Role of epigenetics in the etiology of germ cell cancer

International Journal of Developmental Biology

Volumn 57, Issue 2-4, 2013, Pages 299-308

  Van Der Zwan, Yvonne G ^a   Stoop, Hans ^a   Rossello, Fernando ^b   White, Stefan J ^b   Looijenga, Leendert H J ^a  

^a JOSEPHINE NEFKENS INSTITUTE   (Netherlands)

^b MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Environment; Epigenetics; Germ cell cancer; Histone modification; Methylation

Indexed keywords

CISPLATIN; OCTAMER TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR 4; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR SOX17; TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR SOX2;

ARTICLE; CARCINOGENESIS; CARCINOMA IN SITU; CELL MATURATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; DEMETHYLATION; DNA METHYLATION; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; EMBRYO CELL; EMBRYO DEVELOPMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EPIGENETICS; GENE FUNCTION; GENE MUTATION; GENOME; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; GERM CELL; GERM CELL TUMOR; GONADOBLASTOMA; HISTONE MODIFICATION; HUMAN; INHERITANCE; NON SEMINOMATOUS GERMINOMA; NONHUMAN; OOCYTE; PRIMORDIAL GERM CELL; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBERTY; SEMINOMA; SEX DIFFERENTIATION DISORDER; SPERMATOGONIUM; TOTIPOTENT STEM CELL; TRANSCRIPTION REGULATION; TRANSLATION REGULATION;

EPIGENESIS, GENETIC; HUMANS; MALE; NEOPLASMS, GERM CELL AND EMBRYONAL;

EID: 84880052080     PISSN: 02146282     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1387/ijdb.130017ll     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. AKIMOTO, C., UEDA, T., INOUE, K., YAMAOKA, I., SAKARI, M., OBARA, W., FUJIOKA, T., NAGAHARA, A., NONOMURA, N., TSUTSUMI, S. et al., (2010). Testis-specific protein on Y chromosome (TSPY) represses the activity of the androgen receptor in androgen-dependent testicular germ-cell tumors. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107: 19891-19896.
2. ALLEN, N.D., NORRIS, M.L. and SURANI, M.A. (1990). Epigenetic control of trans-gene expression and imprinting by genotype-specific modifiers. Cell 61: 853-861.
3. ALMSTRUP, K., NIELSEN, J.E., MLYNARSKA, O., JANSEN, M.T., JORGENSEN, A., SKAKKEBAEK, N.E. and RAJPERT-DE MEYTS, E. (2010). Carcinoma in situ testis displays permissive chromatin modifications similar to immature foetal germ cells. Br J Cancer 103: 1269-1276.
4. ASHE, A., SAPETSCHNIG, A., WEICK, E.M., MITCHELL, J., BAGIJN, M.P., CORD-ING, A.C., DOEBLEY, A.L., GOLDSTEIN, L.D., LEHRBACH, N.J., LE PEN, J. et al., (2012). piRNAs Can Trigger a Multigenerational Epigenetic Memory in the Germline of C. elegans. Cell. 150: 88-99.
5. AZUARA, V., PERRY, P., SAUER, S., SPIVAKOV, M., JORGENSEN, H.F., JOHN, R.M., GOUTI, M., CASANOVA, M., WARNES, G., MERKENSCHLAGER, M. et al., (2006). Chromatin signatures of pluripotent cell lines. Nat Cell Biol 8: 532-538.
6. BALLABIO, A. and WILLARD, H.F. (1992). Mammalian X-chromosome inactivation and the XIST gene. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2: 439-447.
7. BAYLIN, S.B. and JONES, P.A. (2011). A decade of exploring the cancer epigenome-biological and translational implications. Nat Rev Cancer 11: 726-734.
8. BENS, S., AMMERPOHL, O., MARTIN-SUBERO, J.I., APPARI, M., RICHTER, J., HIORT, O., WERNER, R., RIEPE, F.G., SIEBERT, R. and HOLTERHUS, P.M. (2011). Androgen receptor mutations are associated with altered epigenomic programming as evidenced by HOXA5 methylation. Sex Dev 5: 70-76.
9. BERNSTEIN, B.E., MIKKELSEN, T.S., XIE, X., KAMAL, M., HUEBERT, D.J., CUFF, J., FRY, B., MEISSNER, A., WERNIG, M., PLATH, K. et al., (2006). A bivalent chromatin structure marks key developmental genes in embryonic stem cells. Cell 125: 315-326.
