Measuring reinforcement learning and motivation constructs in experimental animals: Relevance to the negative symptoms of schizophrenia

Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews

Volumn 37, Issue 9, 2013, Pages 2149-2165

  Markou, Athina ^a   Salamone, John D ^b   Bussey, Timothy J ^c   Mar, Adam C ^c   Brunner, Daniela ^d,e   Gilmour, Gary ^f   Balsam, Peter ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

^d PSYCHOGENICS INC   (United States)

^e Howard Hughes Medical Institute   (United States)

^f ELI LILLY AND COMPANY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cognition; Learning; Motivation; Reinforcement; Reward

Indexed keywords

NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; PRAMIPEXOLE;

BECK DEPRESSION INVENTORY; DEPRESSION; DRUG RESEARCH; EXPERIMENTAL ANIMAL; HUMAN; LEARNING DISORDER; LOW DRUG DOSE; MENTAL PERFORMANCE; MOTIVATION; NEGATIVE SYNDROME; NERVE CELL NETWORK; NEUROANATOMY; NEUROBIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; NONRESPONSE BIAS; POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE SYNDROME SCALE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROBABILITY; QUALITY OF LIFE; REINFORCEMENT; REVIEW; REWARD; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; STIMULUS RESPONSE; TASK PERFORMANCE;

COGNITION; LEARNING; MOTIVATION; REINFORCEMENT; REWARD;

ANIMALS; DISEASE MODELS, ANIMAL; HUMANS; LEARNING DISORDERS; MOTIVATION; REINFORCEMENT (PSYCHOLOGY); SCHIZOPHRENIA;

EID: 84888818072     PISSN: 01497634     EISSN: 18737528     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.08.007     Document Type: Review

References (232)

1. Aberman J.E., Salamone J.D. Nucleus accumbens dopamine depletions make rats more sensitive to high ratio requirements but do not impair primary food reinforcement. Neuroscience 1999, 92:545-552.
2. Ahnallen C.G., Liverant G.I., Gregor K.L., Kamholz B.W., Levitt J.J., Gulliver S.B., Pizzagalli D.A., Koneru V.K., Kaplan G.B. The relationship between reward-based learning and nicotine dependence in smokers with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res. 2012, 196:9-14.
3. American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 2000, American Psychiatric Association, Washington DC. 4th edition text revision.
4. Andreasen N.C. Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS) 1981, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
5. Andreasen N.C. Negative symptoms in schizophrenia: definition and reliability. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1982, 39:784-788.
6. Andreasen N.C., Olsen S. Negative v positive schizophrenia: definition and validation. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 1982, 39:789-794.
7. Arana F.S., Parkinson J.A., Hinton E., Holland A.J., Owen A.M., Roberts A.C. Dissociable contributions of the human amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex to incentive motivation and goal selection. J. Neurosci. 2003, 23:9632-9638.
8. Balci F., Ludvig E.A., Abner R., Zhuang X., Poon P., Brunner D. Motivational effects on interval timing in dopamine transporter (DAT) knockdown mice. Brain Res. 2010, 1325:89-99.
9. Balleine B.W., O'Doherty J.P. Human and rodent homologies in action control: corticostriatal determinants of goal-directed and habitual action. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010, 35:48-69.
10. Balleine B., Dickinson A. Signalling and incentive processes in instrumental reinforcer devaluation. Q. J. Exp. Psychol. B Comp. Physiol. Psychol. 1992, 45:285-301.
11. Balleine B.W., Killcross S. Parallel incentive processing: an integrated view of amygdala function. Trends Neurosci. 2006, 29:272-279.
12. Barch D.M., Dowd E.C. Goal representations and motivational drive in schizophrenia: the role of prefrontal-striatal interactions. Schizophr. Bull. 2010, 36:919-934.
13. Bardgett M.E., Depenbrock M., Downs N., Points M., Green L. Dopamine modulates effort-based decision making in rats. Behav. Neurosci. 2009, 123:242-251.
14. Bari A., Theobald D.E., Caprioli D., Mar A.C., Aidoo-Micah A., Dalley J.W., Robbins T.W. Serotonin modulates sensitivity to reward and negative feedback in a probabilistic reversal learning task in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010, 35:1290-1301.
15. Barr R.S., Pizzagalli D.A., Culhane M.A., Goff D.C., Evins A.E. A single dose of nicotine enhances reward responsiveness in nonsmokers: implications for development of dependence. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 63:1061-1065.
16. Bechara A., Tranel D., Damasio H., Adolphs R., Rockland C., Damasio A.R. Double dissociation of conditioning and declarative knowledge relative to the amygdala and hippocampus in humans. Science 1995, 269:1115-1118.
17. Bellebaum C., Polezzi D., Daum I. It is less than you expected: the feedback-related negativity reflects violations of reward magnitude expectations. Neuropsychologia 2010, 48:3343-3350.
18. Berridge K.C., Ho C.Y., Richard J.M., DiFeliceantonio A.G. The tempted brain eats: pleasure and desire circuits in obesity and eating disorders. Brain Res. 2010, 1350:43-64.
19. Berridge K.C., Robinson T.E. What is the role of dopamine in reward: hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience?. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 1998, 28:309-369.
20. Bogdan R., Santesso D.L., Fagerness J., Perlis R.H., Pizzagalli D.A. Corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor type 1 (CRHR1) genetic variation and stress interact to influence reward learning. J. Neurosci. 2011, 31:13246-13254.
21. Brébion G., Amador X., Smith M., Malaspina D., Sharif Z., Gorman J.M. Depression, psychomotor retardation, negative symptoms, and memory in schizophrenia. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol. Behav. Neurol. 2000, 13:177-183.
22. Brown P., Jenkins H.M. Auto-shaping of the pigeon's key peck. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 1968, 11:1-8.
