty-first Century 37, 39-41 (David Western & Mary C. Pearl eds., 1989).
262. See Edward O. Wilson, The future of life 50-51 (2002).
263. Bradley C. Karkkainen, Biodiversity and Land, 83 Cornell L. Rev. 1, 7 (1997);
264. see also, e.g., Myrl L. Duncan, Property as a Public Conversation, Not a Lockean Soliloquy: A Role for Intellectual and Legal History in Takings Analysis, 26 Envtl. L. 1095, 1127-29 (1996);
265. Paul R. Ehrlich, The Loss of Diversity: Causes and Consequences, in Biodiversity, supra note 37, at 21, 21;
266. cf. Larry E. Morse et al., Native Vascular Plants, in Our Living Resources: report to the Nation on the Distribution, Abundance, and Health of U.S. Plants, Animals, and Ecosystem 205, 208 (1995) (describing "[h]abitat alteration and incompatible land use" as greater threats than overcollecting, global climate change, and sea-level rise).
267. See generally Bruce A. Wilcox & Dennis D. Murphy, Conservation Strategy: The Effects of Fragmentation on Extinction, 125 Am. Naturalist 879 (1985).
268. 16 U.S.C. § 1538 (2000).
269. Id. § 1532(19) (2000).
270. 50 C.F.R. § 17.3 (2004).
271. 437 U.S. 153 (1978).
272. See id. at 162, 166 n. 16.
273. See generally Oliver Houck, Unfinished Stories, 73 U. Colo. L. Rev. 867, 921-22 (2002) (recounting the story of Hill and the snail darter).
274. 515 U.S. 687 (1995).
275. Id. at 700.
276. See id. at 692 n.5 (observing how the parties challenging the habitat destruction rule dropped their attack on 50 C.F.R. § 17.31 (a), which applied the rule to threatened as well as endangered species).
277. See, e.g., Theodore C. Foin et al., Improving Recovery Planning for Threatened and Endangered Species, 48 BioSci. 177, 180-81 (1998);
278. David S. Wilcove et al., Quantifying Threats to Imperiled Species in the United States, 48 Biosci. 607, 608-09 (1998).
279. 50 C.F.R. § 17.3 (2004).
280. See Hughes River Watershed Conservancy v. Glickman, 81 F.3d 437, 445 (4th Cir. 1996).
281. See Nat'l Parks & Conservation Ass'n v. U.S. Dep't of Transp., 222 F.3d 677 (9th Cir. 2000).
282. See id. at 680.
283. See id. at 680 & n.3.
284. Id. at 681.
285. See generally George W. Cox, Alien species in North America and Hawaii: Impacts on Natural Ecosystems (1999);
286. Charles S. Elton, The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants (1958);
287. Mark Williamson, Biological Invasions (1996);
288. Andrew N. Cohen & James T. Carlton, Accelerating Invasion Rate in a Highly Invaded Estuary, 279 Sci. 555 (1998);
289. David M. Lodge, Biological Invasions: Lessons for Ecology, 8 Trends in Ecology & Evolution 133 (1993).
290. See, e.g., Robert Devine, Alien Invasion: America's Battle with Non-Native Animals and Plants 134-36 (1998);
291. Williamson, supra note 149, at 77, 139-49;
292. Julie A. Savidge, Extinction of an Island Forest Avifauna by an Introduced Snake, 68 Ecology 660 (1987);
293. Don C. Schmitz & Daniel Simberloff, Biological Invasions: A Growing Threat, Issues in Sci. & Tech., Summer 1997, at 33, 35;
294. Eric Biber, Note, Exploring Regulatory Options for Controlling the Introduction of Non-Indigenous Species to the United States, 18 Va. Envtl. L.J. 375, 380 (1999).
295. McCann, supra note 12, at 232.
296. See generally Mark Williamson & Alastair Fitter, The Varying Success of Invaders, 77 Ecology 1661 (1996).
297. See United States office of Technology Assessment, Harmful non-Indigenous Species in the United States 63-69 (1993);
298. David Pimentel et al., Environmental and Economic Costs of Nonindigenous Species in the United States, 50 BioSci. 53 (2000).
