The EPA at 40: An historical perspective

Duke Environmental Law and Policy Forum

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 223-258

  Andrews, Richard N L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE; INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK;

EID: 84856851676     PISSN: 10643958     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (207)

1. Originally presented at the Duke Environmental Law and Policy Forum Symposium, January 24, 2011, based in part on work originally published in R.N.L. ANDREWS, MANAGING THE ENVIRONMENT, MANAGING OURSELVES: A HISTORY OF AMERICAN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY (2d ed. 2006)
2. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 218-220, and associated notes and references
3. JAMES L. SUNDQUIST, POLITICS AND POLICY: THE EISENHOWER, KENNEDY, AND JOHNSON YEARS 323 (1968).
4. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 201-226.
5. Frank Gannon, RN in '70-Launching the Decade of the Environment (Jan. 1, 2010), http://thenewnixon.org/2010/01/01/rn-in-70-the-decade-of-the-environment /.
6. Richard M. Nixon, President, Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union (Jan. 22, 1970), available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/ index.php?pid 2921#ixzz1ZpHKDU5P.
7. Richard M. Nixon, President, Special Message to the Congress on Environmental Quality (Feb. 10, 1970), available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid 2757#axzz1ZpHtZNrz.
8. Jack Manning, Mood Is Joyful as City Gives Its Support; Millions Join Earth Day Observances Across the Nation, N.Y. TIMES, Apr. 23, 1970, at 1.
9. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970, 35 Fed. Reg. 15,623, 84 Stat. 2086.
10. Clean Air Amendments of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91-604, 84 Stat. 1676.
11. Richard J. Lazarus, The Tragedy of Distrust in the Implementation of Federal Environmental Law, 54 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 311, 315 (1991).
12. RONALD C. MOE, CONG RESEARCH SERV., RL30876, THE PRESIDENT'S REORGANIZATION AUTHORITY: REVIEW AND ANALYSIS, at CRS-4 (2001), available at http://www.oswego.edu/~ruddy/Educational%20Policy/CRS%20Reports/Presiden ts%20Reorganization%20Authority.pdf.
13. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970, 35 Fed. Reg. 15,623, 84 Stat. 2086.
14. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 229.
15. See Clean Air Amendments of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91-604, 84 Stat. 1676
16. Resource Recovery Act of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91-512, 84 Stat. 1227
17. Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91-224, 84 Stat. 91
18. Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, Pub. L. No. 92-500, 86 Stat. 816
19. Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act of 1972, Pub. L. No. 92-516, 86 Stat. 973
20. Safe Drinking Water Act, Pub. L. No. 93-523, 88 Stat. 1660 (1974)
21. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, Pub. L. No. 94-580, 90 Stat. 2795 (1976)
22. Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976, Pub. L. No. 94-469, 90 Stat. 2003
23. Clean Water Act of 1977, Pub. L. No. 95-217, 91 Stat. 1566
24. Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act, Pub. L. No. 96-510, 94 Stat. 2767 (1980).
25. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 231.
26. Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1970, 35 Fed. Reg. 15,623, 84 Stat. 2086.
27. Philip Shabecoff, House Votes Bill to Elevate E.P.A. to Cabinet Level, N.Y. TIMES, Mar. 29, 1990, http://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/29/us/house-votes-bill-to-elevate-epa-to- cabinetlevel.html.
28. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 229-32.
29. See J. Patrick Dobel, Managerial Leadership in Divided Times: William Ruckelshaus and the Paradoxes of Independence, 26 ADMIN. & SOC'Y 488 (1995). As a condition of his reappointment at the start of Nixon's second term, Ruckelshaus also demanded and received control over regulatory initiatives opposed by Nixon's Office of Management and Budget. Id.
30. JOHN QUARLES, CLEANING UP AMERICA: AN INSIDER'S VIEW OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 117-18, 125-61 (1976).
31. ROBERT MCMAHON, The Institutional Structure of the EPA, in THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY: STRUCTURING MOTIVATION IN A GREEN BUREAUCRACY 33, 33-52 (2006).
32. 42 U.S.C. § 7409(b)(1) (2006).