10. BIERMANN, K., GOKE, F., NETTERSHEIM, D., ECKERT, D., ZHOU, H., KAHL, P., GASHAW, I., SCHORLE, H. and BUTTNER, R. (2007). c-KIT is frequently mu-tated in bilateral germ cell tumours and down-regulated during progression from intratubular germ cell neoplasia to seminoma. J Pathol 213: 311-318.
11. BIGNELL, G., SMITH, R., HUNTER, C., STEPHENS, P., DAVIES, H., GREENMAN, C., TEAGUE, J., BUTLER, A., EDKINS, S., STEVENS, C. et al., (2006). Sequence analysis of the protein kinase gene family in human testicular germ-cell tumors of adolescents and adults. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 45: 42-46.
12. BOURC'HIS, D. and BESTOR, T.H. (2004). Meiotic catastrophe and retrotransposon reactivation in male germ cells lacking Dnmt3L. Nature 431: 96-99.
13. BRAIT, M., FORD, J.G., PAPAIAHGARI, S., GARZA, M.A., LEE, J.I., LOYO, M., MALDONADO, L., BEGUM, S., MCCAFFREY, L., HOWERTON, M. et al., (2009). Association between lifestyle factors and CpG island methylation in a cancer-free population. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18: 2984-2991.
14. BRAIT, M., MALDONADO, L., BEGUM, S., LOYO, M., WEHLE, D., TAVORA, F.F., LOOIJENGA, L.H., KOWALSKI, J., ZHANG, Z., ROSENBAUM, E. et al., (2012). DNA methylation profiles delineate epigenetic heterogeneity in seminoma and non-seminoma. Br J Cancer 106: 414-423.
15. BRANCO, M.R., FICZ, G. and REIK, W. (2012). Uncovering the role of 5-hydroxy-methylcytosine in the epigenome. Nat Rev Genet 13: 7-13.
16. BROUWERS, M.M., FEITZ, W.F., ROELOFS, L.A., KIEMENEY, L.A., DE GIER, R.P. and ROELEVELD, N. (2006). Hypospadias: a transgenerational effect of diethylstilbestrol? Hum Reprod 21: 666-669.
17. CHAMBERS, I., COLBY, D., ROBERTSON, M., NICHOLS, J., LEE, S., TWEEDIE, S. and SMITH, A. (2003). Functional expression cloning of Nanog, a pluripotency sustaining factor in embryonic stem cells. Cell 113: 643-655.
18. CHAN, Y.S., YANG, L. and NG, H.H. (2011). Transcriptional regulatory networks in embryonic stem cells. Prog Drug Res 67: 239-252.
19. CHEN, C.C., WANG, K.Y. and SHEN, C.K. (2012). The Mammalian de novo DNA Methyltransferases Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b Are Also DNA 5-Hydroxymethyl Cytosine Dehydroxymethylases. J Biol Chem. 87: 33116-33121.
20. CHEN, T., HEVI, S., GAY, F., TSUJIMOTO, N., HE, T., ZHANG, B., UEDA, Y. and LI, E. (2007). Complete inactivation of DNMT1 leads to mitotic catastrophe in human cancer cells. Nat Genet 39: 391-396.
21. COFFEY, J., HUDDART, R.A., ELLIOTT, F., SOHAIB, S.A., PARKER, E., DUDAKIA, D., PUGH, J.L., EASTON, D.F., BISHOP, D.T., STRATTON, M.R. et al., (2007). Testicular microlithiasis as a familial risk factor for testicular germ cell tumour. Br J Cancer 97: 1701-1706.
22. COOLS, M., DROP, S.L., WOLFFENBUTTEL, K.P., OOSTERHUIS, J.W. and LOOI-JENGA, L.H. (2006). Germ cell tumors in the intersex gonad: old paths, new directions, moving frontiers. Endocr Rev 27: 468-484.
23. COOLS, M., PLESKACOVA, J., STOOP, H., HOEBEKE, P., VAN LAECKE, E., DROP, S.L., LEBL, J., OOSTERHUIS, J.W., LOOIJENGA, L.H., WOLFFENBUTTEL, K.P. et al., (2011). Gonadal Pathology and Tumor Risk in Relation to Clinical Characteristics in Patients with 45, X/46, XY Mosaicism. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96: E1171-E1180.
