Atmospheric dissolved iron deposition to the global oceans: Effects of oxalate-promoted Fe dissolution, photochemical redox cycling, and dust mineralogy

Geoscientific Model Development

Volumn 6, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 1137-1155

  Johnson, M S ^a,b   Meskhidze, N ^a  

^a NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NASA AMES RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION; BIOAVAILABILITY; CARBON CYCLE; CHEMICAL COMPOSITION; DESERT; DUST; EOS; GLOBAL OCEAN; IRON; METEOROLOGY; MOBILIZATION; OXALATE; PHOTOCHEMISTRY; REDOX CONDITIONS; THREE-DIMENSIONAL MODELING; WIND FORCING;

EID: 84882316676     PISSN: 1991959X     EISSN: 19919603     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/gmd-6-1137-2013     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Alexander, B., Savarino, J., Lee, C. C. W., Park, R. J., Jacob, D. J., Thiemens, M. H., Li, Q. B., and Yantosca, R. M.: Sulfate formation in seasalt aerosols: Constraints from oxygen isotopes, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D10307, doi:10.1029/2004JD005659, 2005.
2. Arimoto, R., Balssam,W., and Schloesslin, C.: Visible spectroscopy of aerosol particles collected on filters: Iron-oxide minerals, Atmos. Environ., 36, 89-96, 2002.
3. Aumont, O., Maier-Reimer, E., Blain, S., and Monfray, P.: An ecosystem model of the global ocean including Fe, Si, P colimitations, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 17, 1060, doi:10.1029/2001GB001745, 2003.
4. Balmer, M. E. and Sulzberger, B.: Atrazine degradation in irradiated iron/oxalate systems: Effects of pH and oxalate, Environ. Sci. Technol., 33, 2418-2424, 1999.
5. Barbeau, K.: Photochemistry of organic Fe(III) complexing ligands in oceanic systems, Photochem. Photobiol., 82, 1505-1516, 2006.
6. Benkelberg, H. J. and Warneck, P.: Photodecomposition of iron(III) hydroxo and sulfato complexes in aqueous solutions: Wavelength dependence of pH and SO- 4 quantum yields, J. Phys. Chem., 99, 5214-5221, 1995.
7. Bey, I., Jacob, D. J., Yantosca, R. M., Logan, J. A., Field, B., Fiore, A. M., Li, Q., Liu, H., Mickley, L. J., and Schultz, M.: Global modeling of tropospheric chemistry with assimilated meteorology: Model description and evaluation, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 23073-23095, 2001.
8. Bielski, B. H. J., Cabelli, D. E., Arudi, R. L., and Ross, A. B.: Reactivity of HO2/O2 radicals in aqueous solution, J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 14, 1041-1100, 1985.
9. Boyd, P. W., Watson, A. J., Law, C. S., Abraham, E. R., Trull, T., Murdoch, R., Bakker, D. C. E., Bowie, A. R., Buesseler, K. O., Chang, H., Charette, M., Croot, P., Downing, K., Frew, R., Gall, M., Hadfield, M., Hall, J., Harvey, M., Jameson, G., LaRoche, J., Liddicoat, M., Ling, R., Maldonado, M. T., McKay, R. M., Nodder, S., Pickmere, S., Pridmore, R., Rintoul, S., Safi, K., Sutton, P., Strzepek, R., Tanneberger, K., Turner, S., Waite, A., and Zeldis, J.: A mesoscale phytoplankton bloom in the polar Southern Ocean stimulated by iron fertilization, Nature, 407, 695-702, 2000.
10. Boyd, P. W., Jickells, T., Law, C. S., Blain, S., Boyle, E. A., Buesseler, K. O., Coale, K. H., Cullen, J. J., de Baar, H. J. W., Follows, M., Harvey, M., Lancelot, C., Levasseur, M., Owens, N. P. J., Pollard, R., Rivkin, R. B., Sarmiento, J., Schoemann, V., Smetacek, V., Takeda, S., Tsuda, A., Turner, S., and Watson, A. J.: Mesoscale iron enrichment experiments 1993-2005: Synthesis and future directions, Science, 315, 612-617, 2007.
11. Brandt, C. and van Eldik, R.: Transition metal-catalyzed oxidation of sulfur(IV) oxides, Atmospheric-relevant processes and mechanisms, Chem. Rev., 95, 119-190, 1995.