33. Id § 7479(3) (defining "best available control technology")
34. U.S.C. §§ 1314(b)(1)(B), (b)(2)(B) (2006) (wastewater)
35. Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) Basic Information, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, http://www.epa.gov/NSR/psd.html (last updated July 22, 2011)
36. Water: Industry Effluent Guidelines: Frequent Questions, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/guide/questions_index.cfm (last updated Sept. 29, 2011).
37. Mobile Source Emission-Past, Present, and Future: Milestones, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, http://www.epa.gov/oms/invntory/overview/solutions/milestones.htm (last updated July 9, 2007).
38. See supra note 15.
39. As EPA Turns 40, IU Professor Recalls Its Creation, IND. UNIV., http://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/16660.html (last visited Sept. 10, 2011).
40. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 232-37, 242-49.
41. U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, DDT: A REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF THE DECISION TO BAN ITS USE AS A PESTICIDE 1 (1975), available at http://www.nal.usda.gov/speccoll/findaids/agentorange/text/01183.pdf.
42. Press Release, U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, EPA Requires Phase-Out of Lead in All Grades of Gasoline (Nov. 28, 1973), available at http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/lead/03.html.
43. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, Pub. L. No. 95-95, 91 Stat. 685
44. Clean Water Act of 1977, Pub. L. No. 95-217, 91 Stat. 1566.
45. J. CLARENCE DAVIES & JAN MAZUREK, POLLUTION CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES: EVALUATING THE SYSTEM 56, 69 (1998).
46. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 245-49.
47. Certain Fluorocarbons (Chlorofluorocarbons) in Food, Food Additive, Drug, Animal Food, Animal Drug, Cosmetic, and Medical Device Products as Propellants in Self-Pressurized Containers: Prohibition on Use, 43 Fed. Reg. 11,301 (Mar. 17, 1978).
48. See Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980, Pub. L. No. 96-510, 94 Stat. 2767.
49. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 251.
50. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977, Pub. L. No. 95-95, 91 Stat. 685
51. DAVID BORNSTEIN, HOW TO CHANGE THE WORLD: SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURS AND THE POWER OF NEW IDEAS 53-56 (2004) (discussing Drayton and his "bubble" concept)
52. OFFICE OF POLICY, ECON., & INNOVATION [OPEI], U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, EPA-240-R-01-001, THE UNITED STATES EXPERIENCE WITH ECONOMIC INCENTIVES FOR PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT 67, 72-75 (2001), available at http://yosemite.epa.gov/ee/epa/eerm.nsf/vwAN/EE-0216B-13.pdf/$fil e/EE-0216B-13.pdf
53. Laurens H. Rhinelander, The Bubble Concept: A Pragmatic Approach to Regulation Under the Clean Air Act, 1 VA. J. NAT. RESOURCES L. 177, 191 (1981).
54. See OPEI, supra note 37.
55. Id. at 255-56.
56. See also MURRAY WEIDENBAUM, THE FUTURE OF BUSINESS REGULATION (1980). These attacks used longstanding criticisms by economists of the older economic regulatory programs (airlines, trucking and railroads, telecommunications, electric generation), several of which were in the process of deregulation at the time, to disparage environmental, health, and safety regulations as well, despite the significant differences between economic regulation-which had in practice protected favored businesses from competition-and health, safety, and environmental regulation, which protected the public from market failures such as environmental externalities and tragedies of the commons.
57. Cf. Daniel H. Cole & Peter Z. Grossman, When Is Command-and-Control Efficient? Institutions, Technology, and the Comparative Efficiency of Alternative Regulatory Regimes for Environmental Protection, 1999 WIS. L. REV. 887. Perhaps ironically, "one size fits all" was once a positive marketing slogan for socks, not a derogatory label for uniform national standards.
