Evolutionary Origins of Hearts

Heart Development and Regeneration

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 3-45

  Xavier Neto, José ^a   Davidson, Brad ^b   Simoes Costa, Marcos Sawada ^a   Castro, Rodrigo Abe ^a   Castillo, Hozana Andrade ^a   Sampaio, Allysson Coelho ^a   Azambuja, Ana Paula ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SÃO PAULO   (Brazil)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84882537736     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-381332-9.00001-3     Document Type: Chapter

References (290)

1. Abouheif E., Akam M., Dickinson W.J., Holland P.W., Meyer A., Patel N.H., Raff R.A., Roth V.L., Wray G.A. Homology and developmental genes. Trends Genet. 1997, 13:432-433.
2. Abu-Issa R., Waldo K., Kirby M.L. Heart fields, one, two or more?. Dev. Biol. 2004, 272:281-285.
3. Adoutte A., Balavoine G., Lartillot N., de Rosa R. Animal evolution. The end of the intermediate taxa?. Trends Genet. 1999, 15:104-108.
4. Adoutte A., Balavoine G., Lartillot N., Lespinet O., Prud'homme B., de Rosa R. The new animal phylogeny, reliability and implications. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97:4453-4456.
5. Aguinaldo A.M., Turbeville J.M., Linford L.S., Rivera M.C., Garey J.R., Raff R.A., Lake J.A. Evidence for a clade of nematodes, arthropods and other moulting animals. Nature 1997, 387:489-493.
6. Alcoléa S., Théveniau-Ruissy M., Jarry-Guichard T., Marics I., Tzouanacou E., Chauvin J.P., Briand J.P., Moorman A.F., Lamers W.H., Gros D.B. Downregulation of connexin 45 gene products during mouse heart development. Circ. Res. 1999, 84:1365-1379.
7. Alldredge A. Appendicularians. Sci. Am. 1976, 235:94-102.
8. Anderson M. Electrophysiological studies on initiation and reversal of the heart beat in Ciona intestinalis. J. Exp. Biol. 1968, 49:363-385.
9. Arceci R.J., King A.A., Simon M.C., Orkin S.H., Wilson D.B. Mouse GATA-4, a retinoic acid-inducible GATA-binding transcription factor expressed in endodermally derived tissues and heart. Mol. Cell Biol. 1993, 13:2235-2246.
10. Augustinsson K.B., Fange R., Johnels A., Ostlund E. Histological, physiological and biochemical studies on the heart of two cyclostomes, hagfish (Myxine) and lamprey (Lampetra). J. Physiol. 1956, 131:257-276.
11. Auman H.J., Coleman H., Riley H.E., Olale F., Tsai H.J., Yelon D. Functional modulation of cardiac form through regionally confined cell shape changes. PLoS Biol. 2007, 5:e53.
12. Babu G.J., Warshaw D.M., Periasamy M. Smooth muscle myosin heavy chain isoforms and their role in muscle physiology. Microsc. Res. Tech. 2000, 50:532-540.
13. Baguna J., Garcia-Fernandez J. Evo-Devo, the long and winding road. Int. J. Dev. Biol. 2003, 47:705-713.
14. Ball E.E., Hayward D.C., Saint R., Miller D.J. A simple plan - cnidarians and the origins of developmental mechanisms. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2004, 5:567-577.
15. Balser E.J., Ruppert E.E. Structure, ultrastructure and function of the heart-kidney complex of Saccoglossus kowalevskii (Hemichordata, Enteropneusta). Including new data on the stomochord. Acta Zool. 1990, 71:235-249.
16. Bäumer C., Pirow R., Paul R.J. Circulatory oxygen transport in the water flea Daphnia magna. J. Comp. Physiol. B. 2002, 172:275-285.
17. Baxter E.W. The development of the intestinal blood-system of lampreys (Petromyzonidae), with an account of the origin of vascular couples. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1957, 129:371-396.
18. Begemann G., Schilling T.F., Rauch G.J., Geisler R., Ingham P.W. The zebrafish neckless mutation reveals a requirement for raldh2 in mesodermal signals that pattern the hindbrain. Development 2001, 128:3081-3094.
19. Bengtson S., Budd G. Comment on "Small bilaterian fossils from 40 to 55 million years before the Cambrian.". Science 2004, 306:1291.
20. Binyon J. Physiology of Echinoderms 1972, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
21. Black B.L. Transcriptional pathways in second heart field development. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2007, 18:67-76.
22. Blair J.E., Hedges S.B. Molecular phylogeny and divergence times of deuterostome animals. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2005, 22:2275-2284.
23. Bodmer R. Heart development in Drosophila and its relationship to vertebrates. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 1995, 5:21-28.
24. Bodmer R., Jan L.Y., Jan Y.N. A new homeobox-containing gene, msh-2, is transiently expressed early during mesoderm formation of Drosophila. Development 1990, 110:661-669.
25. Boolootian R.A., Campbell J.L. A primitive heart in the echinoid Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Science 1964, 145:173-175.
26. Bourlat S.J., Juliusdottir T., Lowe C.J., Freeman R., Aronowicz J., Kirschner M., Lander E.S., Thorndyke M., Nakano H., Kohn A.B., Heyland A., Moroz L.L., Copley R.R., Telford M.J. Deuterostome phylogeny reveals monophyletic chordates and the new phylum Xenoturbellida. Nature 2006, 444:85-88.
27. Bourne G.H. Hearts and Heart-Like Organs 1980, Academic Press, New York.
28. Brade T., Gessert S., Kühl M., Pandur P. The amphibian second heart field, Xenopus islet-1 is required for cardiovascular development. Dev. Biol. 2007, 311:297-310.
29. Bruneau B.G., Nemer G., Schmitt J.P., Charron F., Robitaille L., Caron S., Conner D.A., Gessler M., Nemer M., Seidman C.E., Seidman J.G. A murine model of Holt-Oram syndrome defines roles of the T-box transcription factor Tbx5 in cardiogenesis and disease. Cell 2001, 106:709-721.
30. Brusca R.C., Brusca G.J. Invertebrates 2003, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA. second ed.
31. Buckingham M., Meilhac S., Zaffran S. Building the mammalian heart from two sources of myocardial cells. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2005, 6:826-835.
32. Burger J.W., Smythe C.M The general form of circulation in the lobster, Homarus. J. Cell Physiol. 1953, 42:369-383.
33. Burggren W.W., Keller B.B. Development of Cardiovascular Systems: Molecules to Organisms 1997, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
34. Burggren W.W., Farrell A.P., Lillywhite H. Vertebrate cardiovascular physiology. The Handbook of Physiology 1997, 215-308. American Physiological Society, New York. W.H. Dantzler (Ed.).
35. Burnett B.R. Striated muscle in the wall of the dorsal abdominal aorta of the California Spiny Lobster Panulirus interruptus. J. Crustacean. Biol. 1984, 4:560-566.