12. Bromley, L. A.: Thermodynamic properties of strong electrolytes in aqueous solution, AIChE J., 19, 313-320, 1973.
13. Cheah, S.-F., Kraemer, S. M., Cervini-Silva, J., and Sposito, G.: Steady-state dissolution kinetics of goethite in the presence of desferrioxamine B and oxalate ligands: implications for the microbial acquisition of iron, Chemical Geology, 198, 63-75, 2003.
14. Chen, Y.: Sources and fate of atmospheric nutrients over the remote oceans and their role on controlling marine diazotrophic microorganisms, 1-224, University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, 2004.
15. Chen, Y. and Siefert, R. L.: Determination of various types of labile atmospheric iron over remote oceans, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4774, doi:10.1029/2003JD003515, 2003.
16. Chen, Y. and Siefert, R. L.: Seasonal and spatial distributions and dry deposition fluxes of atmospheric total and labile iron over the tropical and subtropical North Atlantic Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D09305, doi:10.1029/2003JD003958, 2004.
17. Chin, M., Ginoux, P., Kinne, S., Torres, O., Holben, B., Duncan, B., Martin, R., Logan, J., Higurashi, A., and Nakajima, T.: Tropospheric aerosol optical thickness from the GOCART model and comparisons with satellite and sunphotometer measurements, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 461-483, 2002.
18. Coale, K. H., Johnson, K. S., Fitzwater, S. E., Gordon, R. M., Tanner, S., Chavez, F. P., Ferioli, L., Sakamoto, C., Rogers, P., Millero, F., Steinberg, P., Nightingale, P., Cooper, D., Cochlan, W. P., Landry, M. R., Constantinou, J., Rollwagen, G., Trasvina, A., and Kudela, R.: A massive phytoplankton bloom induced by an ecosystem-scale iron fertilization experiment in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, Nature, 383, 495-501, doi:10.1038/383495a0, 1996.
19. Cornell R. M. and Schindler, P. W.: Photochemical dissolution of goethite in acid/oxalate solution, Clays Clay Miner., 35, 347-352, 1987.
20. Cornell, R. M. and Schwertmann, U.: The iron oxides, structure, properties, reactions, occurrence and uses, JohnWiley, Hoboken, NJ, 573 pp., 1996.
21. Cornell, R. M., Posner, A. M., and Quirk, J. P.: Kinetics and mechanisms of the acid dissolution of Goethite (α-FeOOH), J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem., 38, 563-567, 1976.
22. Cwiertny, D. M., Hunter, G. J., Pettibone, J. M., Scherer, M. M., and Grassian, V. H.: Surface chemistry and dissolution of α- FeOOH nanorods and microrods: Environmental implications of size-dependent interactions with oxalate, J. Phys. Chem., 113, 2175-2186, 2009.
23. Dedik, A. N. and Hoffmann P.: Chemical characterization of iron in atmospheric aerosols, Atmos. Environ., 26, 2545-2548, 1992.
24. Deguillaume, L., Leriche, M., Desboeufs, K., Mailhot, G., George, C., and Chaumerliac, N.: Transition metals in atmospheric liquid phases: Sources, reactivity, and sensitivity parameters, Chem. Rev., 105, 3388-3431, 2005.
25. Dos Santos Afonso, M., Morando, P. J., Blesa, M. A., Banwart, S., and Stumm, W.: The reductive dissolution of iron oxides by ascorbate, J. Colloid Interface Sci., 138, 74-82, 1990.
26. Duce, R. A. and Tindale, N. W.: Atmospheric transport of iron and its deposition in the ocean, Limnol. Oceanogr., 36, 1715-1726, 1991.
27. Duckworth, O.W. and Martin, S. T.: Surface complexation and dissolution of hematite by C1-C6 dicarboxylic acids at pH = 5, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 65, 4289-4301, 2001.
28. Epstein, I. R., Kustin, K., and Simoyi, R. H.: Nitrous acid decomposition catalyzed by an iron(II) complex: Tris(3,4,7,8-tetramethyl- 1,10-phenanthroline)iron(II)1, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 104, 712-717, 1982.