58. See, e.g., J. H. DALES, POLLUTION, PROPERTY, AND PRICES (1968)
59. Larry Ruff, The Economic Common Sense of Pollution, 19 PUB. INT. 69, 78-82 (1970).
60. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 262-66
61. Michael Royston, Making Pollution Prevention Pay, HARV. L. REV. 6, 6-27 (1980)
62. See also generally MICHAEL ROYSTON, POLLUTION PREVENTION PAYS (1979).
63. Richard N.L. Andrews, Deregulation: The Failure at EPA, in ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE 1980S: REAGAN'S NEW AGENDA 161 (Norman J. Vig & Michael E. Kraft eds., 1984).
64. Dave Stockman, The Stockman Manifesto: The New Budget Director's Sweeping Blueprint for President Reagan's First 100 Days, WASH. POST., Dec. 14, 1980, at C1 (excerpting a report Stockman wrote for then-President-elect Reagan entitled Avoiding a GOP Economic Dunkirk).
65. Richard N.L. Andrews, Reform or Reaction?, in ANDREWS, supra note 1, 255, 257; Robert F. Durant, Hazardous Waste, Regulatory Reform, and the Reagan Revolution: The Ironies of an Activist Approach to Deactivating Bureaucracy, 53 PUB. ADMIN. REV. 550, 550 (1993).
66. Exec. Order No. 12,291, 46 Fed. Reg. 13,193 (Feb. 19, 1981).
67. Andrews, supra note 43, at 166.
68. Id. at 173-177
69. Andrews, supra note 45, at 261.
70. Andrews, supra note 43, at 174.
71. Andrews, supra note 45, at 260
72. Costly Lies: Rita Lavelle is Convicted of Perjury, TIME, Dec. 12, 1983, http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,921404,00.html; Obituary, Anne Burford, 62
73. Embattled EPA Chief for President Reagan, L.A. TIMES, July 22, 2004, http://articles.latimes.com/2004/jul/22/local/me-burford22.
74. Andrews, supra note 45, at 261.
75. Id. at 261.
76. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 261-62.
77. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986, Pub L. No. 99-359, 100 Stat. 642
78. Water Quality Act of 1987, Pub. L. No. 100-4, 100 Stat. 7
79. Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986, Pub. L. No. 99-499, 100 Stat. 1733
80. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 26 I.L.M. 1541 (1987).
81. Press Release, U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, Lee M. Thomas Biography (Nov. 29, 1984), available at http://www.epa.gov/history/admin/agency/thomas.html.
82. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 268-70
83. U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, EPA-230-2-87-025a, UNFINISHED BUSINESS: A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS (1987).
84. See, e.g., Les v. Reilly, 968 F.2d 985 (9th Cir. 1992), cert. denied, 113 U.S. 1361 (1993)
85. Am. Water Works Ass'n v. U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, 40 F.3d 1266 (D.C. Cir. 1994) (decided on petitioners' challenges to EPA regulations initially proposed in 1988 on lead in drinking water).
86. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 277-80 and accompanying notes and references.
87. 42 U.S.C. § 9607 (2006).
88. Id. §§ 11002-03.
89. The Indoor Radon Abatement Act of 1988, 15 U.S.C § 2665 (2006).
90. KATHY MCCAULEY ET AL., CROSSING THE AISLE TO CLEANER AIR: HOW THE BIPARTISAN "PROJECT 88" TRANSFORMED ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY 19 (2008), available at http://www.iop.pitt.edu/documents/casestudies/Crossing%20the%20Aisle%20t o%20Cleaner%20Air.pdf.
91. WHITE HOUSE OFFICE ON ENVTL. POLICY, PROTECTING AMERICA'S WETLANDS: A FAIR, FLEXIBLE, AND EFFECTIVE APPROACH (1993), available at http://www.wetlands.com/fed/aug93wet.htm (no net loss)
92. George Herbert Walker Bush, President, Speech at Helena, Mont. (1989), available at http://www.rep.org/news/GEvol8/ge8.1_Bush41.html.
93. U.S. ENVTL. PROT, AGENCY, REDUCING RISK: SETTING PRIORITIES AND STRATEGIES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION 13 (1990). http://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/28704D9C420FCBC1852573360053C 692/$File/REDUCING+RISKEC-90-021_90021_5-11-1995_204.pdf
94. Leslie Roberts, Counting on Science at EPA, 249 SCIENCE 616 (1990).
95. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, Pub L. No. 101-549, 104 Stat. 2399.