299. McCann, supra note 12, at 233.
300. I b i d.
301. Sierra Club v. Marita, 46 F.3d 606, 620 (7th Cir. 1995).
302. Id. at 618.
303. Id. at 621.
304. Id. at 623.
305. Fund for Animals v. Babbitt, 903 F. Supp. 96, 106 (D.D.C. 1995).
306. Id. at 107.
307. Id. at 109-10.
308. Baltimore Gas & Elec. Co. v. Natural Res. Def. Council, Inc., 462 U.S. 87, 103 (1983);
309. see also Indus. Union Dep't v. Am. Petroleum Inst., 448 U.S. 607, 656 (1980) (plurality opinion);
310. id. at 705-06 (Marshall, J., dissenting);
311. Int'l Fabricate Inst. v. EPA, 972 F.2d 384, 389 (D.C. Cir. 1992) ("The rationale for deference is particularly strong when the [agency] is evaluating scientific data within its technical expertise.");
312. Envtl. Def. Fund, Inc. v. Costle, 578 F.2d 337, 339 (D.C. Cir. 1978) ("[I]n an area characterized by scientific and technological uncertainty[,] ... this court must proceed with particular caution, avoiding all temptation to direct the agency in a choice between rational alternatives.");
313. Alliance for Bio-Integrity v. Shalala, 116 F. Supp. 2d 166, 177 (D.D.C. 2000).
314. Time Warner Entm't. Co. v. FCC, 56 F.3d 151, 163 (D.C. Cir. 1995) (per curiam);
315. accord WorldCom, Inc. v. FCC, 238 F.3d 449, 458 (D.C. Cir. 2001).
316. Norton v. S. Utah Wilderness Alliance, 124 S. Ct. 2373, 2381 (2004).
317. Ethyl Corp. v. EPA, 541 F.2d 1, 69 (D.C. Cir. 1976) (en banc)
318. (Leventhal, J., concurring), cert. denied, 426 U.S. 941 (1976);
319. cf. Kassel v. Consol. Freightways Corp., 450 U.S. 662, 670 (1981) (plurality opinion) (expressing a willingness to invalidate "marginally" effective and "substantially" obtrusive state laws despite state officials' claimed expertise over regulations designed "to promote the public health or safety").
320. Essex Chem. Corp. v. Ruckelshaus, 486 F.2d 427, 434 (D.C. Cir. 1973).
321. Ethyl Corp., 541 F.2d at 69 (Leventhal, J., concurring).
322. See 16 U.S.C. § 1532(5)(A) (2000) (defining "critical habitat" as "the specific areas within the geographical area occupied by" a species at such time it is listed as threatened or endangered, "on which are found those physical or biological features (I) essential to the conservation of the species and (II) which may require special management considerations or protection");
323. 16 U.S.C. § 1533(a)(3)(A) (mandating the designation of "critical habitat" for endangered or threatened species).
324. See Endangered Species Act Amendments of 1982, Pub. L. No. 97-304, § 6, 96 Stat. 1411, 1422-24 (1982).
325. See 16 U.S.C. § 1539(a) (2000);
326. Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Or., 515 U.S. 687, 691 (1995).
327. Notwithstanding the ESA's general prohibition against the "tak[ing]" of any endangered "species within the United States or the territorial sea of the United States," 16 U.S.C. § 1538(a)(1)(B) (2000), the Secretary of the Interior or of Commerce "may permit" such a taking if it "is incidental to, and not the purpose of, the carrying out of an otherwise lawful activity."
328. 16 U.S.C. § 1539(a)(1)(B).
329. 16 U.S.C. § 1536(a)(2) (2000);
330. see also 50 C.F.R. § 402.01(b) (2004);
331. Friends of Endangered Species, Inc. v. Jantzen, 760 F.2d 976, 984-85 (9th Cir. 1985);
332. Nat'l Wildlife Fed. v. Babbitt, 128 F. Supp. 2d 1274, 1286 (E.D. Cal. 2000).
333. See Friends of Endangered Species, Inc., 760 F.2d at 982-83;
334. S. Rep. No. 97-418, at 10 (1982);
335. H.R. Rep. No. 97-835, at 31-32 (1982);
336. Michel J. Beneath et al., Reconciling Conflicts Under the Endangered Species Act: The Habitat Conservation Planning Experience 52-55 (1991);
337. Jamie A. Grodsky, The Paradox of (Eco)Pragmatism, 87 Minn. L. Rev. 1037, 1058-59 & n.81 (2003),
338. reprinted in Juridynamics, supra note 121, at 95, 104, 114-15;
339. Albert C. Lin, Participants'Experiences with Habitat Conservation Plans and Suggestions for Streamlining the Process, 23 Ecology L.Q. 369, 375-76 (1996).