23. Brunner D., Balci F., Ludvig E.A. Comparative psychology and the grand challenge of drug discovery in psychiatry and neurodegeneration. Behav. Processes 2011, 89:187-195.
24. Brunswik E. Probability as a determiner of rat behavior. J. Exp. Psychol. 1939, 25:175-197.
25. Bryden D.W., Johnson E.E., Tobia S.C., Kashtelyan V., Roesch M.R. Attention for learning signals in anterior cingulate cortex. J. Neurosci. 2011, 31:18266-18274.
26. Bussey T.J., Everitt B.J., Robbins T.W. Dissociable effects of cingulate and medial frontal cortex lesions on stimulus-reward learning using a novel Pavlovian autoshaping procedure for the rat: implications for the neurobiology of emotion. Behav. Neurosci. 1997, 111:908-919.
27. Cagniard B., Balsam P.D., Brunner D., Zhuang X. Mice with chronically elevated dopamine exhibit enhanced motivation, but not learning, for a food reward. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006, 31:1362-1370.
28. Cardinal R.N., Parkinson J.A., Lachenal G., Halkerston K.M., Rudarakanchana N., Hall J., Morrison C.H., Howes S.R., Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Effects of selective excitotoxic lesions of the nucleus accumbens core, anterior cingulate cortex, and central nucleus of the amygdala on autoshaping performance in rats. Behav. Neurosci. 2002, 116:553-567.
29. Carter C.S., Botvinick M.M., Cohen J.D. The contribution of the anterior cingulate cortex to executive processes in cognition. Rev. Neurosci. 1999, 10:49-57.
30. Carter C.S., Braver T.S., Barch D.M., Botvinick M.M., Noll D., Cohen J.D. Anterior cingulate cortex, error detection, and the online monitoring of performance. Science 1998, 280:747-749.
31. Chamberlain S.R., Müller U., Blackwell A.D., Clark L., Robbins T.W., Sahakian B.J. Neurochemical modulation of response inhibition and probabilistic learning in humans. Science 2006, 311:861-863.
32. Chaudhuri A., Behan P.O. Fatigue in neurological disorders. Lancet 2004, 363:978-988.
33. Chib V.S., Rangel A., Shimojo S., O'Doherty J.P. Evidence for a common representation of decision values for dissimilar goods in human ventromedial prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:12315-12320.
34. Christakou A., Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Functional disconnection of a prefrontal cortical-dorsal striatal system disrupts choice reaction time performance: implications for attentional function. Behav. Neurosci. 2001, 115:812-825.
35. Chudasama Y., Robbins T.W. Dissociable contributions of the orbitofrontal and infralimbic cortex to Pavlovian autoshaping and discrimination reversal learning: further evidence for the functional heterogeneity of the rodent frontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 2003, 23:8771-8780.
36. Clarke D.E., Ko J.Y., Kuhl E.A., van Reekum R., Salvador R., Marin R.S. Are the available apathy measures reliable and valid? A review of the psychometric evidence. J. Psychosom. Res. 2011, 70:73-97.
37. Cofer C.N., Appley M.H. Motivation: Theory and Research 1964, John Wiley, New York.
38. Cohen A.S., Minor K.S. Emotional experience in patients with schizophrenia revisited: meta-analysis of laboratory studies. Schizophr. Bull. 2010, 36:143-150.
39. Collins A.G., Frank M.J. How much of reinforcement learning is working memory, not reinforcement learning? A behavioral, computational, and neurogenetic analysis. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2012, 35:1024-1035.
40. Corbit L.H., Balleine B.W. Double dissociation of basolateral and central amygdala lesions on the general and outcome-specific forms of pavlovian-instrumental transfer. J. Neurosci. 2005, 25:962-970.
41. Correa M., Carlson B.B., Wisniecki A., Salamone J.D. Nucleus accumbens dopamine and work requirements on interval schedules. Behav. Brain Res. 2002, 137:179-187.
42. Cousins M.S., Atherton A., Turner L., Salamone J.D. Nucleus accumbens dopamine depletions alter relative response allocation in a T-maze cost/benefit task. Behav. Brain Res. 1996, 74:189-197.
43. Cousins M.S., Wei W., Salamone J.D. Pharmacological characterization of performance on a concurrent lever pressing/feeding choice procedure: effects of dopamine antagonist, cholinomimetic, sedative and stimulant drugs. Psychopharmacology 1994, 116:529-537.
44. Craig W. Appetites and aversions as constituents of instincts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1917, 3:685-688.
45. Crombag H.S., Johnson A.W., Zimmer A.M., Zimmer A., Holland P.C. Deficits in sensory-specific devaluation task performance following genetic deletions of cannabinoid (CB1) receptor. Learn. Mem. 2010, 17:18-22.
46. Croxson P.L., Walton M.E., O'Reilly J.X., Behrens T.E., Rushworth M.F. Effort-based cost-benefit valuation and the human brain. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:4531-4541.
47. Dalley J.W., Chudasama Y., Theobald D.E., Pettifer C.L., Fletcher C.M., Robbins T.W. Nucleus accumbens dopamine and discriminated approach learning: interactive effects of 6-hydroxydopamine lesions and systemic apomorphine administration. Psychopharmacology 2002, 161:425-433.
48. Dalley J.W., Lääne K., Theobald D.E., Armstrong H.C., Corlett P.R., Chudasama Y., Robbins T.W. Time-limited modulation of appetitive Pavlovian memory by D1 and NMDA receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2005, 102:6189-6194.
49. Danna C.L., Elmer G.I. Disruption of conditioned reward association by typical and atypical antipsychotics. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 2010, 96:40-47.
50. Daw N.D., O'Doherty J.P., Dayan P., Seymour B., Dolan R.J. Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans. Nature 2006, 441:876-879.
51. de Wit S., Watson P., Harsay H.A., Cohen M.X., van de Vijver I., Ridderinkhof K.R. Corticostriatal connectivity underlies individual differences in the balance between habitual and goal-directed action control. J. Neurosci. 2012, 32:12066-12075.