96. David Malakoff, Taking the Sting Out of Acid Rain, 330 SCIENCE 910 (2010).
97. William B. Bonvillian, Time for Climate Plan B, ISSUES SCI. & TECH. ONLINE, Winter 2011, http://www.issues.org/27.2/bonvillian.html (noting that permit-trading mechanism of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 was brought by the United States to Kyoto).
98. See H.R. 2454, 111th Cong. (2009) (titled the American Clean Energy and Security Act, and also known as the Waxman-Markey bill, after its sponsors)
99. Penny Crossman, Is Carbon Trading the Next Big Thing?, WALL STREET & TECH. (July 19, 2009), http://www.wallstreetandtech.com/electronic-trading/218501208 (noting that the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 introduced the first national cap-and-trade program in the world and connecting that development to the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009).
100. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, §§ 301-06 (Title III, Hazardous Air Pollutants)
101. id. § 179, 104 Stat. 2420.
102. Press Release, U.S. Dep't of Justice, Exxon to Pay Record One Billion Dollars in Criminal Fines and Civil Damages in Connection with Alaskan Oil Spill (March 13, 1991), available at http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/valdez/02.html.
103. One of its most significant recent innovations, for instance, the 2005 Clean Air Interstate Rule, which would have created an emissions-reduction cap and permit market for sulfur and nitrogen emissions across the whole eastern half of the country, was remanded to the Agency by a court decision as lacking statutory authority (although left in place pending refinements), even though it would probably have greatly benefited economic efficiency in industries as well as cleaner air.
104. See JOHN GRAHAM, BUSH ON THE HOME FRONT 209 (2010). It was subsequently replaced in 2011 by the even stronger Cross-State Air Pollution Rule (CSAPR). 76 Fed. Reg. 48208, August 8, 2011.
105. DANIEL J. FIORINO, THE NEW ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION 134 (2006)
106. U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, EPA-745-R-99-004, 33/50 PROGRAM: THE FINAL RECORD 1 (1999), available at http://www.epa.gov/opptintr/3350/3350-fnl.pdf.
107. Will Nixon, Uncle Sam's Green Wallet: Will Federal Spending Support Environmental Technologies?, E: THE ENVTL. MAG., Sept.-Oct. 1993, at 24 (describing the early Energy Star program, which involved only 13 computer manufacturers)
108. Major Milestones, ENERGYSTAR.GOV, http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?cabout.ab_milestones (last visited Sept. 10, 2011).
109. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, May 9, 1992, S. Treaty Doc No. 102-38, 1771 U.N.T.S. 107.
110. Michael Weisskopf, Bush Was Aloof in Warming Debate
111. Climate Treaty Offers View of President's Role in Complex Policy, WASH. POST, Oct. 31, 1992, at A1.
112. Gary Lee, House Leaders Defer Vote on Cabinet Rank for EPA
113. GOP Opposition to Clinton Measure Growing, WASH. POST, Nov. 20, 1993, at A4 (describing both the proposal and the cost-benefit amendment intended to stymie it)
114. Mary-Margaret Larmouth, Cities Flex Muscles on Mandates, NATION'S CITIES WKLY., Feb. 7, 1994, at 1.
115. See Janet O. Wiener, Risk Assessment and Cost-Benefit Analyses: In the Public Interest?, 101 ENVTL. HEALTH PERSP. 408 (1993).
116. See, e.g., Mike Mills, EPA Cabinet Measure Hits Snag over Amendment, CONG. Q. WKLY., Feb. 5, 1994, at 241 (quoting the chief legal counsel of the National Audubon Society as saying that the amendment, and the necessity of pulling the bill altogether, was "very disappointing").
117. See also Wiener, supra note 78, at 409 ("Most environmental groups oppose all forms of risk assessment legislation The National Wildlife Federation says the Johnston [amendment] would 'add a costly new layer of bureaucracy that will delay important environmental regulations.' David Driesen of the Natural Resources Defense Council says that 'while comparative risk analysis sounds attractive in theory, it doesn't work very well in practice and has sometimes paralyzed environmental programs. Rick Hinds of Greenpeace says 'risk assessment is a voodoo science of politicians to let pollution occur."')