340. See Carson-Truckee Water Conservancy Dist. v. Clark, 741 F.2d 257, 262 (9th Cir. 1984);
341. Fla. Key Deer v. Stickney, 864 F. Supp. 1222, 1237-38 (S.D. Fla. 1994);
342. J. B. Ruhl, Section 7(a)(I) of the "New" Endangered Species Act: Rediscovering and Redefining the Untapped Power of Federal Agencies' Duty to Conserve Species, 25 Envtl. L. 1107, 1137 (1995).
343. Bradley C. Karkkainen, Adaptive Ecosystem Management and Regulatory Penalty Defaults: Toward a Bounded Pragmatism, 87 Minn. L. Rev. 943, 970 (2003),
344. reprinted in Jurisdynamics, supra note 121, at 51, 64.
345. See Ian Ayres & Robert Gertner, Filling Gaps in Incomplete Contracts: An Economic Theory of Default Rules, 99 Yale L.J. 87, 94 (1989);
346. Randy E. Barnett, The Sound of Silence: Default Rules and Contractual Consent, 78 Va. L. Rev. 821, 825 (1992);
347. Stephen J. Ware, Default Rules from Mandatory Rules: Privatizing Law Through Arbitration, 83 Minn. L. Rev. 703, 706 (1999).
348. Jody Freeman, The Contracting State, 28 Fla. St. U. L. Rev. 155, 194 (2000).
349. But cf. Karin P. Sheldon, Habitat Conservation Planning: Addressing the Achilles Heel of the Endangered Species Act, 6 N.Y.U. Envtl. L.J. 279 (1998) (arguing that landowners historically did not treat incidental take permits under § 10(a) as a sufficiently serious prospect to propose the implementation of HCPs).
350. Daniel A. Farber, Taking Slippage Seriously: Noncompliance and Creative Compliance in Environmental Law, 23 Harv. Envtl. L. Rev. 297, 316-17 (1999).
351. For further discussion of environmental law as a process of public-sector negotiation among interested groups, see generally David A. Dana, The New "Contractarian" Paradigm in Environmental Regulation, 2000 U. ILL. L. Rev. 35 (2000);
352. Grodsky, supra note 172.
353. Daniel A. Farber, Environmental Protection as a Learning Experience, 27 Loy. L.A. L. Rev. 791, 806 (1994).
354. Farber, supra note 92, at 1271.
355. U.N. Conference on Environment and Development: Convention on Biological Diversity, June 5, 1992, 1760 U.N.T.S. 142.
356. U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol, U.N. Doc. FCCC/CP/1997/L.7/Add.1 (Dec. 10, 1997);
357. see also U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, May 9, 1992, 1771 U.N.T.S. 164 (entered into force, Mar. 21, 1994).
358. Christy v. Lujan, 490 U.S. 1114, 1115 (1989) (White, J., dissenting from denial of cert.).
359. Id. at 1116
360. (quoting First English Evangelical Lutheran Church v. County of Los Angeles, 482 U.S. 304, 318-19 (1987));
361. Armstrong v. United States, 364 U.S. 40, 49 (1960)).
362. Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Or., 515 U.S. 687, 714 (1995) (Scalia, J., dissenting).
363. Bennett v. Spear, 520 U.S. 154, 176-77 (1997).
364. U.S. Const. amdt. V.
365. See, e.g., Lucas v. S.C. Coastal Council, 505 U.S. 1003, 1019 (1992);
366. Nollan v. Cal. Coastal Comm'n, 483 U.S. 825, 837 (1987).
367. See generally Laura S. Underkuffler, Tahoe's Requiem: The Death of the Scalian View of Property and Justice, 21 Const. Comment. (forthcoming 2004-2005).
368. 530 U.S. 1251 (2000).
369. Id. at 1251 (Scalia, J., dissenting from denial of cert.).
370. Freiler v. Tangipahoa Parish Bd. of Educ., 185 F.3d 337, 348 (5th Cir. 1999), cert. denied, 530 U.S. 1251 (2000).
371. 393 U.S. 97 (1968).
372. 482 U.S. 578 (1987).
373. Tangipahoa Parish Bd. of Educ. v. Freiler, 530 U.S. 1251, 1255 (Scalia, J., dissenting from denial of cert.).
374. I b i d.
375. I b i d.
376. See Scopes v. State, 289 S.W. 363 (Tenn. 1927).
377. See generally Raymond A. Eve & Francis B. Harrold, The Creationist Movement in Modern America (1991);
378. Randy Moore, America's Anti-Evolution Movement, Acad. Questions, Spring 2002, at 69;
379. Randy Moore, The Revival of Creationism in the United States, 35 J. Biological Educ. 17 (2000);
380. Eugenie C. Scott, Creationism, Ideology, and Science, in The Flight From Science and Reason 505 (Paul R. Gross et al. eds., 1996).