36. Burrage T.G., Sherman R.G. Cellular organization of the embryonic lobster heart. Cell Tissue Res. 1978, 188:171-187.
37. Burton P.M. Insights from diploblasts; the evolution of mesoderm and muscle. J. Exp. Zoolog. B. Mol. Dev. Evol. 2008, 310(1):5-14.
38. Cai C.L., Liang X., Shi Y., Chu P.H., Pfaff S.L., Chen J., Evans S. Isl1 identifies a cardiac progenitor population that proliferates prior to differentiation and contributes a majority of cells to the heart. Dev. Cell 2003, 5:877-889.
39. Cameron C.B., Garey J.R., Swalla B.J. Evolution of the chordate body plan, new insights from phylogenetic analyses of deuterostome phyla. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97:4469-4474.
40. Canestro C., Postlethwait J.H., Gonzalez-Duarte R., Albalat R. Is retinoic acid genetic machinery a chordate innovation?. Evol. Dev. 2006, 8:394-406.
41. Cannon W.B. The nature of gastric peristalsis. Am. J. Physiol. 1911, 29:250-266.
42. Carter G.S. Structure and Habit in Vertebrate Evolution 1967, Sidgwick & Jackson, London.
43. Chapman C.B., Jensen D., Wildenthal K. On circulatory control mechanisms in the Pacific hagfish. Circ. Res. 1963, 12:427-440.
44. Chen J.Y., Huang D.Y., Li C. An early Cambrian craniate-like chordate. Nature 1999, 403:518-522.
45. Chen J.Y., Bottjer D.J., Oliveri P., Dornbos S.Q., Gao F., Ruffins S., Chi H., Li C.W., Davidson E.H. Small bilaterian fossils from 40 to 55 million years before the Cambrian. Science 2004, 305:218-222.
46. Chen J.Y., Oliveri P., Davidson E.H., Bottjer D.J. Response to comment on "Small bilaterian fossils from 40 to 55 million years before the Cambrian. Science 2004, 306:1291b.
47. Chiba S., Awazu S., Itoh M., Chin-Bow S.T., Satoh N., Satou Y., Hastings K.E. A genomewide survey of developmentally relevant genes in Ciona intestinalis. IX. Genes for muscle structural proteins. Dev. Genes Evol. 2003, 213:291-302.
48. Christoffels V.M., Habets P.E., Franco D., Campione M., de Jong F., Lamers W.H., Bao Z.Z., Palmer S., Biben C., Harvey R.P., Moorman A.F. Chamber formation and morphogenesis in the developing mammalian heart. Dev. Biol. 2000, 223:266-278.
49. Christoffels V.M., Hoogaars W.M., Tessari A., Clout D.E., Moorman A.F., Campione M. T-box transcription factor Tbx2 represses differentiation and formation of the cardiac chambers. Dev. Dyn. 2004, 229:763-770.
50. Clark A.J. Comparative Physiology of the Heart 1927, The Macmillan Company, New York, NY.
51. Colas J.F., Lawson A., Schoenwolf G.C. Evidence that translation of smooth muscle alpha-actin mRNA is delayed in the chick promyocardium until fusion of the bilateral heart-forming regions. Dev. Dyn. 2000, 218:316-330.
52. Cole F.J. A monograph on the general morphology of the Myxinoid fishes, based on a study of Myxine. Part IV. The morphology of the vascular system. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. 1926, 54:309-342.
53. Collop A.H., Broomfield J.A., Chandraratna R.A., Yong Z., Deimling S.J., Kolker S.J., Weeks D.L., Drysdale T.A. Retinoic acid signaling is essential for formation of the heart tube in Xenopus. Dev. Biol. 2006, 291:96-109.
54. COMSOL Multiphysics Modeling Guide. <>. http://www.chem.ucla.edu/~frax/exch/Courses/Advanced/peristaltic_pump/.
55. Conway-Morris S. The Cambrian "explosion," slow-fuse or megatonnage?. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2000, 97:4426-4429.
56. Coppen S.R., Severs N.J. Diversity of connexin expression patterns in the atrioventricular node, vestigial consequence or functional specialization?. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 2002, 13:625-626.
57. Cripps R.M., Olson E.N. Control of cardiac development by an evolutionarily conserved transcriptional network. Dev. Biol. 2002, 246:14-28.
58. Cserjesi P., Brown D., Lyons G.E., Olson E.N. Expression of the novel basic helix-loop-helix gene eHAND in neural crest derivatives and extraembryonic membranes during mouse development. Dev. Biol. 1995, 170:664-678.
59. Davidson B. Ciona intestinalis as a model for cardiac development. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2007, 18:16-26.
60. Davidson B., Shi W., Beh J., Christiaen L., Levine M. FGF signaling delineates the cardiac progenitor field in the simple chordate, Ciona intestinalis. Genes. Dev. 2006, 20:2728-2738.
61. DeHaan R.L. Migration patterns of the precardiac mesoderm in the early chick embryo. Exp. Cell Res. 1963, 29:544-560.
62. de Jong F., Opthof T., Wilde A.A., Janse M.J., Charles R., Lamers W.H., Moorman A.F. Persisting zones of slow impulse conduction in developing chicken hearts. Circ. Res. 1992, 71:240-250.
63. De la Cruz M.V., Markwald R.R. Living Morphogenesis of the Heart 1998, Birkhäuser, Boston, MA.
64. Delorme B., Dahl E., Jarry-Guichard T., Briand J.P., Willecke K., Gros D., Théveniau-Ruissy M. Expression pattern of connexin gene products at the early developmental stages of the mouse cardiovascular system. Circ. Res. 1997, 81:423-437.
65. Delsuc F., Brinkmann H., Chourrout D., Philippe H. Tunicates and not cephalochordates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates. Nature 2006, 439:965-968.
66. Desjardins P.R., Burkman J.M., Shrager J.B., Allmond L.A., Stedman H.H. Evolutionary implications of three novel members of the human sarcomeric myosin heavy chain gene family. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2002, 19:375-393.
67. Drysdale T.A., Patterson K.D., Saha M., Krieg P.A. Retinoic acid can block differentiation of the myocardium after heart specification. Dev. Biol. 1997, 188:205-215.
68. Eldredge N., Gould S.J. Punctuated equilibria, an alternative to phyletic gradualism. Models in Paleobiology 1972, 82-115. Freeman Cooper, San Francisco. T.J.M. Schoff (Ed.).
69. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2006). Encyclopaedia Britannica Premium Service. <>. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9039718/.
70. Erwin D.H., Davidson E.H. The last common bilaterian ancestor. Development 2002, 129:3021-3032.
71. Evans S.M. Vertebrate tinman homologues and cardiac differentiation. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 1999, 10:73-83.
72. Fahrner A., Haszprunar G. Anatomy and ultrastructure of the excretory system of a heart-bearing and a heart-less sacoglossan gastropod (Opisthobranchia, Sacoglossa). Zoomorphol. 2001, 121:85-93.