29. Fairlie, T. D., Jacobs, D. J., and Rokjin, R. J.: The impact of transpacific transport of mineral dust in the United States, Atmos. Environ., 41, 1251-1266, 2007.
30. Falkowski, P. G.: Evolution of the nitrogen cycle and its influence on the biological sequestration of CO2 in the ocean, Nature, 387, 272-275, 1997.
31. Faust, B. C. and Zepp, R. G.: Photochemistry of aqueous iron(III)- polycarboxylate complexes: Roles in the chemistry of atmospheric and surface waters, Environ. Sci. Technol., 27, 2517-2522, 1993.
32. Fischer, R. B. and Peters, D. G.: Chemical equilibrium, Saunders Limited, 1970.
33. Fu, H., Cwiertny, D. M., Carmichael, G. R., Scherer, M. M., and Grassian, V. H.: Photoreductive dissolution of Fe-containing mineral dust particles in acidic media, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D11304, doi:10.1029/2009JD012702, 2010.
34. Fu, T.-M., Jacob, D. J., Wittrock, F., Burrows, J. P., Vrekoussis, M., and Henze, D. K.: Global budgets of atmospheric glyoxal and methylglyoxal, and implications for formation of secondary organic aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D15303, doi:10.1029/2007JD009505, 2008.
35. Fung, I. Y., Meyn, S. K., Tegen, I., Doney, S. C., John, J. G., and Bishop, J. K. B.: Iron supply and demand in the upper ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 14, 281-291, 2000.
36. Furukawa, T. and Takahashi, Y.: Oxalate metal complexes in aerosol particles: implications for the hygroscopicity of oxalatecontaining particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 4289-4301, doi:10.5194/acp-11-4289-2011, 2011.
37. Getoff, N., Schwoerer, F., Markovic, V. M., and Sehested, K.: Pulse radiolysis of oxalic acid and oxalates, J. Phys. Chem., 75, 749-755, 1971.
38. Ginoux, P., Chin, M., Tegen, I., Prospero, J. M., Holben, B., Dubovik, O., and Lin, S.-J.: Sources and distributions of dust aerosols simulated with the GOCART model, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 20255-20273, 2001.
39. Gregg,W., Ginoux, P., Schopf, P. S., and Casey, N.W.: Phytoplankton and iron: Validation of a global three-dimensional ocean biogeochemical model, Deep Sea Res. Part II, 50, 3143-3169, 2003.
40. Heald, C. L., Jacob, D. J., Park, R. J., Alexander, B., Fairlie, T. D., Yantosca, R. M., and Chu, D. A.: Transpacific transport of Asian anthropogenic aerosols and its impact on surface air quality in the United States, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D14310, doi:10.1029/2005JD006847, 2006.
41. Hoffmann, P., Dedik, A. N., Ensling, J., Weinbruch, S., Weber, S., Sinner, T., Gutlich, P., and Ornter, H. M.: Speciation of iron in atmospheric aerosol samples, J. Aerosol Sci., 27, 325-337, 1996.
42. Huneeus, N., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Griesfeller, J., Prospero, J., Kinne, S., Bauer, S., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Grini, A., Horowitz, L., Koch, D., Krol, M. C., Landing, W., Liu, X., Mahowald, N., Miller, R., Morcrette, J.-J., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Perlwitz, J., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Zender, C. S.: Global dust model intercomparison in AeroCom phase I, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 7781-7816, doi:10.5194/acp-11-7781-2011, 2011.
43. Ito, A.: Contrasting the effect of iron mobilization on soluble iron deposition to the ocean in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn., 90A, 167-188, 2012.
44. Ito, A. and Feng, Y.: Role of dust alkalinity in acid mobilization of iron, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 9237-9250, doi:10.5194/acp-10-9237-2010, 2010.
45. Jacobsen, F., Holcman, J., and Sehested, K.: Reactions of the ferryl ion with some compounds found in cloud water, Int. J. Chem. Kinet., 30, 215-224, 1998.
46. Jacobson, M. Z.: Computation of global photochemistry with SMVGEARII, Atmos. Environ., 29, 2541-2546, 1995.
47. Jacobson, M. Z.: Improvement of SMVGEARII on vector and scalar machines through absolute error tolerance control, Atmos. Environ., 32, 791-796, 1998.