381. See Susan Jacoby, Caught Between Church And State, N.Y. Times, Jan. 19, 2005, at A19.
382. See generally Jay D. Wexler, Darwin, Design, and Disestablishment: Teaching the Evolution Controversy in Public Schools, 56 Vand. L. Rev. 751 (2003).
383. See Deborah A. Reule, The New Face of Creationism: The Establishment Clause and the Latest Efforts to Suppress Evolution in Public Schools, 54 Vand. L. Rev. 2555, 2572-86 (2001).
384. See Susan Jacoby, Freethinkers: A History of American Secularism 360-61 (2004);
385. cf. id. at 250 (observing how southern school systems, especially in Texas, censor evolution in textbooks in deference to "a powerful religious right");
386. Cornelia Dean, A New Screen Test for IMAX: The Bible vs. the Volcano, N.Y. Times, Mar. 19, 2005, at A11 (reporting the reluctance of IMAX theater operators to display films referring to evolution or even the age of the Earth for fear of offending religiously conservative members of their audiences).
387. See generally Lawrence S. Lerner, Good Science, Bad Science: Teaching Evolution in the States (2000), available at http:// www.edexcellence.net/doc/lerner.pdf (last visited Feb. 27, 2005) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review).
388. For sources refuting the claims made by "intelligent design," see Barbara Forrest & Paul R. Gross, Creationism's Trojan Horse: The Wedge of Intelligent Design (2004);
389. Robert T. Pennock, Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Cretionism (1999);
390. Niall Shanks, God, The Devil, and Darwin (2004);
391. Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics (Robert T. Pennock ed., 2001);
392. Why Intelligent Design Fails (Matt Young & Taner Edis eds., 2004).
393. See, e.g., Phillip E. Johnson, Darwin on Trial 131 (1991) ("Darwinist evolution is an imaginative story about who we are and where we came from, which is to say it is a creation myth.");
394. Michael Denton, Evolution: A Theory in Crisis 358 (1986) ("Ultimately the Darwinian theory of evolution is no more or less than the great cosmogenic myth of the twentieth century.").
395. Stephen Jay Gould, Rocks of Ages: Science and Religion in the Fullness of Life 129 (1999).
396. Id. at 148-49.
397. Id. at 129.
398. Jacoby, supra note 201, at 128;
399. see also Michelle Galley, Evolution Theory Prevails in Most Western Curricula, Educ. Week, Jan. 28, 2004, at 8 (documenting the absence of controversy over the teaching of evolution in other Western countries).
400. 482 U.S. 578 (1987).
401. Id. at 596.
402. Id. at 634 (Scalia, J., dissenting). Chief Justice Rehnquist joined Justice Scalia's dissent.
403. I b i d.
404. I b i d.
405. I b i d.
406. See generally Michael Stokes Paulsen & Steffen N. Johnson, Scalia's Sermonette, 72 Notre Dame L. Rev. 863 (1997).
407. See generally David McGowan, Judicial Writing and the Ethics of the Judicial Office, 14 Geo. J. Legal Ethics 509 (2001).
408. Cf. Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620, 636 (1996) (Scalia, J., dissenting) ("The Court has mistaken a Kulturkampf for a fit of spite."). Kulturkampf, the German word for "culture war," refers to a conflict between Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and the Vatican during the 1870s, when "a political storm" in the newly unified German Empire "centered on a series of repressive measures directed mainly against the Catholic church."
409. Helmut Walser Smith, German Nationalism and Religious Conflict 19 (1995).
410. Cf. Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654, 699 (1988) (Scalia, J., dissenting) ("[T]his wolf comes as a wolf.").
411. See Suzanna Sherry, The Sleep of Reason, 84 Geo. L.J. 453, 457-64 (1996).
412. See Theodosius Dobzhansky, Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution, 35 Am. Biology Teacher 125 (1973).
413. Gould, supra note 204, at 129-30.
414. See Edward J. Larson, The Scopes Trial and the Evolving Concept of Freedom, 85 Va. L. Rev. 503 (1999).
415. See, e.g., Stephen L. Carter, The Culture of Disbelief: How American Law and Politics Trivialize Religious Devotion 1-11, 23-24 (1993) (noting widespread hostility to religion in most intellectual circles);
416. Sanford Levinson, Book Review, Religious Language and the Public Square, 105 Harv. L. Rev. 2061, 2062 (1992) (noting the relative lack of attention to "claims of exclusion and silencing made by those with strong religious commitments").