24. DAXINGER, L. and WHITELAW, E. (2012). Understanding transgenerational epi-genetic inheritance via the gametes in mammals. Nat Rev Genet 13: 153-162.
25. DE JONG, J., STOOP, H., GILLIS, A.J., VAN GURP, R.J., VAN DE GEIJN, G.J., BOER, M., HERSMUS, R., SAUNDERS, P.T., ANDERSON, R.A., OOSTERHUIS, J.W. et al., (2008). Differential expression of SOX17 and SOX2 in germ cells and stem cells has biological and clinical implications. J Pathol 215: 21-30.
26. DIETL, J., HORNY, H.P., RUCK, P. and KAISERLING, E. (1993). Dysgerminoma of the ovary. An immunohistochemical study of tumor-infiltrating lymphoreticular cells and tumor cells. Cancer 71: 2562-2568.
27. DOEGE, C.A., INOUE, K., YAMASHITA, T., RHEE, D.B., TRAVIS, S., FUJITA, R., GUARNIERI, P., BHAGAT, G., VANTI, W.B., SHIH, A. et al., (2012). Early-stage epigenetic modification during somatic cell reprogramming by Parp1 and Tet2. Nature.
28. DOI, A., PARK, I.H., WEN, B., MURAKAMI, P., ARYEE, M.J., IRIZARRY, R., HERB, B., LADD-ACOSTA, C., RHO, J., LOEWER, S. et al., (2009). Differential meth-ylation of tissue-and cancer-specific CpG island shores distinguishes human induced pluripotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells and fibroblasts. Nat Genet 41: 1350-1353.
29. ECKERT, D., BIERMANN, K., NETTERSHEIM, D., GILLIS, A.J., STEGER, K., JACK, H.M., MULLER, A.M., LOOIJENGA, L.H. and SCHORLE, H. (2008). Expression of BLIMP1/PRMT5 and concurrent histone H2A/H4 arginine 3 dimethylation in fetal germ cells, CIS/IGCNU and germ cell tumors. BMC Dev Biol 8: 106.
30. ELLINGER, J., ALBERS, P., PERABO, F.G., MULLER, S.C., VON RUECKER, A. and BASTIAN, P.J. (2009). CpG island hypermethylation of cell-free circulating serum DNA in patients with testicular cancer. J Urol 182: 324-329.
31. ERNST, J. and KELLIS, M. (2010). Discovery and characterization of chromatin states for systematic annotation of the human genome. Nat Biotechnol 28: 817-825.
32. ESTELLER, M. (2008). Epigenetics in cancer. N Engl J Med 358: 1148-1159.
33. FERGUSON, J.P., CHO, J.H. and ZHAO, H. (2012). A new approach for the joint analysis of multiple ChIP-seq libraries with application to histone modification. Stat Appl Genet Mol Biol 11: Article 1.
34. GODMANN, M., LAMBROT, R. and KIMMINS, S. (2009). The dynamic epigenetic program in male germ cells: Its role in spermatogenesis, testis cancer, and its response to the environment. Microsc Res Tech 72: 603-619.
35. GRANDJEAN, V. and RASSOULZADEGAN, M. (2009). [Epigenetic inheritance of the sperm: an unexpected role of RNA] Epigenetique du spermatozoide: un role inattendu de l'ARN. Gynecol Obstet Fertil 37: 558-561.
36. HAJKOVA, P., ANCELIN, K., WALDMANN, T., LACOSTE, N., LANGE, U.C., CE-SARI, F., LEE, C., ALMOUZNI, G., SCHNEIDER, R. and SURANI, M.A. (2008). Chromatin dynamics during epigenetic reprogramming in the mouse germ line. Nature 452: 877-881.
37. HAJKOVA, P., ERHARDT, S., LANE, N., HAAF, T., EL-MAARRI, O., REIK, W., WAL-TER, J. and SURANI, M.A. (2002). Epigenetic reprogramming in mouse primordial germ cells. Mech Dev 117: 15-23.
38. HAJKOVA, P., JEFFRIES, S.J., LEE, C., MILLER, N., JACKSON, S.P. and SURANI, M.A. (2010). Genome-wide reprogramming in the mouse germ line entails the base excision repair pathway. Science 329: 78-82.