48. Jacobson, M. Z. and Turco, R. P.: SMVGEAR: A sparse-matrix, vectorized gear code for atmospheric models, Atmos. Environ., 2, 273-284, 1994.
49. Jayson, G. G., Parson, B. J., and Swallow, A. J.: Oxidation of ferrous ions by perhydroxyl radicals, J. Chem. Soc. Faraday Trans., 69, 236-242, 1973.
50. Jickells, T. D., An, Z. S., Andersen, K. K., Baker, A. R., Bergametti, G., Brooks, N., Cao, J. J., Boyd, P.W., Duce, R. A., Hunter, K. A., Kawahata, H., Kubilay, N., LaRoche, J., Liss, P. S., Mahowald, N., Prospero, J. M., Ridgwell, A. J., Tegen, I., and Torres, R.: Global iron connections between desert dust, ocean biogeochemistry, and climate, Science, 308, 67-71, 2005.
51. Johansen, A. M., Siefert, R. L., and Hoffmann, M. R.: Chemical composition of aerosols collected over the tropical North Atlantic Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 15277-15312, 2000.
52. Johnson, M. S., Meskhidze, N., Solmon, F., Gassó, S., Chuang, P. Y., Gaiero, D. M., Yantosca, R. M., Wu, S., Wang, Y., and Carouge, C.: Modeling dust and soluble iron deposition to the South Atlantic Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D15202, doi:10.1029/2009JD013311, 2010.
53. Johnson, M. S., Meskhidze, N., Kiliyanpilakkil, V. P., and Gassó, S.: Understanding the transport of Patagonian dust and its influence on marine biological activity in the South Atlantic Ocean, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 2487-2502, doi:10.5194/acp-11-2487-2011, 2011.
54. Johnson, M. S., Meskhidze, N., and Kiliyanpilakkil, V. P.: A global comparison of GEOS-Chem-predicted and remotely-sensed mineral dust aerosol optical depth and extinction profiles, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 4, M07001, doi:10.1029/2011MS000109, 2012.
55. Journet, E., Desboeufs, K. V., Caquineau, S., and Colin, J.-L.: Mineralogy as a critical factor of dust iron solubility, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L07805, doi:10.1029/2007GL031589, 2008.
56. Kawamura, K. and Ikushima, K.: Seasonal changes in the distribution of dicarboxylic acids in the urban atmosphere, Environ. Sci. Technol., 27, 2227-2235, 1993.
57. Kawamura, K., Kasukabe, H., and Barrie, L. A.: Source and reaction pathways of dicarboxylic acids, ketoacids and dicarbonyls in arctic aerosols at polar sunrise, Atmos. Environ., 30, 1709-1722, doi:10.1016/1352-2310(95)00395-9, 1996.
58. Kawamura, K., Imai, Y., and Barrie, L. A.: Photochemical production and loss of organic acids in high Arctic aerosols during long range transport and polar sunrise ozone depletion events, Atmos. Environ., 39, 599-614, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.10.020, 2005.
59. Kieber, R. J., Skrabal, S. A., Smith, B. J., andWilley, J. D.: Organic complexation of Fe(II) and its impact on the redox cycling of iron in rain, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 1576-1583, 2005.
60. Kleindienst, T. E., Smith, D. F., Li, W., Edney, E. O., Driscoll, D. J., Speer, R. E., and Weathers, W. S.: Secondary organic aerosol formation from the oxidation of aromatic hydrocarbons in the presence of dry submicron ammonium sulfate aerosol, Atmos. Environ., 33, 3669-3681, 1999.
61. Kraemer, S. M., Butler, A., Borer, P. M., and Cervini-Silva, J.: Siderophores and the dissolution of iron-bearing minerals in marine systems, in: Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, edited by: Banfield, J. F., Cervini-Silva, J., and Nealson, K. M., Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, DC, 53-84, 2005.
62. Kremer, M. L.: The Fenton reaction, Dependence of the rate on pH, J. Phys. Chem. A, 107, 1734-1741, 2003.
63. Kusik, C. L. and Meissner, H. P.: Electrolyte activity coefficients in inorganic processing, AIChE Symp. Ser., 173, 14-20, 1978.