417. Edward J. Larson, Summer for the Gods: The Scopes Trial and America's Continuing Debate over Science and Religion 260-61 (1997).
418. E. N. Anderson, Ecologies of the Heart: Emotion, Belief, and the Environment 111 (1996);
419. see also Roy A. Rappaport, The Sacred in Human Evolution, 2 Ann. Rev. Ecology & Systematics 23 (1971);
420. Paul Slovic, Rational Actors and Rational Fools: The Influence of Affect on Judgment and Decision-Making, 6 Roger Wms. U. L. Rev. 163 (2000).
421. See Melvin J. Lerner & Dale T. Miller, Just World Research and the Attribution Process: Looking Back and Ahead, 85 Psychol. Bull. 1030 (1978).
422. Tangipahoa Parish Bd. of Educ. v. Freiler, 530 U.S. 1251, 1255 (2000) (Scalia, J., dissenting from denial of cert.).
423. Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578, 634 (1987) (Scalia, J., dissenting).
424. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex 694 (2d ed. 1874).
425. See generally, e.g., Solomon et al., supra note 37, at 374-87.
426. Id. at 20.
427. Berard Marthaler, The Creed: The Apostolic Faith in Contemporary Theology 83 (rev. ed. 1993). The Nicene Creed is the most widespread succinct statement of the Christian faith. Ever since its adoption at the Council of Constantinople in 381 in response to Arianism, a fourth-century movement that denied the divinity of Christ, the Nicene Creed has remained religious common ground for the Roman Catholic Church, all of the Eastern Orthodox Churches, and to most Protestant denominations. With the salient exception of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, virtually every religious tradition calling itself Christian subscribes to the Nicene Creed.
428. See id. at vi-vii, 9-13.
429. See generally Nicene Christianity: The Future for a New Ecumenism (Christopher R. Seitz ed., 2001).
430. See, e.g., United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549, 621-22 (1995) (Breyer, J., dissenting).
431. Jacoby, supra note 201, at 361.
432. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's Struggle for Equality 714 (2d ed. 2004);
433. see also Bernard Schwartz, A History of the Supreme Court 286 (1993) (claiming that Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was at a minimum "the watershed constitutional case of the (twentieth] century").
434. See generally, e.g., James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (2001);
435. Hugh W. Speer, The Case of the Century: A Historical and Social Perspective on Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, with Present and Futurte Implications (1993).
436. Cf. Brown v. Bd. of Educ., 347 U.S. 483, 495 (1954) ("[I]n the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place.").
437. Cf. Sinclair Lewis, Elmer Gantry (1927).
438. See, e.g., James Barr, The Scope and Authority of the Bible 7 (1980) (assigning "the entire (and supremely important) primeval story" of "creation,... Noah and the flood, and so on" to "the area of myth and legend" rather than the realm of "history");
439. see also Gould, supra note 204, at 81-82 (reporting how the Vatican, in the half-century between Pius XII and John Paul II, eventually acknowledged how the "growth of data" and "refinement of theory" had made it impossible for evolution to "be doubted by people of goodwill and keen intellect").
440. See John 6:58 ("[T]his is the bread which came down from heaven, not such as the fathers ate and died.");
441. Hebrews 1:1-2 ("In many and various ways God spoke of old to our fathers by the prophets; but in these last days he has spoken to us by a Son ....").
442. Lee v. Weisman, 505 U.S. 577, 641 (1992) (Scalia, J., dissenting).
443. I b i d.
444. But see Joseph Campbell, Thou Art That: Transforming Religious Metaphor 65 (2001) ("[The virgin birth of Jesus] is the myth of the birth of a great spiritual leader and it has nothing whatsoever to do with biology. Saying that, however, does not diminish but accents its religious significance.").
445. C. S. Lewis, Mere Christianity 80 (1943); see also John 8:7 ("Let him who is without sin among you be the first to throw a stone at her.").
446. See Matthew 5:3-12;
447. Luke 6:20-22.
448. See Matthew 22:36-40;
449. Mark 12:29-31;
450. Luke 10:25-28.
451. Cf. Sam Phillips, I Need Love, on Martinis & Bikinis (Virgin Records 1994) ("I need god/not the political church"). Perhaps the leading example of what I consider the vulgarization of the Christian tradition through constitutional adjudication and electoral politics in the United States is Justice Scalia's astounding declaration that the Supreme Court's invalidation of a poorly worded attempt to ban intact dilation and extraction "one day ... will be assigned its rightful place in the history of th[e] Court's jurisprudence beside Korematsu [v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944)]
452. and Dred Scott [v. Sandford, 60 U.S. (19 How.) 393 (1856)]." Stenberg v. Carhart, 530 U.S. 914, 953 (2000) (Scalia, J., dissenting). Fuller exposition of this assertion lies beyond the scope of this Essay. I will leave this project for another time and perhaps another scholar.