73. Fange R. The circulatory system. Lampreys 1972, vol. 2:287-306. Academic Press, New York. M.W. Hardisty, I.C. Potter (Eds.).
74. Farmanfarmaian A. The controversial echinoid heart and hemal system function effectiveness in respiratory exchange. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1968, 24:855-863.
75. Farrell A.P., Jones D.R. The heart. Fish Physiology, Part A, The cardiovascular system 1992, vol. XII:1-24. Academic Press, San Diego. W.S. Hoar, D.J. Randall, A.P. Farrell (Eds.).
76. Farrell A.P. Evolution of cardiovascular systems, insights into ontogeny. Development of Cardiovascular Systems: Molecules to Organisms 1997, 101-113. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. W.W. Burggren, B.B. Keller (Eds.).
77. Farrelly C.A., Greenaway P. The morphology and vasculature of the respiratory organs of terrestrial hermit crabs (Coenobita and Birgus), gills, branchiostegal lungs and abdominal lungs. Arthropod. Struct. Dev. 2005, 34:63-87.
78. Fawcett D.W. A Textbook of Histology 1994, New York, Chapman & Hall. twelfth ed.
79. Fisher P.E., Russell D.A., Stoskopf M.K., Barrick R.E., Hammer M., Kuzmitz A.A. Cardiovascular evidence for an intermediate or higher metabolic rate in an ornithischian dinosaur. Science 2000, 288:503-505.
80. Fishman M.C., Chien K.R. Fashioning the vertebrate heart, earliest embryonic decisions. Development 1997, 124:2099-2117.
81. Fishman M.C., Olson E.N. Parsing the heart, genetic modules for organ assembly. Cell 1997, 91:153-156.
82. Forouhar A.S., Liebling M., Hickerson A., Nasiraei-Moghaddam A., Tsai H.J., Hove J.R., Fraser S.E., Dickinson M.E., Gharib M. The embryonic vertebrate heart tube is a dynamic suction pump. Science 2006, 312:751-753.
83. Frasch M. Induction of visceral and cardiac mesoderm by ectodermal Dpp in the early Drosophila embryo. Nature 1995, 374:464-467.
84. Frasch M. Intersecting signaling and transcriptional pathways in Drosophila heart specification. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 1999, 10:61-71.
85. Fujiwara S., Kawamura K. Acquisition of retinoic acid signaling pathway and innovation of the chordate body plan. Zoolog. Sci. 2003, 20:809-818.
86. Gajewski K., Choi C.Y., Kim Y., Schulz R.A. Genetically distinct cardial cells within the Drosophila heart. Genesis 2000, 28:36-43.
87. Gajewski K., Fossett N., Molkentin J.D., Schulz R.A. The zinc finger proteins Pannier and GATA4 function as cardiogenic factors in Drosophila. Development 1999, 126:5679-5688.
88. Galli D., Domínguez J.N., Zaffran S., Munk A., Brown N.A., Buckingham M.E. Atrial myocardium derives from the posterior region of the second heart field, which acquires left-right identity as Pitx2c is expressed. Development 2008, 135:1157-1167.
89. Gans C., Northcutt R.G. Neural crest and the origin of vertebrates: A new head. Science 1983, 220:268-274.
90. Garcia-Martinez V., Schoenwolf G.C. Primitive-streak origin of the cardiovascular system in avian embryos. Dev. Biol. 1993, 159:706-719.
91. Garey J.R. Ecdysozoa: The relationship between Cycloneuralia and Panarthropoda. Zool. Anz. 2001, 240:321-330.
92. Gee H. Deuterostome phylogeny: The context for the origin and evolution of the vertebrates. Major Events in Early Vertebrate Evolution, Systematics Association Special Volume, Serie 61 2001, Taylor & Francis, London and New York. P.E. Ahlberg (Ed.).
93. Georgias C., Wasser M., Hinz U. A basic-helix-loop-helix protein expressed in precursors of Drosophila longitudinal visceral muscles. Mech. Dev. 1997, 69:115-124.
94. Gilbert S.F. Developmental Biology 2006, Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA. eighth ed.
95. Giribet G., Distel D.L., Polz M., Sterrer W., Wheeler W.C. Triploblastic relationships with emphasis on the acoelomates and the position of Gnathostomulida, Cycliophora, Platyhelminthes, and Chaetognatha, a combined approach of 18S rDNA sequences and morphology. Syst. Biol. 2000, 49:539-562.
96. Giribet G., Edgecombe G.D., Wheeler W.C. Arthropod phylogeny based on eight molecular loci and morphology. Nature 2001, 413:157-161.
97. Goodrich E.S. Studies on the Structure and Development of Vertebrates 1930, Macmillan and Company, London.
98. Goodson H.V., Spudich J.A. Molecular evolution of the myosin family: Relationships derived from comparisons of amino acid sequences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1993, 90:659-663.
99. Gosline J.M. Connective tissue mechanics of Metridium senile. I. Structural and compositional aspects. J. Exp. Biol. 1971, 55:763-774.
100. Greenberg M.J. Discussion: Common themes in cardiac control. Am. Zool. 1979, 19:175-190.
101. Grens A., Gee L., Fisher D.A., Bode H.R. CnNK2, an NK2 homeobox gene, has a role in patterning the basal end of the axis in hydra. Dev. Biol. 1996, 180:473-488.
102. Grimes A.C., Stadt H.A., Shepherd I.T., Kirby M.L. Solving an enigma: Arterial pole development in the zebrafish heart. Dev. Biol. 2006, 290:265-276.
103. Grimmer J.C., Holland N.D. Haemal and coelomic circulatory systems in the arms and pinnules of Florometra serratissima (Echinodermata, Crinoidea). Zoomorphology 1979, 94:93-109.
104. Guerrero A., Icardo J.M., Duran A.C., Gallego A., Domezain A., Colvee E., Sans-Coma V. Differentiation of the cardiac outflow tract components in alevins of the sturgeon Acipenser naccarii (Osteichthyes, Acipenseriformes): Implications for heart evolution. J. Morphol. 2004, 260:172-183.
105. Guyton A.C., Hall J.E. Textbook of Medical Physiology 2000, W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia, PA. tenth ed.
106. Habets P.E., Moorman A.F., Clout D.E., van Roon M.A., Lingbeek M., van Lohuizen M., Campione M., Christoffels V.M. Cooperative action of Tbx2 and Nkx2.5 inhibits ANF expression in the atrioventricular canal: Implications for cardiac chamber formation. Genes Dev. 2002, 16:1234-1246.
107. Halanych K.M. The phylogenetic position of the pterobranch hemichordates based on 18S rDNA sequence data. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 1995, 4:72-76.
108. Halanych K.M. The new view of animal phylogeny. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2004, 35:229-256.
109. Halanych K.M., Bacheller J.D., Aguinaldo A.M., Liva S.M., Hillis D.M., Lake J.A. Evidence from 18S ribosomal DNA that the lophophorates are protostome animals. Science 1995, 267:1641-1643.