52. Delgado M.R., Olsson A., Phelps E.A. Extending animal models of fear conditioning to humans. Biol. Psychol. 2006, 73:39-48.
53. Demyttenaere K., De Fruyt J., Stahl S.M. The many faces of fatigue in major depressive disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 2005, 8:93-105.
54. Denk F., Walton M.E., Jennings K.A., Sharp T., Rushworth M.F., Bannerman D.M. Differential involvement of serotonin and dopamine systems in cost-benefit decisions about delay or effort. Psychopharmacology 2005, 179:587-596.
55. Der-Avakian A., D'Souza D.A., Pizzagalli D.A., Markou A. Assessment of reward responsiveness in the response bias probabilistic reward task in rats: implications for cross-species translational research. Transl. Psychiatry 2013, 3:e297.
56. Der-Avakian A., Markou A. The neurobiology of anhedonia and other reward-related deficits. Trends Neurosci. 2012, 35:68-77.
57. Di Ciano P., Cardinal R.N., Cowell R.A., Little S.J., Everitt B.J. Differential involvement of NMDA, AMPA/kainate, and dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens core in the acquisition and performance of Pavlovian approach behavior. J. Neurosci. 2001, 21:9471-9477.
58. Dias R., Robbins T.W., Roberts A.C. Dissociation in prefrontal cortex of affective and attentional shifts. Nature 1996, 380:69-72.
59. Di Ciano P., Cardinal R.N., Cowell R.A., Little S.J., Everitt B.J. Differential involvement of NMDA, AMPA/kainate, and dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens core in the acquisition and performance of pavlovian approach behavior. J. Neurosci. 2001, 21:9471-9477.
60. Dickinson A. Conditioning and associative learning. Br. Med. Bull. 1981, 37:165-168.
61. Doll B.B., Simon D.A., Daw N.D. The ubiquity of model-based reinforcement learning. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2012, 22:1075-1081.
62. Dowd E.C., Barch D.M. Pavlovian reward prediction and receipt in schizophrenia: relationship to anhedonia. PLoS One 2012, 7:e35622.
63. 2 receptors impairs operant motivation and interval timing. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27:7731-7739.
64. Farkas M., Polgar P., Kelemen O., Rethelyi J., Bitter I., Myers C.E., Gluck M.A., Keri S. Associative learning in deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia. Neuroreport 2008, 19:55-58.
65. 2A receptor antagonism reverses the effects of dopamine receptor antagonism on instrumental output and effort-related choice in the rat: implications for studies of psychomotor slowing. Psychopharmacology 2007, 191:579-586.
66. Feierstein C.E., Quirk M.C., Uchida N., Sosulski D.L., Mainen Z.F. Representation of spatial goals in rat orbitofrontal cortex. Neuron 2006, 51:495-507.
67. FitzGerald T.H.B., Seymour B., Dolan R.J. The role of human orbitofrontal cortex in value comparison for incommensurable objects. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:8388-8395.
68. Flagel S.B., Watson S.J., Robinson T.E., Akil H. Individual differences in the propensity to approach signals vs goals promote different adaptations in the dopamine system of rats. Psychopharmacology 2007, 191:599-607.
69. Floresco S.B., Ghods-Sharifi S. Amygdala-prefrontal contrical circuitry regulates effort-based decision making. Cereb. Cortex 2007, 17:251-260.
70. Floresco S.B., Tse M.T., Ghods-Sharifi S. Dopaminergic and glutamatergic regulation of effort- and delay-based decision making. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 33:1966-1979.
71. Frank M.J., Moustafa A.A., Haughey H.M., Curran T., Hutchison K.E. Genetic triple dissociation reveals multiple roles for dopamine in reinforcement learning. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2007, 104:16311-16316.
72. Frank M.J., Seeberger L.C., O'Reilly R.C. By carrot or by stick: cognitive reinforcement learning in parkinsonism. Science 2004, 306:1940-1943.
73. Friedman J.H., Alves G., Hagell P., Marinus J., Marsh L., Martinez-Martin P., Goetz C.G., Poewe W., Rascol O., Sampaio C., Stebbins G., Schrag A. Fatigue rating scales critique and recommendations by the Movement Disorders Society task force on rating scales for Parkinson's disease. Mov. Disord. 2010, 25:805-822.
74. Fu W.T., Anderson J.R. Solving the credit assignment problem: explicit and implicit learning of action sequences with probabilistic outcomes. Psychol. Res. 2008, 72:321-330.
75. Gard D.E., Kring A.M., Gard M.G., Horan W.P., Green M.F. Anhedonia in schizophrenia: distinctions between anticipatory and consummatory pleasure. Schizophr. Res. 2007, 93:253-260.
76. Gillan C.M., Papmeyer M., Morein-Zamir S., Sahakian B.J., Fineberg N.A., Robbins T.W., de Wit S. Disruption in the balance between goal-directed behavior and habit learning in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 2011, 168:718-726.
77. Gilmour G., Arguello A., Bari A., Brown V.J., Carter C., Floresco S.B., Jentsch D.J., Tait D.S., Young J.W., Robbins T.W. Measuring the construct of executive control in schizophrenia: defining and validating translational animal paradigms for discovery research. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2012, (in press). 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.04.006.
78. Glimcher P.W. Understanding dopamine and reinforcement learning: the dopamine reward prediction error hypothesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2011, 108(Suppl. 3):15647-15654.
79. Goetz E.L., Hariri A.R., Pizzagalli D.A., Strauman T.J. Genetic moderation of the association between regulatory focus and reward responsiveness: a proof-of-concept study. Biol. Mood Anxiety Disord. 2013, 3:3.
80. Gold J.M., Strauss G.P., Waltz J.A., Robinson B.M., Brown J.K., Frank M.J. Negative symptoms of schizophrenia are associated with abnormal effort-cost computations. Biol. Psychiatry 2013, 74:130-136.