64. Legrand, M., Preunkert, S., Oliveira, T., Pio, C., Hammer, S., Gelencser, A., Kasper-Giebl, A., and Laj, P.: Origin of C2-C5 dicarboxylic acids in the European atmosphere inferred from year round aerosol study conducted at a west-east transect, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D23S07, doi:10.1029/2006JD008019, 2007.
65. Liu, H., Jacob, D. J., Bey, I., and Yantosca, R. M.: Constraints from 210Pb and 7Be on wet deposition and transport in a global threedimensional chemical tracer model driven by assimilated meteorological fields, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 12109-12128, 2001.
66. Logager, T., Holcman, J., Sehested, K., and Pedersen, T.: Oxidation of ferrous ions by ozone in acidic solution, Inorg. Chem., 31, 3523-3529, 1992.
67. Luo, C. and Gao, Y.: Aeolian iron mobilisation by dust-acid interactions and their implications for soluble iron deposition to the ocean: a test involving potential anthropogenic organic acidic species, Environ. Chem., 7, 153-161, doi:10.1071/EN09116, 2010.
68. Luo, C., Mahowald, N. M., Meskhidze, N., Chen, Y., Siefert, R. L., Baker, A. R., and Johansen, A. M.: Estimation of iron solubility from observations and a global aerosol model, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D23307, doi:10.1029/ 2005JD006059, 2005.
69. Luo, C., Mahowald, N., Bond, T., Chuang, P. Y., Artaxo, P., Siefert, R., Chen, Y., and Schauer, J.: Combustion iron distribution and deposition, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 22, GB1012, doi:10.1029/2007GB002964, 2008.
70. Mahowald, N. M., Engelstaedter, S., Luo, C., Sealy, A., Artaxo, P., Benitez-Nelson, C., Bonnet, S., Chen, Y., Chuang, P. Y., Cohen, D. D., Dulac, F., Herut, B., Johansen, A. M., Kubilay, N., Losno, R., Maenhaut, W., Paytan, A., Prospero, J. A., Shank, L. M., and Siefert, R. L.: Atmospheric iron deposition: Global distribution, variability, and human perturbations, Annu. Rev. Mar. Sci., 1, 245-278, 2009.
71. Mao, J., Fan, S., Jacob, D. J., and Travis, K. R.: Radical loss in the atmosphere from Cu-Fe redox coupling in aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 509-519, doi:10.5194/acp-13-509-2013, 2013.
72. Martin, J. H.: Glacial-interglacial CO2 change: The Iron Hypothesis, Paleoceanography, 5, 1-13 1990.
73. Martin, J. H. and Fitzwater, S. E.: Iron-deficiency limits phytoplankton growth in the northeast pacific subarctic, Nature, 331, 341-343, 1988.
74. Meskhidze, N., Chameides, W. L., Nenes, A., and Chen, G.: Iron mobilization in mineral dust: Can anthropogenic SO2 emissions affect ocean productivity?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2085, doi:10.1029/2003GL018035, 2003.
75. Meskhidze, N., Chameides, W. L., and Nenes, A.: Dust and pollution: A recipe for enhanced ocean fertilization?, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D03301, doi:10.1029/2004JD005082, 2005.
76. Meyerstein, D.: Trivalent copper: I: a pulse radiolytic study of the properties of the aquocomplex, Inorg. Chem., 10, 638-641, 1971.
77. Millero, F. J., Sotolongo, S., and Izaguirre, M.: The kinetics of oxidation of Fe(II) in seawater, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 51, 793-801, 1987.
78. Mills, M. M., Ridame, C., Davey, M., La Roche, J., and Geider, R. J.: Iron and phosphorus co-limit nitrogen fixation in the eastern tropical north Atlantic, Nature, 429, 292-294, 2004.
79. Moore, J. K., Doney, S. C., and Lindsay, K.: Upper ocean ecosystem dynamics and iron cycling in a global threedimensional model, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 18, GB4028, doi:10.1029/2004GB002220, 2004.
80. Myriokefalitakis, S., Vrekoussis, M., Tsigaridis, K., Wittrock, F., Richter, A., Brühl, C., Volkamer, R., Burrows, J. P., and Kanakidou, M.: The influence of natural and anthropogenic secondary sources on the glyoxal global distribution, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 4965-4981, doi:10.5194/acp-8-4965- 2008, 2008.