39. HAMMOUD, S.S., NIX, D.A., HAMMOUD, A.O., GIBSON, M., CAIRNS, B.R. and CARRELL, D.T. (2011). Genome-wide analysis identifies changes in histone retention and epigenetic modifications at developmental and imprinted gene loci in the sperm of infertile men. Hum Reprod 26: 2558-2569.
40. HAMMOUD, S.S., NIX, D.A., ZHANG, H., PURWAR, J., CARRELL, D.T. and CAIRNS, B.R. (2009). Distinctive chromatin in human sperm packages genes for embryo development. Nature 460: 473-478.
41. HAWKINS, R.D., HON, G.C., YANG, C., ANTOSIEWICZ-BOURGET, J.E., LEE, L.K., NGO, Q.M., KLUGMAN, S., CHING, K.A., EDSALL, L.E., YE, Z. et al., (2011). Dynamic chromatin states in human ES cells reveal potential regulatory sequences and genes involved in pluripotency. Cell Res 21: 1393-1409.
42. HAYASHI, K., DE SOUSA LOPES, S.M. and SURANI, M.A. (2007). Germ cell speci-fication in mice. Science 316: 394-396.
43. HERBST, A.L., ULFELDER, H. and POSKANZER, D.C. (1971). Adenocarcinoma of the vagina. Association of maternal stilbestrol therapy with tumor appearance in young women. N Engl J Med 284: 878-881.
44. HERSMUS, R., STOOP, H., VAN DE GEIJN, G.J., EINI, R., BIERMANN, K., OOSTERHUIS, J.W., DHOOGE, C., SCHNEIDER, D.T., MEIJSSEN, I.C., DIN-JENS, W.N.M. et al., (2012). Prevalence of c-KIT Mutations in Gonadoblastoma and Dysgerminomas of Patients with Disorders of Sex Development (DSD) and Ovarian Dysgerminomas. PLoS One 7: e43952.
45. HOLM, T.M., JACKSON-GRUSBY, L., BRAMBRINK, T., YAMADA, Y., RIDEOUT, W.M., 3RD and JAENISCH, R. (2005). Global loss of imprinting leads to widespread tumorigenesis in adult mice. Cancer Cell 8: 275-285.
46. HONECKER, F., STOOP, H., MAYER, F., BOKEMEYER, C., CASTRILLON, D.H., LAU, Y.F., LOOIJENGA, L.H. and OOSTERHUIS, J.W. (2006). Germ cell lineage differentiation in non-seminomatous germ cell tumours. J Pathol 208: 395-400.
47. HONORIO, S., AGATHANGGELOU, A., WERNERT, N., ROTHE, M., MAHER, E.R. and LATIF, F. (2003). Frequent epigenetic inactivation of the RASSF1A tumour suppressor gene in testicular tumours and distinct methylation profiles of semi-noma and nonseminoma testicular germ cell tumours. Oncogene 22: 461-466.
48. HUYGHE, E., MATSUDA, T. and THONNEAU, P. (2003). Increasing incidence of testicular cancer worldwide: a review. J Urol 170: 5-11.
49. HUYGHE, E., PLANTE, P. and THONNEAU, P.F. (2007). Testicular cancer variations in time and space in Europe. Eur Urol 51: 621-628.
50. JONES, P.A. (2012). Functions of DNA methylation: islands, start sites, gene bodies and beyond. Nat Rev Genet 13: 484-492.
51. JONES, P.A. and LIANG, G. (2009). Rethinking how DNA methylation patterns are maintained. Nat Rev Genet 10: 805-811.
52. KAWAKAMI, T., OKAMOTO, K., OGAWA, O. and OKADA, Y. (2004). XIST unmethyl-ated DNA fragments in male-derived plasma as a tumour marker for testicular cancer. Lancet 363: 40-42.
53. KAZAZIAN, H.H., JR. (2004). Mobile elements: drivers of genome evolution. Science 303: 1626-1632.
54. KORKOLA, J.E., HOULDSWORTH, J., DOBRZYNSKI, D., OLSHEN, A.B., REUTER, V.E., BOSL, G.J. and CHAGANTI, R.S. (2005). Gene expression-based classi-fication of nonseminomatous male germ cell tumors. Oncogene 24: 5101-5107.