118. ANDREWS, supra note 1, 350-59.
119. Despite its title, the content of this proposed legislation consisted primarily of proposals requiring risk assessments and cost-benefit analyses for all major environmental regulations, specifying in detail how such assessments were to be conducted, setting an overall "regulatory budget" for the maximum cost of all new regulations in a given year (without respect to their benefits), requiring detailed "regulatory impact assessments," and mandating compensation for any reduction in property value resulting from limitation of its use by federal regulation, among other mandates.
120. See Job Creation and Wage Enhancement Act of 1995, S. 6221, 104th Cong. (1995).
121. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 351-59.
122. Carol M. Browner: Biography, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY (Feb. 1998), http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/history/admin/agency/browner.html [hereinafter Browner Biography].
123. Press Release, League of Conservation Voters, League of Conservation Voters Welcomes Carol Browner to the Board of Directors (June 23, 2011), available at http://www.lcv.org/media/press-releases/League-of-Conservation-Voters-We lcomes-Carol-Browner-to-the-Board-of-Directors.html.
124. Carol M. Browner, Foreword: The Role of Private Parties in Resolving Public Problems, 18 U. PA. J. INT'L ECON. L. 447, 449-50 (1997); SUSAN HUNTER & RICHARD W. WATERMAN, ENFORCING THE LAW: THE CASE OF THE CLEAN WATER ACTS 221 (1996).
125. Exec. Order 12,898: Federal Actions to Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations, 59 Fed. Reg. 7629 (Feb. 16, 1994)
126. Exec. Order 13,045: Protection of Children from Environmental Health Risks and Safety Risks, 62 Fed. Reg. 19,885, 19,885 (Apr. 23, 1997)
127. U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, 1993 ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE INITIATIVE (1993), available at http://www.epa.gov/compliance/ej/resources/reports/annualproject-reports /ej_annual_report_1993.pdf
128. U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, THE EPA CHILDREN'S ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH YEARBOOK (1998), available at http://yosemite.epa.gov/ochp/ochpweb.nsf/content/pdf5.htm/%24File/ochpye arbook.pdf
129. Browner Biography, supra note 84.
130. John H. Cushman Jr., On Clean Air, Environmental Chief Fought Doggedly, and Won, N.Y. TIMES, July 5, 1997, http://www.nytimes.com/1997/07/05/us/on-clean-air-environmentalchief-fou ght-doggedly-and-won.html
131. Warren Brown & Martha Hamilton, EPA to Require Cleaner Fuels
132. Light Trucks, SUVs Must Meet Same Emission Standard as Cars, WASH. POST, Dec. 21, 1999, at A1.
133. See S. Res. 98, 105th Cong. (1997).
134. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 358.
135. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, Pub. L. No. 104-182, 110 Stat. 1613.
136. Cushman, supra note 90.
137. Peter Van Doren & Jerry Taylor, Congress vs. Responsibility: New Source Review Problems Are on Capitol Hill, NAT'L REV., Dec. 8, 2003, http://old.nationalreview.com/comment/vandorentaylor200312080926.asp.
138. GRAHAM, supra note 72, at 201.
139. Bruce Barcott, Changing All the Rules, N.Y. TIMES MAG., Apr. 4, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/04/magazine/04BUSH.html?pagewantedall.
140. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 360-61.
141. Christine Todd Whitman: Biography, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY (2001), http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/history/admin/agency/whitman.html.
142. The immediate reason for her resignation, as she confirmed in a later interview, was being directed by Vice President Dick Cheney to essentially exempt old coal-fired power plants from new source review requirements, a policy change that was later overturned by the courts.
143. See Jo Becker & Barton Gellman, Leaving No Tracks, WASH. POST, June 27, 2007, at A1. Whitman subsequently authored a poignant book entitled It's My Party, Too, lamenting the Republican Party's abdication of commitment to environmental issues. CHRISTINE TODD WHITMAN, IT'S MY PARTY, TOO: THE BATTLE FOR THE HEART OF THE GOP AND THE FUTURE OF AMERICA (2005).