81. Gold J.M., Waltz J.A., Matveeva T.M., Kasanova Z., Strauss G.P., Herbener E.S., Collins A.G.E., Frank M.J. Negative symptoms and the failure to represent the expected reward value of actions: behavioral and computational modeling evidence. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2012, 69:129-138.
82. Gold J.M., Waltz J.A., Prentice K.J., Morris S.E., Heerey E.A. Reward processing in schizophrenia: a deficit in the representation of value. Schizophr. Bull. 2008, 34:835-847.
83. Gourley S.L., Lee A.S., Howell J.L., Pittenger C., Taylor J.R. Dissociable regulation of instrumental action within mouse prefrontal cortex. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2010, 32:1726-1734.
84. Grabenhorst F., Rolls E.T. Different representations of relative and absolute subjective value in the human brain. Neuroimage 2009, 48:258-268.
85. Grabenhorst F., Rolls E.T. Value, pleasure and choice in the ventral prefrontal cortex. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2011, 15:56-67.
86. Hare T.A., O'Doherty J., Camerer C.F., Schultz W., Rangel A. Dissociating the role of the orbitofrontal cortex and the striatum in the computation of goal values and prediction errors. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:5623-5630.
87. Hauber W., Sommer S. Prefrontostriatal circuitry regulates effort-related decision making. Cerebr. Cortex 2009, 10:2240-2247.
88. Heerey E.A., Bell-Warren K.R., Gold J.M. Decision-making impairments in the context of intact reward sensitivity in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 64:62-69.
89. Heerey E.A., Gold J.M. Patients with schizophrenia demonstrate dissociation between affective experience and motivated behavior. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2007, 116:268-278.
90. Hilario M.R., Clouse E., Yin H.H., Costa R.M. Endocannabinoid signaling is critical for habit formation. Front. Integr. Neurosci. 2007, 1:6.
91. Hiraoka K. Discrete-trial probability learning in rats: effects of local contingencies of reinforcement. Anim. Learn. Behav. 1984, 12:343-349.
92. Hofer E., Doby D., Anderer P., Dantendorfer K. Impaired conditional discrimination learning in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2001, 51:127-136.
93. Hogarth L., Attwood A.S., Bate H.A., Munafò M.R. Acute alcohol impairs human goal-directed action. Biol. Psychol. 2012, 90:154-160.
94. Horner A.E., Heath C.J., Hvoslef-Eide M., Kent B.A., Kim C.H., Nilsson S., Alsio J., Oomen C.A., Holmes A., Saksida L.M., Bussey T.J. The touchscreen operant platform for testing learning and memory in rats and mice. Nat. Protoc. 2013, (in press).
95. Huys Q.J.M., Pizzagalli D.A., Bogdan R., Dayan P. Mapping anhedonia onto reinforcement learning: a behavioural meta-analysis. Biol. Mood Anxiety Disord. 2013, 3:12.
96. Inglis W.L., Olmstead M.C., Robbins T.W. Pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus lesions impair stimulus-reward learning in autoshaping and conditioned reinforcement paradigms. Behav. Neurosci. 2000, 114:285-294.
97. Insel T., Cuthbert B., Garvey M., Heinssen R., Pine D.S., Quinn K., Sanislow C., Wang P. Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 2010, 167:748-751.
98. Ishizaki J., Mimura M. Dysthymia and apathy: diagnosis and treatment. Depress. Res. Treat. 2011, 2011:893905.
99. Ito R., Everitt B.J., Robbins T.W. The hippocampus and appetitive Pavlovian conditioning: effects of excitotoxic hippocampal lesions on conditioned locomotor activity and autoshaping. Hippocampus 2005, 15:713-721.
100. Ito S., Stuphorn V., Brown J.W., Schall J.D. Performance monitoring by the anterior cingulate cortex during saccade countermanding. Science 2003, 302:120-122.
101. Kable J.W., Glimcher P.W. The neural correlates of subjective value during intertemporal choice. Nat. Neurosci. 2007, 10:1625-1633.
102. Kable J.W., Glimcher P.W. The neurobiology of decision: consensus and controversy. Neuron 2009, 63:733-745.
103. Kasanova Z., Waltz J.A., Strauss G.P., Frank M.J., Gold J.M. Optimizing vs. matching: response strategy in a probabilistic learning task is associated with negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res. 2011, 127:215-222.
104. Kay S.R., Fiszbein A., Opler L.A. The positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) for schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 1987, 13:261-276.
105. Kennerley S.W., Behrens T.E.J., Wallis J.D. Double dissociation of value computations in orbitofrontal and anterior cingulate neurons. Nat. Neurosci. 2011, 14:1581-1589.
106. Kepecs A., Uchida N., Zariwala H.A., Mainen Z.F. Neural correlates, computation and behavioural impact of decision confidence. Nature 2008, 455:227-231.
107. Klossek U.M., Yu S., Dickinson A. Choice and goal-directed behavior in preschool children. Learn Behav 2011, 39:350-357.
108. Klossek U.M.H., Russel J., Dickinson A. The control of instrumental action following outcome devaluation in young children aged between 1 and 4 years. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen. 2008, 137:39-51.
109. Knowlton B.J., Squire L.R., Gluck M.A. Probabilistic classification learning in amnesia. Learn. Mem. 1994, 1:106-120.
110. Kobayashi S., Lauwereyns J., Koizumi M., Sakagami M., Hikosaka O. Influence of reward expectation on visuospatial processing in Macaque lateral prefrontal cortex. J. Neurophysiol. 2002, 87:1488-1498.
111. 2 receptors in instrumental and Pavlovian paradigms of conditioned reward. Psychopharmacology 2000, 152:67-73.
112. Kring A.M., Germans Gard M., Gard D.E. Emotion deficits in schizophrenia: timing matters. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2011, 120:79-87.
113. Kringelbach M.L. The human orbitofrontal cortex: linking reward to hedonic experience. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2005, 6:691-702.