81. Myriokefalitakis, S., Tsigaridis, K., Mihalopoulos, N., Sciare, J., Nenes, A., Kawamura, K., Segers, A., and Kanakidou, M.: In-cloud oxalate formation in the global troposphere: a 3-D modeling study, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 5761-5782, doi:10.5194/acp-11-5761-2011, 2011.
82. Nenes, A., Pandis, S. N., and Pilinis, C.: ISORROPIA: A new thermodynamic equilibrium model for multiphase multicomponent inorganic aerosols, Aquat. Geochem., 4, 123-152, 1998.
83. Nickovic, S., Vukovic, A., Vujadinovic, M., Djurdjevic, V., and Pejanovic, G.: Technical Note: High-resolution mineralogical database of dust-productive soils for atmospheric dust modeling, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 845-855, doi:10.5194/acp-12-845-2012, 2012.
84. Nickovic, S., Vukovic, A., and Vujadinovic, M.: Atmospheric processing of iron carried by mineral dust, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 13, 2695-2723, doi:10.5194/acpd-13-2695-2013, 2013.
85. Okin, G. S., Baker, A. R., Tegen, I., Mahowald, N. M., Dentener, F. J., Duce, R. A., Galloway, J. N., Hunter, K., Kanakidou, M., Kubilay, N., Prospero, J. M., Sarin, M., Surapipith, V., Uematsu, M., and Zhu, T.: Impacts of atmospheric nutrient deposition on marine productivity: Roles of nitrogen, phosphorus, and iron, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 25, GB2022, doi:10.1029/ 2010GB003858, 2011.
86. Olsen, J., Prather, M., Berntsen, T., Carmichael, G., Chatfield, R., Connell, P., Derwent, R., Horowitz, L., Jin, S., Kanakidou, M., Kasibhatla, P., Kotamarthi, R., Kuhn, M., Law, K., Penner, J., Perliski, L., Sillman, S., Stordal, F., Thompson, A., and Wild, O.: Results from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change photochemical model intercomparison (PhotoComp), J. Geophys. Res., 102, 5979-5991, 1997.
87. Paris, R., Desboeufs, K. V., and Journet, E.: Variability of dust iron solubility in atmospheric waters: Investigation of the role of oxalate organic complexation, Atmos. Environ., 45, 6510-6517, 2011.
88. Park, R. J., Jacob, D. J., Field, B. D., Yantosca, R. M., and Chin, M.: Natural and transboundary pollution influences on sulfate nitrateammonium aerosols in the United States: Implications for policy, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D15204, doi:10.1029/2003JD004473, 2004.
89. Pehkonen, S. O., Siefert, R., Erel, Y., Webb, S., and Hoffmann, M. R.: Photoreduction of iron oxyhydroxides in the presence of important atmospheric organic compounds, Environ. Sci. Technol., 27, 2056-2062, 1993.
90. Peterson, T. D., Whitney, F. A., and Harrison, P. J.: Macronutrient dynamics in an anticyclonic mesoscale eddy in the Gulf of Alaska, Deep-Sea Res. II, 52, 909-932, 2005.
91. Pikaev, A. K., Sibirskaya, G. K., Shirshov, E. M., Glazunov, P. Y., and Spitsyn, V. I.: Pulsed radiolysis of concentrated aqueous solutions of nitric acid, Dokl. Phys. Chem., Proc. Acad. Sci. USSR, 215, 328-331, 1974.
92. Prospero, J. M., Ginoux, P., Torres, O., and Nicholson, S. E.: Environmental characterization of global sources of atmospheric soil dust identified with the Nimbus 7 Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) absorbing aerosol product, Rev. Geophys., 40, 1002, doi:10.1029/2000RG000095, 2002.
93. Raabe, G.: Eine laserphotolytische studie zur kinetik der reaktionen des NO- 3 radikals in wäßriger lösung, Cuvillier, Göttingen, Germany, 1996.
94. Raiswell, R. and Canfield, D. E.: The iron biogeochemical cycle past and present, Geochem. Perspect., 1, 1-220, 2012.
95. Rinaldi, M., Decesari, S., Carbone, C., Finessi, E., Fuzzi, S., Ceburnis, D., O'Dowd, C. D., Sciare, J., Burrows, J. P., Vrekoussis, M., Ervens, B., Tsigaridis, K., and Facchini, M. C.: Evidence of a natural marine source of oxalic acid and a possible link to glyoxal, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D16204, doi:10.1029/2011JD015659, 2011.