453. Chet Raymo, Skeptics and True Believers: The Exhilarating Connection Between Science and Religion 150 (1998).
454. I b i d.
455. Id. at 148.
456. For instances of creationist literature treating the human eye as evidence against evolution, see I. L. Cohen, Darwin Was Wrong 116 (1984) ("It is not possible, under any stretch of the imagination, that all [the] parts of the [human eye's] optical mechanisms could haphazardly become functional through random mutations.");
457. Michael Pitman, Adam and Evolution 217 (1984) ("The eye must be perfect or near perfect. Otherwise, it is useless.").
458. See Russell D. Fernald, The Evolution of Eyes, 50 Brain Behav. Evolution 253 (1997).
459. See generally Simon Conway Morris, Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe (2003) (describing the tendency of random variations to converge on similar solutions over the course of evolution.
460. See Dan-E. Nilsson & Susanne Pelger, A Pessimistic Estimate of the Time Required for an Eye to Evolve, 256 Proc. Royal Soc'y London B. 53 (1994).
461. Richard Dawkins, The Eye in a Twinkling, 368 Nature 690, 691 (1994).
462. Richard Dewkins, The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe Without Design 38 (1986).
463. Isaiah 42:16.
464. Genesis 3:17-18.
465. See Matthew 25:14-30.
466. Environmental Stewardship in the Judeo-Christian Tradition: Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant Wisdom on the Environment, at xv (Michael B. Barkey ed., 2000).
467. William Shakespeare, Hamlet, act 4, sc. 4, II. 33-39 (Robert Hapgood ed., Cambridge University Press 1999) (1603).
468. See Eugenie C. Scott, Antievolution and Creationism in the United States, 26 Ann. Rev. Anthropology 263, 263-64 (1997) (reporting a 1996 survey conducted by the National Science Board that found that 44% of Americans do not believe in an evolutionary explanation of human origins).
469. Peter Slevin, Battle on Teaching Evolution Sharpens, Wash. Post. Mar. 14, 2005, at A1.
470. William J. Broad & James Glanz, Does Science Matter?, N.Y Times, Nov. 11, 2003, at F12;
471. see also James Glanz, Survey Finds Support Is Strong for Teaching 2 Origin Theories, N.Y. Times, Mar. 11, 2000, at A1 (reporting poll results finding "that 79 percent of Americans thought creationism had a place in the public school curriculum," albeit "as a belief rather than as a competing scientific theory").
472. See generally Deborah Jordan Brooks, Substantial Numbers of Americans Continue to Doubt Evolution as Explanation for Origin of Humans, Gallup Poll Monthly, Mar. 2001, at 9.
473. See People for the American Way Foundation, Evolution and Creationism in Public Education: An In-Depth Reading of Public Opinion 48 2000), available at http://www.pfaw.org/pfaw/dfiles/ file_36.pdf.
474. See George E. Webb, The Evoluion Controversy in America 254 (1994).
475. See George Bishop, Intelligent Design, Pub. Persp., May/ June 2003, at 7 (reporting that the vast majority of the public has no idea what the term "intelligent design" means and that polls using that term are accordingly suspect).
476. See Nicholas D. Kristof, God, Satan and the Media, N.Y. Times, Mar. 4, 2003, at A27 (devil);
477. Nicholas D. Kristof, Believe It, or Not, N.Y. Times, Aug. 15, 2003, at A29 (virgin birth). One suspects that the disparity between the 28% figure reported by Kristof and the 44% figure reported by Scott, supra note 258, reflects a "mushy middle." Some 28% of the American public believes in evolution; 44% rejects it. The balance apparently either does not know or will not say what it believes.
478. See Larson, supra note 223, at 258, 304 n.27 (stressing the number of Americans who believe in a creationist account of natural history). Summer for the Gods won the 1998 Pulitzer Prize for History.
479. McLean v. Arkansas Bd. of Educ., 529 F. Supp. 1255, 1274 (E.D. Ark. 1982).
480. For a riveting first-hand account of McLean, see Langdon Gilkey, Creationism on Trial: Evolution and God at Little Rock (1985).