144. Biography of Mike Leavitt, U.S. DEP'T OF HEALTH & HUMAN SERVS. ̧ http://www.hhs.gov/secretary/dhhssec.html (last visited Sept. 10, 2011).
145. Cf. John Shiffman & John Sullivan, An Eroding Mission at EPA, PHILA. INQUIRER, Dec. 7, 2008, http://articles.philly.com/2008-12-07/news/24992895_1_climate-change-cli matechange-deputy-administrator-jason-burnett.
146. Michael Janofsky, New EPA Rules to Cut Diesel Soot/Regulations for Nonroad Vehicles Require Cleaner Fuel, Slashing Emissions by 90%, S.F. CHRON., May 11, 2004, http://articles.sfgate.com/2004-05-11/news/17424399_1_diesel-fuel-new-di esel-trucks-that-usediesel.
147. Clean Air Interstate Rule: Basic Information, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, http://www.epa.gov/cair/basic.html (last updated July 9, 2010).
148. North Carolina v. U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, No. 05-1244 (D.C. Cir. Dec. 23, 2008) (order remanding CAIR to EPA without vacatur).
149. See also GRAHAM, supra note 72, at 207-09.
150. Clean Air Mercury Rule, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, http://www.epa.gov/oar/mercuryrule/ (last updated Mar. 16, 2011).
151. Regulating mercury as a hazardous air pollutant under section 112 of the Clean Air Act could be done immediately using known control technologies
152. the proposed EPA Clean Air Mercury Rule would instead have introduced a two-phase cap-and-trade program that would not be fully mandatory until 2018, with full reductions not expected until 2026. Nine States Sue EPA Seeking Tougher Mercury Rule, ENV'T NEWS SERV. http://www.ensnewswire.com/ens/mar2005/2005-03-31-03.asp (last visited Nov. 17, 2011)
153. Fact Sheet: EPA's Clean Air Mercury Rule, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, http://www.epa.gov/oar/mercuryrule/factsheetfin.html (last updated Mar. 16, 2011)
154. OFFICE OF INSPECTOR GENERAL, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, 2006-P-00025, MONITORING NEEDED TO ASSESS IMPACT OF EPA'S CLEAN AIR MERCURY RULE ON POTENTIAL HOTSPOTS (2006), available at http://www.epa.gov/oig/reports/2006/20060515-2006-P-00025.pdf.
155. New Jersey v. U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, 517 F.3d 574 (D.C. Cir. 2008) (vacating the Clean Air Mercury Rule).
156. See also GRAHAM, supra note 72, at 210-14.
157. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 379.
158. According to Graham, by 2004 the Department of Energy projected that the U.S. would have built 72 new coal-fired power plants, compared to zero projected in 1999
159. And by 2006 another 100 plants were under consideration, although by 2008 these numbers had been significantly reduced due to public backlash, lawsuits, and rising construction costs.
160. GRAHAM, supra note 72, at 136-37.
161. Seth Borenstein, Pollution Citations Plummet under Bush, PHILA. INQUIRER, Dec. 9, 2003, http://articles.philly.com/2003-12-09/news/25469611_1_epa-administrator- mike-leavittbush-epa-pollution-citations.
162. GRAHAM, supra note 72, at 201-04
163. KIM CONNOLLY & VICTOR FLATT, CTR. FOR PROGRESSIVE REGULATION, 'GRANDFATHERED' AIR POLLUTION SOURCES AND POLLUTION CONTROL: NEW SOURCE REVIEW UNDER THE CLEAN AIR ACT (2005), available at http://www.progressivereform.org/articles/NSR_504.pdf
164. Excess Spoil, Coal Mine Waste, and Buffers for Perennial and Intermittent Streams, 73 Fed. Reg. 75, 814, 75,814 (Dec. 12, 2008)
165. Juliet Eilperin, EPA to Scrutinize Permits for Mountaintop-Removal Mining, WASH. POST, Mar. 25, 2009, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/03/24/AR200903 2401607.html
166. Deborah Zaborenko, EPA Eases Rule on Mountaintop Coal Mining Debris, REUTERS, Dec. 3, 2008, available at http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/12/03/us-coal-mountaintop-idUSTRE4B2 67F20081203.