110. Hall B.K. Descent with modification: The unity underlying homology and homoplasy as seen through an analysis of development and evolution. Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc. 2003, 78:409-433.
111. Han Z., Fujioka M., Su M., Liu M., Jaynes J.B., Bodmer R. Transcriptional integration of competence modulated by mutual repression generates cell-type specificity within the cardiogenic mesoderm. Dev. Biol. 2002, 252:225-240.
112. Hardisty M.W. Biology of the Cyclostomes 1979, Chapman and Hall, London.
113. Harrelson Z., Kelly R.G., Goldin S.N., Gibson-Brown J.J., Bollag R.J., Silver L.M., Papaioannou V.E. Tbx2 is essential for patterning the atrioventricular canal and for morphogenesis of the outflow tract during heart development. Development 2004, 131:5041-5052.
114. Harris M.P., Williamson S., Fallon J.F., Meinhardt H., Prum R.O. Molecular evidence for an activator-inhibitor mechanism in development of embryonic feather branching. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102:11734-11739.
115. Harvey R.P. NK2 homeobox genes and heart development. Dev. Biol. 1996, 178:203-216.
116. Hasegawa Y. Isolation of a cDNA encoding the motor domain of nonmuscle myosin which is specifically expressed in the mantle pallial cell layer of scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis). J. Biochem. 2000, 128:983-988.
117. Haun C., Alexander J., Stainier D.Y., Okkema P.G. Rescue of Caenorhabditis elegans pharyngeal development by a vertebrate heart specification gene. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1998, 95:5072-5075.
118. Hejnol A., Martindale M.Q. Acoel development supports a simple planula-like urbilaterian. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 2008, 363(1496):1493-1501.
119. Hernandez-Nicaise, M.L., Franc, J.M., 1993. Embranchement des Cténaires. In: Grassé, P.-P. (Ed.), Traitéde Zoologie. Anatomie, Systématique, Biologie. Cnidaires, hydrozoaires, scyphozoaires, cubozoaires, cténaires, Tome III, fascicule 2, Masson, Paris, pp. 943-1055.
120. Herreid C.F., LaRussa V.F., DeFesi C.R. Blood vascular system of the sea cucumber, Stichopus moebii. J. Morphol. 1976, 150:423-452.
121. Hertel W., Pass G. An evolutionary treatment of the morphology and physiology of circulatory organs in insects. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A. Mol. Integr. Physiol. 2002, 133:555-575.
122. Hertel W., Wirkner C.S., Pass G. Studies on the cardiac physiology of Onychophora and Chilopoda. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A. Mol. Integr. Physiol. 2002, 133:605-609.
123. Hickerson A.I., Rinderknecht D., Gharib M. Experimental study of the behavior of a valveless impedance pump. Exps. Fluids 2005, 38:534-540.
124. Hirakow R. The vertebrate heart in phylogenetic relation to the prochordates. Forschr. Zool. 1985, 30:367-369.
125. Hochgreb T., Linhares V.L., Menezes D.C., Sampaio A.C., Yan C.Y., Cardoso W.V., Rosenthal N., Xavier-Neto J. A caudorostral wave of RALDH2 conveys anteroposterior information to the cardiac field. Development 2003, 130:5363-5374.
126. Hol R., Johansen K. A cinematographic study of the central circulation in the hagfish, Myxine glutinosa L. J. Exp. Biol. 1960, 37:469-473.
127. Holland N.D., Venkatesh T.V., Holland L.Z., Jacobs D.K., Bodmer R. AmphiNk2-tin, an Amphioxus homeobox gene expressed in myocardial progenitors: Insights into evolution of the vertebrate heart. Dev. Biol. 2003, 255:128-137.
128. Hollenberg S.M., Sternglanz R., Cheng P.F., Weintraub H. Identification of a new family of tissue-specific basic helix-loop-helix proteins with a two-hybrid system. Mol. Cell Biol. 1995, 15:3813-3822.
129. Hoogaars W.M., Tessari A., Moorman A.F., de Boer P.A., Hagoort J., Soufan A.T., Campione M., Christoffels V.M. The transcriptional repressor Tbx3 delineates the developing central conduction system of the heart. Cardiovasc. Res. 2004, 62:489-499.
130. Hu N., Sedmera D., Yost H.J., Clark E.B. Structure and function of the developing zebrafish heart. Anat. Rec. 2000, 260:148-157.
131. Hyman L.H. The Invertebrates, Protozoa through Ctenophora 1940, vol. 1. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
132. Hyman L.H. Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy 1942, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
133. Hyman L.H. Introduction to the bilateria. "The Invertebrates, Platyhelminthes and Rhynchocoela" The Acoelomate Bilateria 1951, vol. 2:1-51. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
134. Hyman L.H. The Invertebrates, Echinodermata, the Coelomate Bilateria 1955, vol. 4. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
135. Janvier P. "Early Vertebrates" Oxford Monographs in Geology and Geophysics, 33 1996, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
136. Jefferies R.S. The Ancestry of the Vertebrates 1986, British Museum (Natural History), London & Cambridge.
137. Jefferies R.S. The origin and early fossil history of the chordate acustico-lateralis system, with remarks on the echinoderm-hemichordate clade. Major Events in Early Vertebrate Evolution, Systematics Association Special Volume, Serie 61 2001, Taylor & Francis, London and New York. P.E. Ahlberg (Ed.).
138. Johansen K., Martin A.W. Circulation in a giant earthworm, Glossoscolex giganteus. I. Contractile processes and pressure gradients in the large blood vessels. J. Exp. Biol. 1965, 43:333-347.
139. Jones H.D. Circulatory pressures in Helix pomatia L. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 1971, 39:289-295.
140. Jones H.D. The circulatory systems of gastropods and bivalves. The Mollusca, Physiology, Part 2 1983, vol. 5:189-238. Academic Press Inc, New York. A.S.M. Saleuddin, K.M. Wilbur (Eds.).
141. Jones J.C. On the heart of the orange tunicate Ecteinascidia turbinata. Herdman Biol. Bull. 1971, 141:130-145.
142. Kardong K.V. Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution 2002, McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA.
143. Kardong K.V. Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution 2006, McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA. third ed.
144. Kassai Y., Munne P., Hotta Y., Penttila E., Kavanagh K., Ohbayashi N., Takada S., Thesleff I., Jernvall J., Itoh N. Regulation of mammalian tooth cusp patterning by ectodin. Science 2005, 309:2067-2070.
145. Keegan B.R., Meyer D., Yelon D. Organization of cardiac chamber progenitors in the zebrafish blastula. Development 2004, 131:3081-3091.
146. Keegan B.R., Feldman J.L., Begemann G., Ingham P.W., Yelon D. Retinoic acid signaling restricts the cardiac progenitor pool. Science 2005, 307:247-249.