114. Kringelbach M.L., Berridge K.C. The functional neuroanatomy of pleasure and happiness. Discov. Med. 2010, 9:579-587.
115. Kurniawan I.T., Guitart-Masip M., Dolan R.J. Dopamine and effort-based decision making. Front. Neurosci. 2011, 5:81.
116. Levy I., Snell J., Nelson A.J., Rustichini A., Glimcher P.W. Neural representation of subjective value under risk and ambiguity. J. Neurophysiol. 2010, 103:1036-1047.
117. Liljeholm M., Molloy C.J., O'Doherty J.P. Dissociable brain systems mediate vicarious learning of stimulus-response and action-outcome contingencies. Neuroscience 2012, 32:9878-9886.
118. Lubow R.E. Classical eyeblink conditioning and schizophrenia: a short review. Behav. Brain Res. 2009, 202:1-4.
119. Luck S.J., Gold J.M. The construct of attention in schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 2008, 64:34-39.
120. MackIntosh N.J. A theory of attention: variations in the associability of stimuli with reinforcement. Psychol. Rev. 1975, 82:276-298.
121. Maia T.V., Frank M.J. From reinforcement learning models to psychiatric and neurological disorders. Nat. Neurosci. 2011, 14:154-162.
122. Mar A.C., Walker A.L., Theobald D.E., Eagle D.M., Robbins T.W. Dissociable effects of lesions to orbitofrontal cortex subregions on impulsive choice in the rat. J. Neurosci. 2011, 31:6398-6404.
123. Marin R.S. Apathy: a neuropsychiatric syndrome. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 1991, 3:243-254.
124. Markou A., Kosten T.R., Koob G.F. Neurobiological similarities in depression and drug dependence: a self-medication hypothesis. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998, 18:135-174.
125. Meneses A., Hong E. Modification of 8-OH-DPAT effects on learning by manipulation of the assay conditions. Behav. Neural. Biol. 1994, 61:29-35.
126. 2A receptors regulate exertion of effort by acting on the ventral striatopallidal pathway. J. Neurosci. 2008, 28:9037-9046.
127. Mingote S., Weber S.M., Ishiwari K., Correa M., Salamone J.D. Ratio and time requirements on operant schedules: effort-related effects of nucleus accumbens dopamine depletions. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2005, 21:1749-1757.
128. Montague P.R., Dayan P., Sejnowski T.J. A framework for mesencephalic dopamine systems based on predictive Hebbian learning. J. Neurosci. 1996, 16:1936-1947.
129. Morrison S.E., Salzman C.D. Re-valuing the amygdala. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2010, 20:221-230.
130. 2A antagonist MSX-3 reverses the effects of the dopamine antagonist haloperidol on effort-related decision making in a T-maze cost/benefit procedure. Psychopharmacology 2009, 204:103-112.
131. Nikolova Y., Bogdan R., Pizzagalli D.A. Perception of a naturalistic stressor interacts with 5-HTTLPR/rs25531 genotype and gender to impact reward responsiveness. Neuropsychobiology 2012, 65:45-54.
132. Noonan M.P., Walton M.E., Behrens T.E.J., Sallet J., Buckley M.J., Rushworth M.F.S. Separate value comparison and learning mechanisms in macaque medial and lateral orbitofrontal cortex. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2010, 107:20547-20552.
133. Nuechterlein K.H., Luck S.J., Lustig C., Sarter M. CNTRICS final task selection: control of attention. Schizophr. Bull. 2009, 35:182-196.
134. O'Doherty J.P. Lights, camembert, action! The role of human orbitofrontal cortex in encoding stimuli, rewards, and choices. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2007, 1121:254-272.
135. Oakeshott S., Port R., Cummins-Sutphen J., Berger J., Watson-Johnson J., Ramboz S., Paterson N., Kwak S., Howland D., Brunner D. A mixed fixed ratio/progressive ratio procedure reveals an apathy phenotype in the BAC HD and the zQ175 KI mouse models of Huntington's disease. PLoS Curr. Huntington Dis. 2012, 4. e4f972cffe82c0.
136. Padoa-Schioppa C. Range-adapting representation of economic value in the orbitofrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:14004-14014.
137. Padoa-Schioppa C., Assad J.A. Neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex encode economic value. Nature 2006, 441:223-226.
138. Padoa-Schioppa C., Assad J.A. The representation of economic value in the orbitofrontal cortex is invariant for changes of menu. Nat. Neurosci. 2008, 11:95-102.
139. Palminteri S., Lebreton M., Worbe Y., Grabli D., Hartmann A., Pessiglione M. Pharmacological modulation of subliminal learning in Parkinson's and Tourette's syndromes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2009, 106:19179-19184.
140. 2 antagonism on effort-based decision making in mice. Neuropharmacology 2012, 62:2068-2077.
141. Parkinson J.A., Dalley J.W., Cardinal R.N., Bamford A., Fehnert B., Lachenal G., Rudarakanchana N., Halkerston K.M., Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Nucleus accumbens dopamine depletion impairs both acquisition and performance of appetitive Pavlovian approach behaviour: implications for mesoaccumbens dopamine function. Behav. Brain Res. 2002, 137:149-163.
142. Parkinson J.A., Olmstead M.C., Burns L.H., Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Dissociation in effects of lesions of the nucleus accumbens core and shell on appetitive pavlovian approach behavior and the potentiation of conditioned reinforcement and locomotor activity by d-amphetamine. J. Neurosci. 1999, 19:2401-2411.
143. Parkinson J.A., Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Dissociable roles of the central and basolateral amygdala in appetitive emotional learning. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2000, 12:405-413.
144. Parkinson J.A., Willoughby P.J., Robbins T.W., Everitt B.J. Disconnection of the anterior cingulate cortex and nucleus accumbens core impairs Pavlovian approach behavior: further evidence for limbic cortical-ventral striatopallidal systems. Behav. Neurosci. 2000, 114:42-63.