55. KOUL, S., MCKIERNAN, J.M., NARAYAN, G., HOULDSWORTH, J., BACIK, J., DO-BRZYNSKI, D.L., ASSAAD, A.M., MANSUKHANI, M., REUTER, V.E., BOSL, G.J. et al., (2004). Role of promoter hypermethylation in Cisplatin treatment response of male germ cell tumors. Mol Cancer 3: 16.
56. KREGE, S., BEYER, J., SOUCHON, R., ALBERS, P., ALBRECHT, W., ALGABA, F., BAMBERG, M., BODROGI, I., BOKEMEYER, C., CAVALLIN-STAHL, E. et al., (2008). European consensus conference on diagnosis and treatment of germ cell cancer: a report of the second meeting of the European Germ Cell Cancer Consensus group (EGCCCG): part I. Eur Urol 53: 478-496.
57. KUTANZI, K.R., KOTURBASH, I. and KOVALCHUK, O. (2010). Reversibility of pre-malignant estrogen-induced epigenetic changes. Cell Cycle 9: 3078-3084.
58. LANDER, E.S., LINTON, L.M., BIRREN, B., NUSBAUM, C., ZODY, M. C., BALDWIN, J., DEVON, K., DEWAR, K., DOYLE, M., FITZHUGH, W. et al., (2001). Initial sequenc-ing and analysis of the human genome. Nature 409: 860-921.
59. LANG-MLADEK, C., POPOVA, O., KIOK, K., BERLINGER, M., RAKIC, B., AUFSATZ, W., JONAK, C., HAUSER, M.T. and LUSCHNIG, C. (2010). Transgenerational inheritance and resetting of stress-induced loss of epigenetic gene silencing in Arabidopsis. Mol Plant 3: 594-602.
60. LEE, H.C., GU, W., SHIRAYAMA, M., YOUNGMAN, E., CONTE, D., JR. and MELLO, C.C. (2012). C. elegans piRNAs Mediate the Genome-wide Surveillance of Germline Transcripts. Cell. 150: 78-87.
61. LI, E., BESTOR, T.H. and JAENISCH, R. (1992). Targeted mutation of the DNA methyltransferase gene results in embryonic lethality. Cell 69: 915-926.
62. LISTER, R., PELIZZOLA, M., DOWEN, R.H., HAWKINS, R.D., HON, G., TONTI-FILIPPINI, J., NERY, J.R., LEE, L., YE, Z., NGO, Q.M. et al., (2009). Human DNA methylomes at base resolution show widespread epigenomic differences. Nature 462: 315-322.
63. LONGNECKER, M.P., KLEBANOFF, M.A., BROCK, J.W., ZHOU, H., GRAY, K.A., NEEDHAM, L.L. and WILCOX, A.J. (2002). Maternal serum level of 1, 1-dichlo-ro-2, 2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene and risk of cryptorchidism, hypospadias, and polythelia among male offspring. Am J Epidemiol 155: 313-322.
64. LOOIJENGA, L.H., GILLIS, A.J., STOOP, H., BIERMANN, K. and OOSTERHUIS, J.W. (2011). Dissecting the molecular pathways of (testicular) germ cell tumour pathogenesis; from initiation to treatment-resistance. Int J Androl 34: e234-e251.
65. LOOIJENGA, L.H., GILLIS, A.J., VAN GURP, R.J., VERKERK, A.J. and OOSTER-HUIS, J.W. (1997). X inactivation in human testicular tumors. XIST expression and androgen receptor methylation status. Am J Pathol 151: 581-590.
66. LOOIJENGA, L.H., HERSMUS, R., GILLIS, A.J., PFUNDT, R., STOOP, H.J., VAN GURP, R.J., VELTMAN, J., BEVERLOO, H.B., VAN DRUNEN, E., VAN KESSEL, A.G. et al., (2006). Genomic and expression profiling of human spermatocytic seminomas: primary spermatocyte as tumorigenic precursor and DMRT1 as candidate chromosome 9 gene. Cancer Res 66: 290-302.
67. LOOIJENGA, L.H., STOOP, H., DE LEEUW, H.P., DE GOUVEIA BRAZAO, C.A., GILLIS, A.J., VAN ROOZENDAAL, K.E., VAN ZOELEN, E.J., WEBER, R.F., WOLFFENBUTTEL, K.P., VAN DEKKEN, H. et al., (2003). POU5F1 (OCT3/4) identifies cells with pluripotent potential in human germ cell tumors. Cancer Res 63: 2244-2250.