481. Gayle White, Countdown to the End Times: The World's Demise Gets Lots of Ink - and Debate, Atlanta J.-Const., May 17, 2003, at B2.
482. See Richard N. Ostling, Best Sellers Distort Christianity, Albany (N.Y.) Tims Union, Apr. 18, 2004, at A13.
483. See generally Jennifer Robison, Americans Find Religion on Bookstore Shelves, Gallup Poll Monthly, Jan. 2003, at 3.
484. White, supra note 267, at B2.
485. See Bill Moyers, On Receiving Harvard Med's Global Environment Citizen Award, available at http://www.truthout.org/docs_04/ 120504G.shtml (last visited Feb. 20, 2005) (on file with the Harvard Environmental Law Review);
486. Bill Moyers, There Is No Tomorrow, Minneapolis Star-Trib., Jan. 30, 2005.
487. Gould, supra note 204, at 149.
488. Edwards, 482 U.S. at 634 (Scalia, J., dissenting).
489. Tangipahoa Parish, 530 U.S. at 125 (Scalia, J., dissenting from denial of cert.).
490. Buck v. Bell, 274 U.S. 200, 207 (1927).
491. See generally Stephen Jay Gould, The Mis-measure of Man (rev. ed. 1996).
492. Cf. Edwards, 482 U.S. at 621 (Scalia, J., dissenting) (stressing that Justice Scalia "by no means intend[ed] to endorse [the] accuracy" of legislative testimony regarding "creation science," since his "views (and the views of this Court) about creation science and evolution" have no bearing in a Court whose task "is not to judge the debate about teaching the origins of life, but to ascertain what the members of the Louisiana Legislature believed").
493. Edward O. Wilson, Biophilia 61 (1984) (quoting Hermann Weyl).
494. John Keats, Ode on a Grecian Urn, in Ode on a Grecian Urn, The Eve of St. Agnes and Other Poems 14, 11, 49-50 (Houghton Mifflin 1901) (1820).
495. Queensboro Farms Prods., Inc. v. Wickard, 137 F.2d 969, 975 (2d Cir. 1943) (making this claim in the context of agricultural regulation, specifically of the dairy industry).
496. Wilson, supra note 132, at 133.
497. David Christian, The Case for "Big History," 2 J. World Hist. 223, 235 (1991).
498. Gould, supra note 204, at 58-59.
499. Id. at 54.
500. Id. at 55;
501. cf. Karl N. Llewellyn, Some Realism About Realism - Responding to Dean Pound, 44 Harv., L. Rev. 1222, 1236 (1944) (advocating the "[t]emporary divorce of Is and Ought for purposes of [legal] study").
502. Colossians 1:26.
503. Conway Morris, supra note 249, at 328.
504. See Edward O. Wilson, Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge (1998). I very much intend the phrase "human endeavors informed by science" as a tautology.
505. Gould, supra note 204, at 59.
506. Solomon et al., supra note 37, at 11.
507. See generally J. J. Brocks et al., Archean Molecular Fossils and the Early Rise of Eukaryotes, 285 Sci. 1033 (1999);
508. Carl R. Woese & Gary J. Olsen, Archaebacterial Phylogeny: Perspectives on the Urkingdoms, 7 Sys. Applied Microbiology 161 (1986).
509. See, e.g., Bruce Alberts et al., Essential Cell Biology: An Introduction to the Molecular Biology of the Cell 300 (1998);
510. Campbell & Reece, supra note 24, at 329-31.
511. For an effort to apply basic microbiology to contemporary questions of national security and constitutional law, see Gil Grantmore, The Phages of American Law, 36 U.C. Davis L. Rev. 455, 488-96 (2003).
512. See Stacy D. Benson et al., Viral Evolution Revealed by Bacteriophage PRD1 and Human Adenovirus Coat Protein Structures, 98 Cell 825 (1999).
513. See Stacy D. Benson et al., Does Common Architecture Reveal a Viral Lineage Spanning All Three Domains of Life?, 16 Molecular Cell 673 (2004);
514. George Rice et al., The Structure of a Thermophilic Archaeal Virus Shows a Double-Stranded DNA Viral Capsid Type That Spans All Domains of Life, 101 Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. 7716 (2004) (analyzing Sulfolobus turreted icosahedral virus, a dsDNA virus of the archaeal host Sulfolobus sulfataricus). A veritable wellspring of prokaryotic diversity, Yellowstone is also the source of another thermophilic archaebacterium, Thermus aquaticus, best known as the source of a heat-stable enzyme that facilitates the polymerase chain reaction, a critical process in molecular biology.