145. Pearce J.M., Hall G. A model for Pavlovian learning: variations in the effectiveness of conditioned but not of unconditioned stimuli. Psychol. Rev. 1980, 87:532-552.
146. Peciña S., Cagniard B., Berridge K.C., Aldridge J.W., Zhuang X. Hyperdopaminergic mutant mice have higher "wanting" but not "liking" for sweet rewards. J. Neurosci. 2003, 23:9395-9402.
147. Phelps E.A., O'Connor K.J., Gatenby J.C., Gore J.C., Grillon C., Davis M. Activation of the left amygdala to a cognitive representation of fear. Nat. Neurosci. 2001, 4:437-441.
148. Pithers R.T. The roles of event contingencies and reinforcement in human autoshaping and omission responding. Learn. Motiv. 1985, 16:210-237.
149. Pizzagalli D.A., Iosifescu D., Hallett L.A., Ratner K.G., Fava M. Reduced hedonic capacity in major depressive disorder: evidence from a probabilistic reward task. J. Psychiatr. Res. 2008, 43:76-87.
150. Pizzagalli D.A., Jahn A.L., O'Shea J.P. Toward an objective characterization of an anhedonic phenotype: a signal-detection approach. Biol. Psychiatry 2005, 57:319-327.
151. Pizzagalli D.A., Sherwood R.J., Henriques J.B., Davidson R.J. Frontal brain asymmetry and reward responsiveness: a source-localization study. Psychol. Sci. 2011, 16:805-813.
152. Ragland J.D., Cools R., Frank M., Pizzagalli D.A., Preston A., Ranganath C., Wagner A.D. CNTRICS final task selection: long-term memory. Schizophr. Bull. 2008, 35:197-212.
153. Randall P.A., Pardo M., Nunes E.J., López Cruz L., Vemuri V.K., Makriyannis A., Baqi Y., Muller C.E., Correa M., Salamone J.D. Dopaminergic modulation of effort-related choice behavior as assessed by a progressive ratio chow feeding choice task: pharmacological studies and the role of individual differences. PLoS One 2012, 7:e47934.
154. Rangel A., Camerer C., Montague P.R. A framework for studying the neurobiology of value-based decision making. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2008, 9:545-556.
155. Ribot T. La Psychologie des Sentiments 1896, F. Alcan, Paris.
156. Roesch M.R., Olson C.R. Neuronal activity related to reward value and motivation in primate frontal cortex. Science 2004, 304:307-310.
157. Romaniuk L., Honey G.D., King J.R., Whalley H.C., McIntosh A.M., Levita L., Hughes M., Johnstone E.C., Day M., Lawrie S.M., Hall J. Midbrain activation during Pavlovian conditioning and delusional symptoms in schizophrenia. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 2010, 67:1246-1254.
158. Rudebeck P.H., Murray E.A. Balkanizing the primate orbitofrontal cortex: distinct subregions for comparing and contrasting values. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2011, 1239:1-13.
159. Rushworth M.F.S., Buckley M.J., Behrens T.E.J., Walton M.E., Bannerman D.M. Functional organization of the medial prefrontal cortex. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2007, 17:220-227.
160. Rushworth M.F.S., Noonan M.P., Boorman E.D., Walton M.E., Behrens T.E. Frontal cortex and reward-guided learning and decision-making. Neuron 2011, 70:1054-1069.
161. Salamone J.D. Dopaminergic involvement in activational aspects of motivation: effects of haloperidol on schedule-induced activity, feeding, and foraging in rats. Psychobiology 1988, 16:196-206.
162. Salamone J.D. Will the last person who uses the term "reward" please turn out the lights? Comments on processes related to reinforcement, learning, motivation, and effort. Addict. Biol. 2006, 11:43-44.
163. Salamone J.D. Functions of mesolimbic dopamine: changing concepts and shifting paradigms. Psychopharmacology 2007, 191:389.
164. 2A receptor antagonist for the potential treatment of parkinsonism and other disorders. IDrugs 2010, 13:723-731.
165. Salamone J.D., Correa M. Motivational views of reinforcement: implications for understanding the behavioral functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine. Behav. Brain Res. 2002, 137:3-25.
166. Salamone J.D., Arizzi M., Sandoval M.D., Cervone K.M., Aberman J.E. Dopamine antagonsts alter response allocation but do not suppress appetite for food in rats: contrast between the effects of SKF 83566, raclopride and fenfluramine on a concurrent choice task. Psychopharmacology 2002, 160:371-380.
167. Salamone J.D., Correa M. Dopamine/adenosine interactions involved in effort-related aspects of food motivation. Appetite 2009, 53:422-425.
168. Salamone J.D., Correa M., Farrar A., Mingote S.M. Effort-related functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine and associated forebrain circuits. Psychopharmacology 2007, 191:461-482.
169. Salamone J.D., Correa M., Farrar A.M., Nunes E.J., Collins L.E. Role of dopamine-adenosine interactions in the brain circuitry regulating effort-related decision making: insights into pathological aspects of motivation. Future Neurol. 2010, 5:377-392.
170. Salamone J.D., Correa M., Farrar A.M., Nunes E.J., Pardo M. Dopamine, behavioral economics, and effort. Front. Behav. Neurosci. 2009, 3:13.
171. Salamone J.D., Correa M., Mingote S.M., Weber S.M., Farrar A.M. Nucleus accumbens dopamine and the forebrain circuitry involved in behavioral activation and effort-related decision making: implications for understanding anergia and psychomotor slowing in depression. Curr. Psychiatr. Rev. 2006, 2:267-280.
172. Salamone J.D., Correa M., Nunes E.J., Randall P.A., Pardo M. The behavioral pharmacology of effort-related choice behavior: dopamine, adenosine and beyond. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 2012, 97:125-146.
173. Salamone J.D., Cousins M.S., Bucher S. Anhedonia or anergia? Effects of haloperidol and nucleus accumbens dopamine depletion on instrumental response selection in a T-maze cost/benefit procedure. Behav. Brain Res. 1994, 65:221-229.