68. MANSOUR, A.A., GAFNI, O., WEINBERGER, L., ZVIRAN, A., AYYASH, M., RAIS, Y., KRUPALNIK, V., ZERBIB, M., AMANN-ZALCENSTEIN, D., MAZA, I. et al., (2012). The H3K27 demethylase Utx regulates somatic and germ cell epigenetic reprogramming. Nature 488: 409-413.
69. MANTON, K.J., DOUGLAS, M.L., NETZEL-ARNETT, S., FITZPATRICK, D.R., NICOL, D.L., BOYD, A.W., CLEMENTS, J.A. and ANTALIS, T.M. (2005). Hypermethylation of the 5' CpG island of the gene encoding the serine protease Testisin promotes its loss in testicular tumorigenesis. Br J Cancer 92: 760-769.
70. MAYER, F., HONECKER, F., LOOIJENGA, L.H. and BOKEMEYER, C. (2003). Towards an understanding of the biological basis of response to cisplatin-based chemotherapy in germ-cell tumors. Ann Oncol 14: 825-832.
71. MCINTYRE, A., GILBERT, D., GODDARD, N., LOOIJENGA, L. and SHIPLEY, J. (2008). Genes, chromosomes and the development of testicular germ cell tumors of adolescents and adults. Genes Chromosomes Cancer 47: 547-457.
72. MCLAREN, A. (2003). Primordial germ cells in the mouse. Dev Biol 262: 1-15.
73. MELNYK, C.W., MOLNAR, A. and BAULCOMBE, D.C. (2011). Intercellular and systemic movement of RNA silencing signals. EMBO J 30: 3553-3563.
74. MILLAN, J.L. and FISHMAN, W.H. (1995). Biology of human alkaline phosphatases with special reference to cancer. Crit Rev Clin Lab Sci 32: 1-39.
75. MINAMI, K., CHANO, T., KAWAKAMI, T., USHIDA, H., KUSHIMA, R., OKABE, H., OKADA, Y. and OKAMOTO, K. (2010). DNMT3L is a novel marker and is essential for the growth of human embryonal carcinoma. Clin Cancer Res 16: 2751-2759.
76. MORAIS DA SILVA, S., HACKER, A., HARLEY, V., GOODFELLOW, P., SWAIN, A. and LOVELL-BADGE, R. (1996). Sox9 expression during gonadal development implies a conserved role for the gene in testis differentiation in mammals and birds. Nat Genet 14: 62-68.
77. NELSON, V.R., HEANEY, J.D., TESAR, P.J., DAVIDSON, N.O. and NADEAU, J.H. (2012). Transgenerational epigenetic effects of the Apobec1 cytidine deaminase deficiency on testicular germ cell tumor susceptibility and embryonic viability. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109: E2766-E2773.
78. NETTO, G.J., NAKAI, Y., NAKAYAMA, M., JADALLAH, S., TOUBAJI, A., NONOMURA, N., ALBADINE, R., HICKS, J.L., EPSTEIN, J.I., YEGNASUBRAMANIAN, S. et al., (2008). Global DNA hypomethylation in intratubular germ cell neoplasia and seminoma, but not in nonseminomatous male germ cell tumors. Mod Pathol 21: 1337-1344.
79. OGUNBIYI, J.O., SHITTU, O.B., AGHADIUNO, P.U. and LAWANI, J. (1996). Semi-noma arising in cryptorchid testes in Nigerian males. East Afr Med J 73: 129-132.
80. OHINATA, Y., PAYER, B., O'CARROLL, D., ANCELIN, K., ONO, Y., SANO, M., BARTON, S.C., OBUKHANYCH, T., NUSSENZWEIG, M., TARAKHOVSKY, A. et al., (2005). Blimp1 is a critical determinant of the germ cell lineage in mice. Nature 436: 207-213.
81. OKAMOTO, K. and KAWAKAMI, T. (2007). Epigenetic profile of testicular germ cell tumours. Int J Androl 30: 385-392; discussion 392.
82. OKANO, M., BELL, D.W., HABER, D.A. and LI, E. (1999). DNA methyltransferases Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b are essential for de novo methylation and mammalian development. Cell 99: 247-257.