96. Roy, E. G., Wells, M. L., and King, D. W.: Persistence of iron(II) in surface waters of the western subarctic Pacific, Limnol. Oceanogr., 53, 89-98, 2008.
97. Rubin, M., Berman-Frank, I., and Shaked, Y.: Dust and mineral iron utilization by the marine diazotroph Trichodesmium, Nat. Geosci., 4, 529-534, 2011.
98. Rush, J. D. and Bielski, B. H. J.: Pulse radiolytic studies of the reactions of HO2/O2 with Fe(II)/Fe(III) ions, The reactivity of HO2/O2 with ferric ions and its implication on the occurrence of the Haber-Weiss reaction, J. Phys. Chem., 89, 5062-5066, doi:10.1021/j100269a035, 1985.
99. Samson, S. D. and Eggleston, C. M.: Nonsteady-state dissolution of goethite and hematite in response to pH jumps: the role of adsorbed Fe(III), Water-Rock Interactions, Ore Deposits, and Environmental Geochemistry, edited by: Hellman, R. and Wood, S. A., 2002.
100. Santana-Casiano, J. M., Gonzalez-Davila, M., and Millero, F. J.: Oxidation of nanomolar levels of Fe(II) with oxygen in natural waters, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 2073-2079, 2005.
101. Sciare, J., Favez, O., Sarda-Esteve, R., Oikonomou, K., Cachier, H., and Kazan, V.: Long-term observations of carbonaceous aerosols in the Austral Ocean atmosphere: Evidence of a biogenic marine organic source, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D15302, doi:10.1029/2009JD011998, 2009.
102. Schwertmann, U.: Solubility and dissolution of iron oxides, Plant Soil, 130, 1-25, 1991.
103. Sedlak, D. L. and Hoigné, J.: The role of copper and oxalate in the redox cycling of iron in atmospheric waters, Atmos. Environ., 27A, 2173-2185, 1993.
104. Sedwick, P. N., Sholkovitz, E. R., and Church, T. M.: Impact of anthropogenic combustion emissions on the fractional solubility of aerosol iron: Evidence from the Sargasso Sea, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 8, Q10Q06, doi:10.1029/2007GC001586, 2007.
105. Seinfeld, J. H. and Pandis, S. N.: Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics: From Air Pollution to Climate Change, Wiley, New York, 1998.
106. Shi, Z., Krom, M. D., Jickells, T. D., Bonneville, S., Carslaw, K. S., Mihalopoulos, N., Baker, A. R., and Benning, L. G.: Impacts on iron solubility in the mineral dust by processes in the source region and the atmosphere: A review, Aeolian Research, 5, 21-42, 2012.
107. Sholkovitz, E. R., Sedwick, P. N., Church, T. M., Baker, A. R., and Powell, C. F.: Fractional solubility of aerosol iron: Synthesis of a global-scale data set, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 89, 173-189, 2012.
108. Sidhu, P. S., Gilkes, R. J., Cornell, R. M., Posner, A. M., and Quirk, J. P.: Dissolution of iron oxides and oxyhydroxides in hydrochloric and perchloric acids, Clays Clay Minerals, 29, 269-276, 1981.
109. Siefert, R. L., Johansen, A. M., Hoffmann, M. R., and Pehkonen, S. O.: Measurements of trace metal (Fe, Cu, Mn, Cr) oxidation states in fog and stratus clouds, J. Air Waste Manage., 48, 128-143, 1998.
110. Sinreich, R., Coburn, S., Dix, B., and Volkamer, R.: Ship-based detection of glyoxal over the remote tropical Pacific Ocean, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 11359-11371, doi:10.5194/acp-10-11359-2010, 2010.
111. Solmon, F., Chuang, P. Y., Meskhidze, N., and Chen, Y.: Acidic processing of mineral dust iron by anthropogenic compounds over the north Pacific Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D02305, doi:10.1029/2008JD010417, 2009.
112. Spokes, L. J., Jickells, T. D., and Lim, B.: Solubilization of aerosol trace metals by cloud processing: A laboratory study, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 58, 3281-3287, 1994.