174. Salamone J.D., Cousins M.S., Maio C., Champion M., Turski T., Kovach J. Different behavioral effects of haloperidol, clozapine and thioridazine in a concurrent lever pressing and feeding procedure. Psychopharmacology 1996, 125:105-112.
175. Salamone J.D., Cousins M.S., Snyder B.J. Behavioral functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine: empirical and conceptual problems with the anhedonia hypothesis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 1997, 21:341-359.
176. Salamone J.D., Steinpreis R.E., McCullough L.D., Smith P., Grebel D., Mahan K. Haloperidol and nucleus accumbens dopamine depletion suppress lever pressing for food but increase free food consumption in a novel food choice procedure. Psychopharmacology 1991, 104:515-521.
177. Santesso D.L., Evins A.E., Frank M.J., Schetter E.C., Bogdan R., Pizzagalli D.A. Single dose of a dopamine agonist impairs reinforcement learning in humans: evidence from event-related potentials and computational modeling of striatal-cortical function. Hum. Brain Map. 2009, 30:1963-1976.
178. Savage L.M., Ramos R.L. Reward expectation alters learning and memory: the impact of the amygdala on appetitive-driven behaviors. Behav. Brain Res. 2009, 198:1-12.
179. Savine A.C., Braver T.S. Motivated cognitive control: reward incentives modulate preparatory neural activity during task-switching. J. Neurosci. 2010, 30:10294-10305.
180. Schmelzeis M.C., Mittleman G. The hippocampus and reward: effects of hippocampal lesions on progressive-ratio responding. Behav. Neurosci. 1996, 110:1049-1066.
181. Schoenbaum G., Roesch M.R., Stalnaker T.A., Takahashi Y.K. A new perspective on the role of the orbitofrontal cortex in adaptive behaviour. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2009, 10:885-892.
182. Schultz W. Multiple dopamine functions at different time courses. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2007, 30:259-288.
183. Schultz W. Dopamine signals for reward value and risk: basic and recent data. Behav. Brain Funct. 2010, 6:24.
184. Schultz W., Dayan P., Montague P.R. A neural substrate of prediction and reward. Science 1997, 275:1593-1599.
185. Schweimer J., Hauber W. Dopamine D1 receptors in the anterior cingulate cortex regulate effort-related decision making. Learn. Mem. 2006, 13:777-782.
186. Sheynikhovich D., Otani S., Arleo A. The role of tonic and phasic dopamine for long-term synaptic plasticity in the prefrontal cortex: a computational model. J. Physiol. (Paris) 2011, 105:45-52.
187. Shimp C.P. Short-term memory in the pigeon: the previously reinforced response. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 1976, 26:487-493.
188. Shohamy D., Myers C.E., Kalanithi J., Gluck M.A. Basal ganglia and dopamine contributions to probabilistic category learning. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2008, 32:219-236.
189. Simpson E.H., Kellendonk C., Ward R.D., Richards V., Lipatova O., Fairhurst S., Kandel E.R., Balsam P.D. Pharmacologic rescue of motivational deficit in an animal model of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry 2011, 69:928-935.
190. Sink K.S., Vemuri V.K., Olszewska T., Makriyannis A., Salamone J.D. Cannabinoid CB1 antagonists and dopamine antagonists produce different effects on a task involving response allocation and effort-related choice in food-seeking behavior. Psychopharmacology 2008, 196:565-574.
191. Skjoldager P., Pierre P.J., Mittlman G. Reinforcer magnitude and progressive ratio responding in the rat: effects of increased effort, prefeeding, and extinction. Learn. Motiv. 1993, 24:303-343.
192. Smith K.S., Berridge K.C., Aldridge J.W. Disentangling pleasure from incentive salience and learning signals in brain reward circuitry. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2011, 108:E255-E264.
193. Stewart W.J. Progressive reinforcement schedules: a review and evaluation. Aust. J. Psychol. 1974, 27:9-22.
194. Strauss G.P., Herbener E.S. Patterns of emotional experience in schizophrenia: differences in emotional response to visual stimuli are associated with clinical presentation and functional outcome. Schizophr. Res. 2011, 128:117-123.
195. Surmeier D.J., Plotkin J., Shen W. Dopamine and synaptic plasticity in dorsal striatal circuits controlling action selection. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 2009, 19:621-628.
196. Takahashi Y.K., Roesch M.R., Wilson R.C., Toreson K., O'Donnell P., Niv Y., Schoenbaum G. Expectancy-related changes in firing of dopamine neurons depend on orbitofrontal cortex. Nat. Neurosci. 2011, 14:1590-1597.
197. Treadway M.T., Buckholtz J.W., Schwartzman A.N., Lambert W.E., Zald D.H. Worth the 'EEfRT'? The effort expenditure for rewards task as an objective measure of motivation and anhedonia. PLoS One 2009, 4:e6598.
198. Treadway M.T., Bossaller N.A., Shelton R.C., Zald D.H. Effort-based decision-making in major depressive disorder: a translational model of motivational anhedonia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 2012, 121:553-558.
199. Treadway M.T., Buckholtz J.W., Cowan R.L., Woodward N.D., Li R., Ansari M.S., Baldwin R.M., Schwartzman A.N., Kessler R.M., Zald D.H. Dopaminergic mechanisms of individual differences in human effort-based decision-making. J. Neurosci. 2012, 32:6170-6176.
200. Treadway M.T., Zald D.H. Reconsidering anhedonia in depression: lessons from translational neuroscience. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 2011, 35:537-555.
201. Trecker A., Robbins T.W., Mar A.C. Development of a visual-guided probabilistic selection task for rats 2012, 482-483.
202. Tripp G., Alsop B. Sensitivity to reward frequency in boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Child Psychol. 1999, 28:366-375.