167. The mileage standards announced in March 2006 would have required an increase in the average fuel economy for passenger trucks only from 22.2 miles per gallon to 23.5 miles per gallon by 2010. Court Throws Out Bush Fuel Economy Standards, ENVTL. NEWS SERV., Nov. 16, 2007, http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/nov2007/2007-11-16-02.html. Bush did subsequently propose a standard of 34 mpg for cars and light trucks by 2017, but did not implement this in regulations before the end of his term.
168. John Hughes & Roger Runningen, Bush Plans Rules to Boost Auto Fuel-Economy Standards (Update 1), BLOOMBERG NEWS, May 14, 2007, http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pidnewsarchive&sid
169. aVMYPLuwm.LU&referhome
170. U.S. Dep't of Transp., Statement on Corporate Fuel Economy Standards Finalization (Jan. 7, 2009), available at http://www.dot.gov/affairs/dot0109.htm.
171. Lloyd De Vries, Bush Disses Global Warming Report, CBS NEWS, June 4, 2002, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/06/03/tech/main510920.shtml.
172. Philip Cooney, formerly of the American Petroleum Institute, then chief of staff of the president's Council on Environmental Quality
173. Subsequently employed by ExxonMobil.
174. See Jarrett Murphy, White House Guts Global Warming Study, CBS NEWS, June 19, 2003, http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/24/politics/main564873.shtml.
175. ANDREWS, supra note 1, at 381.
176. See U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, EPA 600-R-03-050, EPA's DRAFT REPORT ON THE ENVIRONMENT TECHNICAL DOCUMENT (2003). For additional examples
177. see UNION OF CONCERNED SCIENTISTS, SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY IN POLICYMAKING: AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION'S MISUSE OF SCIENCE (2004), available at http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/scientific_integrity/rsi_final_fu llreport_1.pdf
178. UNION OF CONCERNED SCIENTISTS, SCIENTIFIC INTEGRITY IN POLICYMAKING: FURTHER INVESTIGATION OF THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION'S MISUSE OF SCIENCE (2004), available at http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/scientific_integrity/scientific_i ntegrity_in_policy_making_july_2004_1.pdf
179. U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, COMMITTEE ON GOVERNMENT REFORM-MINORITY STAFF, POLITICS AND SCIENCE IN THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION (2003), available at http://it.stlawu.edu/~vleh/Bush%20Politics%20Science.pdf.
180. Massachusetts v. U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, 549 U.S. 497 (2007). The decision overruled the Bush EPA's position, holding that the Clean Air Act did indeed authorize it to regulate tailpipe emissions of greenhouse gases as hazards to the public health and welfare.
181. Acting on the basis of the Supreme Court's decision in Massachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. at 497, EPA Administrator Lisa Jackson issued findings that greenhouse gases were a threat to public health and welfare, and that tailpipe emissions contribute to this threat. Proposed Endangerment and Cause or Contribute Finding for Greenhouse Gases Under Section 202(a) of the Clean Air Act, 74 Fed. Reg. 18,886 (Apr. 24, 2009).
182. California v. U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, No. 07-1457, 2007 U.S. App. LEXIS 29095 (D.C. Cir. Dec. 11, 2007)
183. California State Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Standards; Notice of Decision Denying a Waiver of Clean Air Act Preemption for California's 2009 and Subsequent Model Year Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards for New Motor Vehicles, 73 Fed. Reg. 12,156 (Mar. 6, 2008)
184. Press Release, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, Gov. Schwarzenegger Announces Intent to Appeal Denial of California's Tailpipe Emissions Waiver Request (Dec. 20, 2007), available at http://www.cleancarscampaign.org/web-content/newsroom/docs/Schwarz-Appea l-12-20-07.pdf.
185. Administrator Lisa P. Jackson, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, http://www.epa.gov/aboutepa/administrator.html (last updated June 15, 2011).