113. Stumm, W. and Morgan, J. J. (Eds.): Aquatic Chemistry: An Introduction Emphasizing Chemical Equilibria in Natural Waters, John Wiley, Hoboken, N. J., 780 pp., 1981.
114. Stumm, W., Furrer, G., Wieland, E., and Zinder, B.: The effects of complex-forming ligands on the dissolution of oxides and aluminosilicates, in: The Chemistry of Weathering, edited by: Drever, J. I., Dordrecht, D. Reidel Publishing Co, 55-74, 1985.
115. Sullivan, R. C., Moore, M. J. K., Petters, M. D., Kreidenweis, S. M., Roberts, G. C., and Prather, K. A.: Effect of chemical mixing state on the hygroscopicity and cloud nucleation properties of calcium mineral dust particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 3303-3316, doi:10.5194/acp-9-3303-2009, 2009.
116. Suter, D., Banwart, S., and Stumm, W.: Dissolution of hydrous iron(III) oxides by reductive mechanisms, Langmuir, 7, 809-813, 1991.
117. Taylor, S. R. and McLennan, S. M.: The Continental Crust: its Composition and Evolution, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, England, 1985.
118. Trapp, J. M., Millero, F. J., and Prospero, J. M.: Trends in the solubility of iron in dust-dominated aerosols in the equatorial Atlantic trade winds: Importance of iron speciation and sources, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 11, Q03014, doi:10.1029/2009GC002651, 2010.
119. Volkamer, R., Coburn, S. C., Dix, B. K., and Sinreich, R.: The Eastern Pacific Ocean is a source for short lived atmospheric gases: glyoxal and iodine oxide, CLIVAR Exchanges, 15, 30-33, 2010.
120. Waite, T. D., Torikov, A., and Smith, J. D.: Photoassisted dissolution of colloidal iron oxides by thiol containing compounds. I. Dissolution of hematite (α-Fe2O3), J. Colloid Interface Sci., 112, 412-420, 1986.
121. Wiederhold, J. G., Kraemer, S. M., Teutsch, N., Borer, P. M., Halliday, A. N., and Kretzschmar, R.: Iron isotope fractionation during proton-promoted, ligand-controlled, and reductive dissolution of goethite, Environ. Sci. Technol., 40, 3787-3793, doi:10.1021/es052228y, 2006.
122. Wild, O., Zhu, Q., and Prather, M. J.: Fast-J: Accurate simulation of in-and below-cloud photolysis in global chemical models, J. Atmos. Chem., 37, 245-282, 2000.
123. Xu, N. and Gao, Y.: Characterization of hematite dissolution affected by oxalate coating, kinetics and pH, Appl. Geochem., 23, 783-793, 2008.
124. Yu, J., Huang, X., Xu, J., and Hu, M.: When aerosol sulfate goes up, so does oxalate: implication for the formation mechanisms of oxalate, Environ. Sci. Technol., 39, 128-133, 2005.
125. Zender, C. S., Newman, D., and Torres, O.: Spatial heterogeneity in aeolian erodibility: Uniform, topographic, geomorphic, and hydrologic hypotheses, J. Geophys. Res., 108, doi:10.1029/2002JD003039, 2003.
126. Zhang, L., Gong, S. L., Padro, J., and Barrie, L.: A size-segregated particle dry deposition scheme for an atmospheric aerosol module, Atmos. Environ., 35, 549-560, 2001.
127. Zhu, X. R., Prospero, J. M., and Millero, F. J.: Diel variability of soluble Fe(II) and soluble total Fe in North African dust in the trade winds at Barbados, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 21297-21305, 1997.
128. Zhuang, G., Yi, Z., Duce, R. A., and Brown, P. R.: Link between iron and sulphur cycles suggested by detection of Fe(II) in remote marine aerosols, Nature, 355, 537-539, 1992.
129. Ziajka, J., Beer, F., and Warneck, P.: Iron-catalysed oxidation of bisulphite aqueous solution: Evidence for a free radical chain mechanism, Atmos. Environ., 28, 2549-2552, 1994.
130. Zuo, Y. and Holgné, J.: Formation of hydrogen peroxide and depletion of oxalic acid in atmospheric water by photolysis of iron(III)-oxalato complexes, Environ. Sci. Technol., 26, 1014-1022, 1992.