147. Keiser F. Untersuchungen uber die erste anlagen des Herzens, der beiden Langsgefassstamme und die Blutes bei Embryonen von Petromyzon planeri. Jena. Z. Naturw. 1914, 51:579.
148. Kelley C., Blumberg H., Zon L.I., Evans T. GATA-4 is a novel transcription factor expressed in endocardium of the developing heart. Development 1993, 118:817-827.
149. Kelly R.G. Molecular inroads into the anterior heart field. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 2005, 15:51-56.
150. Kelly R.G., Brown N.A., Buckingham M.E. The arterial pole of the mouse heart forms from Fgf10-expressing cells in pharyngeal mesoderm. Dev. Cell. 2001, 1:435-440.
151. Kilner P.J., Yang G.Z., Wilkes A.J., Mohiaddin R.H., Firmin D.N., Yacoub M.H. Asymmetric redirection of flow through the heart. Nature 2000, 404:759-761.
152. Koehl M.A. Mechanical diversity of the connective tissue of the body wall of sea anemones. J. Exp. Biol. 1977, 69:107-125.
153. Kolsch V., Paululat A. The highly conserved cardiogenic bHLH factor Hand is specifically expressed in circular visceral muscle progenitor cells and in all cell types of the dorsal vessel during Drosophila embryogenesis. Dev. Genes. Evol. 2002, 212:473-485.
154. Komuro I., Izumo S. Csx, a murine homeobox-containing gene specifically expressed in the developing heart. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1993, 90:8145-8149.
155. Kriebel M.E. Electrical coupling between tunicate heart cells. Life Sci. II. 1968, 7:181-186.
156. LaBarbera M. Principles of design of fluid transport systems in zoology. Science 1990, 249:992-1000.
157. LaBarbera M., Vogel S. The design of fluid transport systems in organisms. Am. Sci. 1982, 70:54-60.
158. Lawson R. The comparative anatomy of the circulatory system. Hyman's Comparative Anatomy 1979, 448-454. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. third ed. M.H. Wake (Ed.).
159. Lemche H., Wingstrand K.G. The anatomy of Neopilina galatheae Lemche 1957 (Mollusca, Tryblidiacea). Galathea Rep. 1959, 3:9-71.
160. Lewis J.G. The Biology of Centipedes 1981, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
161. Liebling, M., Forouhar, A.S., Gharib, M., Fraser, S.E., Dickinson, M.E., 2005. Four-dimensional cardiac imaging in living embryos via postacquisition synchronization of nongated slice sequences. J. Biomed. Opt. 10 054001.
162. Lilly B., Galewsky S., Firulli A.B., Schulz R.A., Olson E.N. D-MEF2, a MADS box transcription factor expressed in differentiating mesoderm and muscle cell lineages during Drosophila embryogenesis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1994, 91:5662-5666.
163. Lints T.J., Parsons L.M., Hartley L., Lyons I., Harvey R.P. Nkx-2.5, a novel murine homeobox gene expressed in early heart progenitor cells and their myogenic descendants. Development 1993, 119:419-431.
164. Lowe C.J., Terasaki M., Wu M., Freeman R.M., Runft L., Kwan K., Haigo S., Aronowicz J., Lander E., Gruber C., Smith M., Kirschner M., Gerhart J. Dorsoventral patterning in hemichordates, insights into early chordate evolution. PLoS Biol. 2006, 4:1603-1617.
165. Maisey J.G. Heads and tails: A chordate phylogeny. Cladistics 1986, 2:201-256.
166. Mallatt J., Chen J.Y. Fossil sister group of craniates, predicted and found. J. Morphol. 2003, 258:1-31.
167. Mallatt J., Giribet G. Further use of nearly complete 28S and 18S rRNA genes to classify Ecdysozoa, 37 more arthropods and a kinorhynch. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2006, 40:772-794.
168. Mallatt J.M., Garey J.R., Shultz J.W. Ecdysozoan phylogeny and Bayesian inference, first use of nearly complete 28S and 18S rRNA gene sequences to classify the arthropods and their kin. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2004, 31:178-191.
169. Mann T., Bodmer R., Pandur P. The Drosophila homolog of vertebrate Islet1 is a key component in early cardiogenesis. Development 2009, 136:317-326.
170. Marletaz F., Holland L.Z., Laudet V., Schubert M. Retinoic acid signaling and the evolution of chordates. Int. J. Biol. Sci. 2006, 2:38-47.
171. Martin A.W. Some invertebrate myogenic hearts, the hearts of worms and molluscs. Hearts and Heart-Like Organs: Comparative Anatomy and Development 1980, vol. 1:1-39. Academic Press Inc, New York. G.H. Bourne (Ed.).
172. Martin A.W., Johansen K. Adaptations of the circulation in invertebrate animals. Handbook of Physiology, Sect. 2 1965, vol. 3:2545-2581. American Physiological Society, Washington. W.F. Hamilton, P. Dow (Eds.).
173. Martin J.F., Schwarz J.J., Olson E.N. Myocyte enhancer factor (MEF). 2C, a tissue-restricted member of the MEF-2 family of transcription factors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1993, 90:5282-5286.
174. Martindale M.Q., Henry J.Q. Intracellular fate mapping in a basal metazoan, the ctenophore Mnemiopsis leidyi, reveals the origins of mesoderm and the existence of indeterminate cell lineages. Dev. Biol. 1999, 214:243-257.
175. Maynard D.M. Circulation and heart function. The Physiology of Crustacea. Metabolism and Growth 1960, vol. 1:161-226. Academic Press, New York. T.H. Waterman (Ed.).
176. McDermott J.C., Cardoso M.C., Yu Y.T., Andres V., Leifer D., Krainc D., Lipton S.A., Nadal-Ginard B. hMEF2C gene encodes skeletal muscle- and brain-specific transcription factors. Mol. Cell Biol. 1993, 13:2564-2577.
177. McGaw I.J. The decapod crustacean circulatory system, a case that is neither open nor closed. Microsc. Microanal. 2005, 11:18-36.
178. McGaw I.J., Reiber C.L. Cardiovascular system of the blue crab Callinectes sapidus. J. Morphol. 2002, 251:1-21.
179. McMahon B.R. Control of cardiovascular function and its evolution in Crustacea. J. Exp. Biol. 2001, 204:923-932.
180. McMahon B.R., Bourne G.B., Chu K.H. Invertebrate cardiovascular development. Development of Cardiovascular Systems: Molecules to Organisms 1997, 127-144. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. W.W. Burggren, B.B. Keller (Eds.).
181. McMahon B.R., Wilkens J.L., Smith P.J.S. Invertebrate circulatory systems. Handbook of Physiology, Sect. 13 1997, vol. 2:931-1008. American Physiological Society, Oxford University Press, Inc, New Delhi. W.H. Dantzler (Ed.).
182. McRae C.A., Fishman M.C. Zebrafish: the complete cardiovascular compendium. Cold Spring Harb. Symp. Quant. Biol., Symp. 2002, 67:301-308.