515. Thomas D. Brock, The Value of Basic Research: Discovery of Thermus aquaticus and Other Extreme Thermophiles, 146 Genetics 1207 (1997);
516. see, e.g., Holly Doremus, Nature, Knowledge and Profit: The Yellowstone Bioprospecting Controversy and the Core Purposes of America's National Parks, 26 Ecology L.Q. 401 (1999);
517. Carla Mattix, The Debate Over Bioprospecting on the Public Lands, 13 Nat. Res. & Env't 528 (1999);
518. Michael Milstein, Yellowstone Managers Eye Profits from Hot Microbe, 264 Sci. 655 (1994).
519. See Campbell & Reece, supra note 24, at 537 ("Some researchers postulate that the very earliest prokaryotes to evolve were extreme thermophiles that inhabited hot environments similar to deep-sea vents.").
520. See, e.g., Linda A. Amaral Zettler et al., Eukaryotic Diversity in Spain's River of Fire, 417 Nature 137, 137 (2002) (concluding that the discovery of "wide eukaryotic diversity" in Spain's extremely acidic Rio Tinto, "which has a pH of 2 and contains much higher concentrations of heavy metals than are typically found in fresh waters[,]" "challenge[s] former ideas about the phylogenetic range of organisms that are capable of living in extreme environments");
521. J. Frederick Grassle, Deep-Sea Benthic Biodiversity, 41 BioSci. 464, 467 (1991) (estimating perhaps as many as 10 million species of animals on the floor of the deep sea without guessing even to an order of magnitude as to the diversity of bacteria and other microorganisms).
522. See, e.g., Frances Olsen, The Supreme Court, 1988 Term - Comment: Unraveling Compromise, 103 Harv. L. Rev. 105, 128 (1989) (quoting an undated pamphlet called "Did You Know" by J. Willke);
523. Reva Siegel, Reasoning from the Body: A Historical Perspective on Abortion Regulation and Questions of Equal Protection, 44 Stan. L. Rev. 261, 326 (1992) (same).
524. Raup, supra note 15, at 12-13.
525. Dobzhansky, supra note 219, at 129;
526. see also Solomon et al., supra note 37, at 368 ("The concept of evolution is the cornerstone of biology because it links all fields of the life sciences into a unified body of knowledge."). Evolutionary biology and its insights lie at the center of an "emerging third culture" whose scientists and other empiricists, "through their work and expository writing, have taken the place of the traditional intellectual in rendering visible the deeper meanings of our lives ...."
527. John Brockman, Introduction: The New Humanists, in The New Humanists: Science at the Edge 1, 1-2 (John Brockman ed., 2003). This new culture unifies and propels "the new and important ideas that drive our times: ... molecular biology, genetic engineering, nanotechnology, artificial intelligence, artificial life, chaos theory, massive parallelism ... superstrings, biodiversity, the human genome, expert systems, punctuated equilibrium, cellular automata, fuzzy logic, virtual reality, cyberspace, and teraflop machines. Among others."
528. Id. at 2.
529. See generally John Brockman, The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution (1995).
530. Oliver Wendell Holmes, The Path of the Law, 10 Harv. L. Rev. 457, 478 (1897).
531. Takacs, supra note 80, at 255.
532. Wilson, supra note 286, at 237.
533. Thomas C. Grey, The Constitution as Scripture, 37 Stan. L. Rev. 1, 17 (1984).
534. I b i d.
535. James Boyd White, When Words Lose Their Meaning 240 (1984).
536. McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316, 415 (1819) (Marshall, C.J.) (discussing the taxation of the Bank of the United States by the state of Maryland).
537. David Tilman, Causes, Consequences and Ethics of Biodiversity, 405 Nature 208, 210 (2000).
538. Id. at 211.
539. Compare David Sloan Wilson, Darwin's Cathedral: Evolution, Religion and the Nature of Society (2002)
540. with John O. McGinnis, The Human Constitution and Constitutive Law: A Prolegomenon, 8 J. Contemp. Legal Issues 211 (1997) (describing American constitutional law in evolutionary terms)
541. and John O. McGinnins, The Original Constitution and Our Origins, 19 Harv. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y 251 (1996) (same).
542. Campbell, supra note 241, at 107.
543. Kundera, supra note 4, at 3.
544. Wilson, supra note 276, at 55.
545. Wilson, supra note 286, at 237.
546. Hawthorne, supra note 19, at 281.
547. See John 8:32.