203. Tsujimoto S., Sawaguchi T. Neuronal representation of response-outcome in the primate prefrontal cortex. Cereb. Cortex 2004, 14:47-55.
204. Uslaner J.M., Dell'Orco J.M., Pevzner A., Robinson T.E. The influence of subthalamic nucleus lesions on sign-tracking to stimuli paired with food and drug rewards: facilitation of incentive salience attribution?. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008, 33:2352-2361.
205. Valentin V.V., Dickinson A., O'Doherty J.P. Determining the neural substrates of goal-directed learning in the human brain. J. Neurosci. 2007, 27:4019-4026.
206. Van den Bos R., van der Harst J., Jonkman S., Schilders M., Spruijt B. Rats assess costs and benefits according to an internal standard. Behav. Brain Res. 2006, 171:350-354.
207. van Reekum R., Stuss D.T., Ostrander L. Apathy: why care?. J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2005, 17:7-19.
208. Voon V., Pessiglione M., Brezing C., Gallea C., Fernandez H.H., Dolan R.J., Hallett M. Mechanisms underlying dopamine-mediated reward bias in compulsive behaviors. Neuron 2010, 65:135-142.
209. Vrieze E., Pizzagali D.A., Demyttenaere K., Hompes T., Sienaert P., de Boer P., Schmidt M., Claes S. Reduced reward learning predicts outcome in major depressive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 2013, 73:639-645.
210. Vrieze E., Ceccarini J., Pizzagalli D.A., Bormans G., Vandenbulcke M., Demyttenaere K., Van Laere K., Claes S. Measuring extrastriatal dopamine release during a reward learning task. Hum. Brain Map. 2013, 34:575-586.
211. Wakabayashi K.T., Fields H.L., Nicola S.M. Dissociation of the role of nucleus accumbens dopamine in responding to reward-predictive cues and waiting for reward. Behav. Brain Res. 2004, 154:19-30.
212. Wallis J.D., Miller E.K. Neuronal activity in primate dorsolateral and orbital prefrontal cortex during performance of a reward preference task. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2003, 18:2069-2081.
213. Walton M.E., Kennerley S.W., Bannerman D.M., Phillips P.E., Rushworth M.F. Weighing up the benefits of work: behavioral and neural analyses of effort-related decision making. Neural Netw. 2006, 19:1302-1314.
214. Waltz J.A., Frank M.J., Robinson B.M., Gold J.M. Selective reinforcement learning deficits in schizophrenia support predictions from computational models of striatal-cortical dysfunction. Biol. Psychiatry 2007, 62:756-764.
215. Waltz J.A., Frank M.J., Wiecki T.V., Gold J.M. Altered probabilistic learning and response biases in schizophrenia: behavioral evidence and neurocomputational modeling. Neuropsychology 2011, 25:86-97.
216. Ward R.D., Simpson E.H., Kandel E.R., Balsam P.D. Modeling motivational deficits in mouse models of schizophrenia: behavior analysis as a guide for neuroscience. Behav. Process. 2011, 87:149-156.
217. Ward R.D., Simpson E.H., Richards V.L., Deo G., Taylor K., Glendinning J.I., Kandel E.R., Balsam P.D. Dissociation of hedonic reaction to reward and incentive motivation in an animal model of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012, 37:1699-1707.
218. Wardle M.C., Treadway M.T., Mayo L.M., Zald D.H., de Wit H. Amping up effort: effects of d-amphetamine on human effort-based decision-making. J. Neurosci. 2011, 31:16597-21602.
219. Watson D., Clark L.A., Tellegen A. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 1988, 54:1063-1070.
220. Weiler J.A., Bellebaum C., Brune M., Juckel G., Daum I. Impairment of probabilistic reward-based learning in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 2009, 23:571-580.
221. West E.A., DesJardin J.T., Gale K., Malkova L. Transient inactivation of orbitofrontal cortex blocks reinforcer devaluation in macaques. J. Neurosci. 2011, 31:15128-15135.
222. Whitmer A.J., Frank M.J., Gotlib I.H. Sensitivity to reward and punishment in major depressive disorder: effects of rumination and of single versus multiple experiences. Cogn. Emot. 2012, 26:1475-1485.
223. Wickens J.R., Begg A.J., Arbuthnott G.W. Dopamine reverses the depression of rat corticostriatal synapses which normally follows high-frequency stimulation of cortex in vitro. Neuroscience 1996, 70:1-5.
224. Wilcove W.G., Miller J.C. CS-UCS presentations and a lever: human autoshaping. J. Exp. Psychol. 1974, 103:868-877.
225. Williams B.A. Choice as a function of local versus molar reinforcement contingencies. J. Exp. Anal. Behav. 1991, 56:455-473.
226. Winstanley C.A., Baunez C., Theobald D.E., Robbins T.W. Lesions to the subthalamic nucleus decrease impulsive choice but impair autoshaping in rats: the importance of the basal ganglia in Pavlovian conditioning and impulse control. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2005, 21:3107-3116.
227. Winstanley C.A., Dalley J.W., Theobald D.E., Robbins T.W. Fractionating impulsivity: contrasting effects of central 5-HT depletion on different measures of impulsive behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 2004, 29:1331-1343.
228. 2 family antagonists. Psychopharmacology 2009, 203:489-499.
229. Wunderlich K., Beierholm U.R., Bossaerts P., O'Doherty J.P. The human prefrontal cortex mediates integration of potential causes behind observed outcomes. J. Neurophysiol. 2011, 106:1558-1569.
230. Yeomans J.S. Role of tegmental cholinergic neurons in dopaminergic activation, antimuscarinic psychosis and schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 1995, 12:3-16.
231. Yilmaz A., Simsek F., Gonul A.S. Reduced reward-related probability learning in schizophrenia patients. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 2012, 8:27-34.
232. Yin H.H., Ostlund S.B., Knowlton B.J., Balleine B.W. The role of the dorsomedial striatum in instrumental conditioning. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2005, 22:513-523.