183. Meilhac S.M., Esner M., Kerszberg M., Moss J.E., Buckingham M.E. Oriented clonal cell growth in the developing mouse myocardium underlies cardiac morphogenesis. J. Cell Biol. 2004, 164:97-109.
184. Meng J., Hu Y., Wang Y., Wang X., Li C. A Mesozoic gliding mammal from northeastern China. Nature 2006, 444:889-893.
185. Metchnikoff V.E. Uber die systematische stellung von Balanoglossus. Zoll. Anz. 1881, 4:139-157.
186. Millott N. A possible function for the axial organ of Echinoids. Nature 1966, 209:594-596.
187. Millott N., Vevers H.G. Axial organ and fluid circulation in Echinoids. Nature 1964, 204:1216-1217.
188. Milne-Edwards H. Recherches pour server a l'historie de la circulation du sang chez les annelids. Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. Biol. Anim. Ser. 1982, 10:193-221.
189. Mjaatvedt C.H., Nakaoka T., Moreno-Rodriguez R., Norris R.A., Kern M.J., Eisenberg C.A., Turner D., Markwald R.R. The outflow tract of the heart is recruited from a novel heart-forming field. Dev. Biol. 2001, 238:97-109.
190. Moller P.C., Ellis R.A. Fine structure of the excretory system of Amphioxus (Branchiostoma floridae) and its response to osmotic stress. Cell Tissue Res. 1974, 148:1-9.
191. Moller P.C., Philpott C.W. The circulatory system of Amphioxus (Branchiostoma floridae). I. Morphology of the major vessels of the pharyngeal area. J. Morphol. 1973, 139:389-406.
192. Moorman A.F., Christoffels V.M. Development of the cardiac conduction system, a matter of chamber development. Development of the Cardiac Conduction System 2003, vol. 250. CIBA Found Symp Ser. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK. N. Foundation, D.J. Chadwick, J. Goode (Eds.).
193. Munoz-Chapuli R., Carmona R., Guadix J.A., Macias D., Perez-Pomares J.M. The origin of the endothelial cells, an evo-devo approach for the invertebrate/vertebrate transition of the circulatory system. Evol. Dev. 2005, 7:351-358.
194. Nakashima K., Yamada L., Satou Y., Azuma J., Satoh N. The evolutionary origin of animal cellulose synthase. Dev. Genes Evol. 2004, 214:81-88.
195. Nguyen H.T., Bodmer R., Abmayr S.M., McDermott J.C., Spoerel N.A.
196. Niederreither K., Subbarayan V., Dollé P., Chambon P. Embryonic retinoic acid synthesis is essential for early mouse post-implantation development. Nat. Genet. 1999, 21:444-448.
197. Niederreither K., Vermot J., Messaddeq N., Schuhbaur B., Chambon P., Dollé P. Embryonic retinoic acid synthesis is essential for heart morphogenesis in the mouse. Development 2001, 128:1019-1031.
198. Nielsen C. Proposing a solution to the Articulata-Ecdysozoa controversy. Zool. Scr. 2003, 32:475-482.
199. Nübler-Jung K., Arendt D. Enteropneusts and chordate evolution. Curr. Biol. 1996, 6:352-353.
200. Nyitray L., Jancsó A., Ochiai Y., Gráf L., Szent-Györgyi A.G. Scallop striated and smooth muscle myosin heavy-chain isoforms are produced by alternative RNA splicing from a single gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1994, 91:12686-12690.
201. Okkema P.G., Fire A. The Caenorhabditis elegans NK2 class homeoprotein CEH-22 is involved in combinatorial activation of gene expression in pharyngeal muscle. Development 1994, 120:2175-2186.
202. Olson E.N. Gene regulatory networks in the evolution and development of the heart. Science 2006, 313:1922-1927.
203. Oota H., Saitou N. Phylogenetic relationship of muscle tissues ded-uced from superimposition of gene trees. Mol. Biol. Evol. 1999, 16:856-867.
204. Orts-Llorca F., Collado J.J. Determination of heart polarity (arterio venous axis) in the chicken embryo. Roux. Arch. Entwicklungsmechanik 1967, 158:146-163.
205. Osmond M.K., Butler A.J., Voon F.C., Bellairs R. The effects of retinoic acid on heart formation in the early chick embryo. Development 1991, 113:1405-1417.
206. Pass G. Accessory pulsatile organs, evolutionary innovations in insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 2000, 45:495-518.
207. Passamaneck Y., Halanych K.M. Lophotrochozoan phylogeny assessed with LSU and SSU data, evidence of lophophorate polyphyly. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 2006, 40:20-28.
208. Patwardhan V., Fernandez S., Montgomery M., Litvin J. The rostro-caudal position of cardiac myocytes affect their fate. Dev. Dyn. 2000, 218:123-135.
209. Paul R.J., Colmorgen M., Hüller S., Tyroller F., Zinkler D. Circulation and respiratory control in millimetre-sized animals (Daphnia magna, Folsomia candida) studied by optical methods. J. Comp. Physiol. B. 1997, 167:399-408.
210. Percy L.R., Potter I.C. Aspects of the development and functional morphology of the pericardia heart and associated blood vessels of lampreys. J. Zool. 1991, 223:49-66.
211. Pereira F.A., Qiu Y., Zhou G., Tsai M.J., Tsai S.Y. The orphan nuclear receptor COUP-TFII is required for angiogenesis and heart development. Genes Dev. 1999, 13:1037-1049.
212. Peterson K.J., Eernisse D.J. Animal phylogeny and the ancestry of bilaterians: Inferences from morphology and 18S rDNA gene sequences. Evol. Dev. 2001, 3:170-205.
213. Philippe H., Lartillot N., Brinkmann H. Multigene analyses of bilaterian animals corroborate the monophyly of Ecdysozoa, Lophotrochozoa, and Protostomia. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2005, 22:1246-1253.
214. Pirow R., Wollinger F., Paul R.J. The sites of respiratory gas exchange in the planktonic crustacean Daphnia magna, an in vivo study employing blood haemoglobin as an internal oxygen probe. J. Exp. Biol. 1999, 202:3089-3099.
215. Pough F.H., Janis C.M., Heiser J.B. Vertebrate Life 2002, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ.
216. Prall O.W., Menon M.K., Solloway M.J., Watanabe Y., Zaffran S., Bajolle F., Biben C., McBride J.J., Robertson B.R., Chaulet H., Stennard F.A., Wise N., Schaft D., Wolstein O., Furtado M.B., Shiratori H., Chien K.R., Hamada H., Black B.L., Saga Y., Robertson E.J., Buckingham M.E., Harvey R.P. An Nkx2-5/Bmp2/Smad1 negative feedback loop controls heart progenitor specification and proliferation. Cell 2007, 128:947-959.