186. Progress Report, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY (Apr. 29, 2009), http://epa.gov/progress/.
187. See supra note 120.
188. Press Release, U.S. Envtl. Prot. Agency, EPA Sets First National Limits to Reduce Mercury and Other Toxic Emissions from Cement Plants (Aug. 9, 2010), available at http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/e77fdd4f5afd88a3852576b3005a604 f/ef62ba1cb3c8079b8525777a005af9a5!OpenDocument
189. Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) for Power Plants, U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, http://www.epa.gov/airquality/powerplanttoxics/ (last updated July 28, 2011).
190. John M. Broder, Agency Revokes Permit for Major Coal Mining Project, N.Y. TIMES, Jan. 13, 2011, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/14/science/earth/14coal.html?pagewantedal l
191. Kris Maher & Siobhan Hughes, EPA Toughens Mining Permits, WALL ST. J., Apr. 2, 2010, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB1000142405270230396060457515803299663850 8.html.
192. Hazardous and Solid Waste Management System
193. Identification and Listing of Special Wastes; Disposal of Coal Combustion Residuals from Electric Utilities, 75 Fed. Reg. 35,128 (June 21, 2010). As of October 2011, the rule had not yet been finalized.
194. U.S. ENVTL. PROT. AGENCY, AMERICAN RECOVERY AND REINVESTMENT ACT QUARTERLY PERFORMANCE REPORT, CUMULATIVE RESULTS AS OF JUNE 30, 2011 (2011), available at http://www.epa.gov/recovery/pdfs/ARRA-FY11-Quarter-3-Performance-Report. pdf.
195. U.S. HOUSE COMMITTEE ON APPROPRIATIONS-DEMOCRATS, LEGISLATIVE RIDERS AND FUNDING LIMITATIONS IN H.R. 2584 INTERIOR, ENVIRONMENT, AND RELATED AGENCIES APPROPRIATIONS, FY12 (2011), http://democrats.appropriations.house.gov/images/Special_Interest_List_I nterior_Appropriations.pdf
196. House GOP Passes Bill Targeting EPA Regulations, FOX NEWS, Sept. 23, 2011, http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2011/09/23/house-goppasses-bill-targetin g-epa-regulations/.
197. See generally J.C. DAVIES & J. MAZUREK, POLLUTION CONTROL IN THE UNITED STATES: EVALUATING THE SYSTEM (1998).
198. See Bettina Boxall, Environmentalists Savor Pombo Defeat as Sign of Power, L.A. TIMES, Nov. 9, 2006, http://articles.latimes.com/2006/nov/09/local/me-defenders9.
199. Jeffrey Jones, In U.S., Many Environmental Issues at 20-Year-Low Concern, GALLUP (Mar. 16, 2010), http://www.gallup.com/poll/126716/environmental-issues-year-lowconcern.a spx.
200. ROBERT ESWORTHY ET AL., CONG. RESEARCH SERV., R41149, ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA): APPROPRIATIONS FOR FY2011, at 31 fig.B-1 (2010), available at http://cnie.org/NLE/CRSreports/10Jun/R41149.pdf.
201. See, e.g., Rita L. Weckler, Case Comment: A "Hard Look" at a Soft Analysis, Corrosion Proof Fittings v. Environmental Protection Agency, 4 B.U. PUB. INT. L.J. 145 (1994).
202. Christopher H. Schroeder & Robert L. Glicksman, Chevron, State Farm and the EPA in the Courts of Appeals during the 1990s, 31 ENVTL. L. REP. NEWS & ANALYSIS 10371 (2001).
203. Cf. GRAHAM, supra note 72, at 220
204. cf. also Shiffman & Sullivan, supra note 102.
205. 556 F.3d 177, 186 (4th Cir. 2009).
206. See RICHARD H. THALER & CASS R. SUNSTEIN, NUDGE: IMPROVING DECISIONS ABOUT HEALTH, WEALTH, AND HAPPINESS 183-96 (2008)
207. RICHARD H. THALER, CASS R. SUNSTEIN & JOHN P. BALZ, CHOICE ARCHITECTURE (2010), available at http://ssrn.com/abstract1583509.