217. Putnam N.H., Srivastava M., Hellsten U., Dirks B., Chapman J., Salamov A., Terry A., Shapiro H., Lindquist E., Kapitonov V.V., Jurka J., Genikhovich G., Grigoriev I.V., Lucas S.M., Steele R.E., Finnerty J.R., Technau U., Martindale M.Q., Rokhsar D.S. Sea anemone genome reveals ancestral eumetazoan gene repertoire and genomic organization. Science 2007, 317:86-94.
218. Rahr H. Circulatory system of Amphioxus Branchiostoma lanceolatum (Pallas). - light microscopic investigation based on intra-vascular injection technique. Acta Zool. 1979, 60:1-18.
219. Rahr H. The ultrastructure of the blood-vessels of branchiostoma-lanceolatum (Pallas). (Cephalochordata), 1. Relations between blood-vessels, epithelia, basal laminae, and connective-tissue. Zoomorphology 1981, 97:53-74.
220. Randall D.J. The circulatory system. Fish Physiology: The Nervous System, Circulation and Respiration 1970, Academic Press, New York. W.S. Hoar, D.J. Randall (Eds.).
221. Randall D.J., Davie P.S. The hearts of urochordates and cephalochordates. Hearts and Heart-Like Organs: Comparative Anatomy and Development 1980, vol. 1:41-59. Academic Press Inc, New York. G.H. Bourne (Ed.).
222. Redkar A., Montgomery M., Litvin J. Fate map of early avian cardiac progenitor cells. Development 2001, 128:2269-2279.
223. Regier J.C., Shultz J.W., Kambic R.E. Pancrustacean phylogeny, hexapods are terrestrial crustaceans and maxillopods are not monophyletic. Proc. R. Soc. B. 2005, 272:395-401.
224. Ripplinger J. Contribution à l'étude de la physiologie du coeur et de son innervation extrinsèque chez l'Escargot (Helix pomatia). Ann. Sci. Univ. Besançon. 1957, 2:3-173.
225. Robb J.S. Comparative Basic Cardiology 1965, Grune & Stratton, New York.
226. Romer A.S. Circulation of body fluids. The Vertebrate Body 1962, 386-434. W. B. Saunders & Company, Philadelphia.
227. Rosenquist G.C., deHaan R.L. Migration of precardiac cells in the chick embryo, a radiographic study. Contrib. Embryol. 1966, 38:111-121.
228. Rosenthal N., Xavier-Neto J. From the bottom of the heart, anteroposterior decisions in cardiac muscle differentiation. Curr. Opin. Cell. Biol. 2000, 12:742-746.
229. Rowe T., McBride E.F., Sereno P.C. Dinosaur with a heart of stone. Science 2001, 291:783.
230. Ruppert E.E. Aschelminthes. Microscopic Anatomy of Invertebrates 1997, Wiley-Liss, New York. F.W. Harrison, R.M. Woollacott (Eds.).
231. Ruppert E.E. Key characters uniting hemichordates and chordates: Homologies or homoplasies?. Can. J. Zool. 2005, 83:8-23.
232. Ruppert E.E., Carle K.J. Morphology of metazoan circulatory systems. Zoomorphology 1983, 103:193-208.
233. Ruppert E.E., Balser E.J. Nephridia in the larvae of hemichordates and echinoderms. Biol. Bull. 1986, 171:188-196.
234. Ruppert E.E., Barnes R.D. Invertebrate Zoology 1994, Saunders, Philadelphia. sixth ed.
235. Ruppert E.E., Fox R.S., Barnes R.D. Invertebrate Zoology: A Functional Evolutionary Approach 2004, Brooks Cole/Thomson, Belmont, CA. seventh ed.
236. Ruzicka D.L., Schwartz R.J. Sequential activation of alpha-actin genes during avian cardiogenesis, vascular smooth muscle alpha-actin gene transcripts mark the onset of cardiomyocyte differentiation. J. Cell Biol. 1988, 107:2575-2586.
237. Ryckebusch L., Wang Z., Bertrand N., Lin S.C., Chi X., Schwartz R., Zaffran S., Niederreither K. Retinoic acid deficiency alters second heart field formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105:2913-2918.
238. Saga Y., Kitajima S., Miyagawa-Tomita S. Mesp1 expression is the earliest sign of cardiovascular development. Trends Cardiovasc. Med. 2000, 10:345-352.
239. Satchell G.H. Physiology and Form of Fish Circulation 1991, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
240. Satchell, G.H., 1991b. The heart. In: Physiology and Form of Fish Circulation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp. 10-40.
241. Satchell G.H. Venous return and venous pumps. Physiology and Form of Fish Circulation 1991, 126-140. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
242. Satchell G.H. Myxine, a speculative conclusion. Physiology and Form of Fish Circulation 1991, 183-197. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
243. Satchell G.H. The venous system. Fish Physiology 1992, Academic Press, San Diego, CA. W.S. Hoar, D.J. Randall, A.P. Farrell (Eds.).
244. Satoh Y.I., Nitratori T. On the fine structure of lymph hearts in amphibia and reptiles. Hearts and Heart-Like Organs: Comparative Anatomy and Development 1980, vol. 1:149-169. Academic Press Inc, New York. G.H. Bourne (Ed.).
245. Sawada A., Fritz A., Jiang Y.J., Yamamoto A., Yamasu K., Kuroiwa A., Saga Y., Takeda H. Zebrafish Mesp family genes, mesp-a and mesp-b are segmentally expressed in the presomitic mesoderm, and Mesp-b confers the anterior identity to the developing somites. Development 2000, 127:1691-1702.
246. Sawyer R.T. Leech Biology and Behaviour 1986, vol. II. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
247. Schaeffer B. Deuterostome monophyly and phylogeny. Evol. Biol. 1987, 21:179-235.
248. Schmidt-Nielsen K. Animal Physiology, Adaptation and Environment 1990, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
249. Schubert M., Escriva H., Xavier-Neto J., Laudet V. Amphioxus and tunicates as evolutionary model systems. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2006, 21:269-277.
250. Scott M.P. Intimations of a creature. Cell 1994, 79:1121-1124.
251. Seipel K., Schmid V. Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and the origin of triploblasty. Dev. Biol. 2005, 282:14-26.
252. Shimizu H., Fujisawa T. Peduncle of Hydra and the heart of higher organisms share a common ancestral origin. Genesis 2003, 36:182-186.
253. Shimizu H., Koizumi O., Fujisawa T. Three digestive movements in Hydra regulated by the diffuse nerve net in the body column. J. Comp. Physiol. A. 2004, 190:623-630.
254. Shu D.G., Luo H.L., Conway-Morris S., Zhang X.L., Hu S.X., Chen L., Han J., Zhu M., Li Y., Chen L.Z. Lower Cambrian vertebrates from South China. Nature 1999, 402:42-46.
255. Shu D.G., Morris S.C., Han J., Zhang Z.F., Yasui K., Janvier P., Chen L., Zhang X.L., Liu J.N., Li Y., Liu H.Q. Head and backbone of the Early Cambrian vertebrate Haikouichthys. Nature 2003, 421:526-529.
256. Silva J.R., Mendes E.G., Mariano M. Wound repair in the Amphioxus (Branchiostoma platae), an animal deprived of inflammatory phagocytes. J. Invertebr. Pathol. 1995, 65:147-151.
257. Simoes-Costa M.S., Azambuja A.P., Xavier-Neto J. The search for non-chordate retinoic acid signaling: Lessons from chordates. J. Exp. Zoolog. B. Mol. Dev. Evol. 2008, 310(1):54-72.
258. Simoes-Costa M.S., Vasconcelos M., Sampaio A.C., Cravo R.M., Linhares V.L., Hochgreb T., Yan C.Y., Davidson B., Xavier-Neto J. The evolutionary origin of cardiac chambers. Dev. Biol. 2005, 277:1-15.
259. Simpson G.G. The Meaning of Evolution. A Study of the History of Life and of Its Significance to Man 1965, Yale University Press, New Haven and London.
260. Sirbu I.O., Zhao X., Duester G. Retinoic acid controls heart anteroposterior patterning by downregulating Isl1 through the Fgf8 pathway. Dev. Dyn. 2008, 237:1627-1635.
261. Skramlik E.V. Uber den Blutumlaufbei Amphioxus lanceolatus Y. Pubbl Staz zool. Napoli 1938, 17:130-157.
262. Srivastava D., Cserjesi P., Olson E.N. A subclass of bHLH proteins required for cardiac morphogenesis. Science 1995, 270:1995-1999.
263. Stainier D.Y., Fishman M.C. Patterning the zebrafish heart tube: Acquisition of anteroposterior polarity. Dev. Biol. 1992, 153:91-101.
264. Stalsberg H., DeHaan R.L. The precardiac areas and formation of the tubular heart in the chick embryo. Dev. Biol. 1969, 19:128-159.
265. Stennard F.A., Harvey R.P. T-box transcription factors and their roles in regulatory hierarchies in the developing heart. Development 2005, 132:4897-4910.
266. Stennard F.A., Costa M.W., Lai D., Biben C., Furtado M.B., Solloway M.J., McCulley D.J., Leimena C., Preis J.I., Dunwoodie S.L., Elliott D.E., Prall O.W., Black B.L., Fatkin D., Harvey R.P. Murine T-box transcription factor Tbx20 acts as a repressor during heart development, and is essential for adult heart integrity, function and adaptation. Development 2005, 132:2451-2462.
267. Sugi Y., Lough J. Onset of expression and regional deposition of alpha-smooth and sarcomeric actin during avian heart development. Dev. Dyn. 1992, 193:116-124.
268. Sun Y., Liang X., Najafi N., Cass M., Lin L., Cai C.L., Chen J., Evans S.M. Islet 1 is expressed in distinct cardiovascular lineages, including pacemaker and coronary vascular cells. Dev. Biol. 2007, 304:286-296.
269. Swalla B.J., Cameron C.B., Corley L.S., Garey J.R. Urochordates are monophyletic within the deuterostomes. Syst. Biol. 2000, 49:52-64.
270. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. (2000). fourth ed. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, MA.
271. The Snodgrass Tapes. <>. http://www.life.umd.edu/entm/shultzlab/snodgrass/.
272. Tiedemann F. Anatomie der Röhren-Holothurie, des Pomeranzfar-bigen Seesterns, und Stein-Seeigels 1816, [Anatomy of the tube holothurians, the orange seastars, and the stone sea urchins.] Joseph Thomannschen Buchdruckerei, Landshut, Germany. (Translated by A. Böttger and edited by J. M. Lawrence), Herizos Press, Tampa, FL.
273. Tjonneland A., Bkland S., Nylund A. Evolutionary aspects of the arthropod heart. Zool. Scr. 1987, 16:167-175.
274. van Veen A.A., van Rijen H.V., Opthof T. Cardiac gap junction channels: Modulation of expression and channel properties. Cardiovasc. Res. 2001, 51:217-229.
275. Wada H., Satoh N. Details of the evolutionary history from invertebrates to vertebrates, as deduced from the sequences of 18S rDNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1994, 91:1801-1804.
276. Waldo K.L., Kumiski D.H., Wallis K.T., Stadt H.A., Hutson M.R., Platt D.H., Kirby M.L. Conotruncal myocardium arises from a secondary heart field. Development 2001, 128:3179-3188.
277. Waxman J.S., Keegan B.R., Roberts R.W., Poss K.D., Yelon D. Hoxb5b acts downstream of retinoic acid signaling in the forelimb field to restrict heart field potential in zebrafish. Dev. Cell. 2008, 15:923-934.
278. Weems W.A. Intestinal wall motion, propulsion, and fluid movement: Trends toward a unified theory. Am. J. Physiol. 1982, 243:G177-G188.
279. Weems W.A. Intestinal fluid flow, its production and control. Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract 1987, 571-593. Raven Press, New York. second ed. L.R. Johnson (Ed.).
280. Wells M.J. Circulation in cephalopods. The Mollusca, Physiology, Part 2 1983, vol. 5:239-290. Academic Press Inc, New York. A.S.M. Saleuddin, K.M. Wilbur (Eds.).
281. Wigglesworth V.B. The Principles of Insect Physiology 1974, Chapman and Hall, London. seventh ed.
282. Wilkens J.L. Evolution of the cardiovascular system in Crustacea. Am. Zool. 1999, 39:199-214.
283. Wray G.A., Abouheif E. When is homology not homology?. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 1998, 8:675-680.
284. Xavier-Neto J., Rosenthal N., Silva F.A., Matos T.G., Hochgreb T., Linhares V.L. Retinoid signaling and cardiac anteroposterior segmentation. Genesis 2001, 31:97-104.
285. Xavier-Neto J., Castro R.A., Sampaio A.C., Azambuja A.P., Castillo H.A., Cravo R.M., Simoes-Costa M.S. Parallel avenues in the evolution of hearts and pumping organs. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 2007, 64:719-734.
286. Yamagishi H., Hirose E. Transfer of the heart pacemaker during juvenile development in the isopod crustacean Ligia exotica. J. Exp. Biol. 1997, 200:2393-2404.
287. Yelon D., Horne S.A., Stainier D.Y. Restricted expression of cardiac myosin genes reveals regulated aspects of heart tube assembly in zebrafish. Dev. Biol. 1999, 214:23-37.
288. Yuan S., Schoenwolf G.C. Islet-1 marks the early heart rudiments and is asymmetrically expressed during early rotation of the foregut in the chick embryo. Anat. Rec. 2000, 260:204-207.
289. Zaffran S., Frasch M. Early signals in cardiac development. Circ. Res. 2002, 91:457-469.
290. Zeng L., Swalla B.J. Molecular phylogeny of the protochordates, chordate evolution. Can. J. Zool. 2005, 83:24-33.