83. OLIVA, R., BAZETT-JONES, D., MEZQUITA, C. and DIXON, G.H. (1987). Factors affecting nucleosome disassembly by protamines in vitro. Histone hyperacetylation and chromatin structure, time dependence, and the size of the sperm nuclear proteins. J Biol Chem 262: 17016-17025.
84. OOSTERHUIS, J.W. and LOOIJENGA, L.H. (2005). Testicular germ-cell tumours in a broader perspective. Nat Rev Cancer 5: 210-222.
85. OOSTERHUIS, J.W., LOOIJENGA, L.H., VAN ECHTEN, J. and DE JONG, B. (1997). Chromosomal constitution and developmental potential of human germ cell tumors and teratomas. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 95: 96-102.
86. PARK, Y.J., CLAUS, R., WEICHENHAN, D. and PLASS, C. (2011). Genome-wide epigenetic modifications in cancer. Prog Drug Res 67: 25-49.
87. POPP, C., DEAN, W., FENG, S., COKUS, S.J., ANDREWS, S., PELLEGRINI, M., JACOBSEN, S.E. and REIK, W. (2010). Genome-wide erasure of DNA methylation in mouse primordial germ cells is affected by AID deficiency. Nature 463: 1101-1105.
88. PRICKETT, A.R. and OAKEY, R.J. (2012). A survey of tissue-specific genomic imprint-ing in mammals. Mol Genet Genomics 287: 621-630.
89. RADA-IGLESIAS, A., BAJPAI, R., SWIGUT, T., BRUGMANN, S.A., FLYNN, R.A. and WYSOCKA, J. (2011). A unique chromatin signature uncovers early developmental enhancers in humans. Nature 470: 279-283.
90. RAPLEY, E.A., TURNBULL, C., AL OLAMA, A.A., DERMITZAKIS, E.T., LINGER, R., HUDDART, R.A., RENWICK, A., HUGHES, D., HINES, S., SEAL, S. et al., (2009). A genome-wide association study of testicular germ cell tumor. Nat Genet 41: 807-810.
91. RASSOULZADEGAN, M. and CUZIN, F. (2010). The making of an organ: RNA medi-ated developmental controls in mice. Organogenesis 6: 33-36.
92. REIK, W. and WALTER, J. (2001). Genomic imprinting: parental influence on the genome. Nat Rev Genet 2: 21-32.
93. ROSENBERG, B., VANCAMP, L. and KRIGAS, T. (1965). Inhibition of Cell Division in Escherichia Coli by Electrolysis Products from a Platinum Electrode. Nature 205: 698-699.
94. SALIDO, E.C., YEN, P.H., MOHANDAS, T.K. and SHAPIRO, L.J. (1992). Expres-sion of the X-inactivation-associated gene XIST during spermatogenesis. Nat Genet 2: 196-199.
95. SAPIENZA, C., PETERSON, A.C., ROSSANT, J. and BALLING, R. (1987). Degree of methylation of transgenes is dependent on gamete of origin. Nature 328: 251-254.
96. SASAKI, H. and MATSUI, Y. (2008). Epigenetic events in mammalian germ-cell development: reprogramming and beyond. Nat Rev Genet 9: 129-140.
97. SCHOLER, H.R., RUPPERT, S., SUZUKI, N., CHOWDHURY, K. and GRUSS, P. (1990). New type of POU domain in germ line-specific protein Oct-4. Nature 344: 435-439.
98. SCHUSTER-BOCKLER, B. and LEHNER, B. (2012). Chromatin organization is a major influence on regional mutation rates in human cancer cells. Nature.
99. SEKI, Y., YAMAJI, M., YABUTA, Y., SANO, M., SHIGETA, M., MATSUI, Y., SAGA, Y., TACHIBANA, M., SHINKAI, Y. and SAITOU, M. (2007). Cellular dynamics as-sociated with the genome-wide epigenetic reprogramming in migrating primordial germ cells in mice. Development 134: 2627-2638.
100. SHAHHOSEINI, M., TAEI, A., MEHRJARDI, N.Z., SALEKDEH, G.H. and BAHARVAND, H. (2010). Epigenetic analysis of human embryonic carcinoma cells during retinoic acid-induced neural differentiation. Biochem Cell Biol 88: 527-538.
101. SHARPE, R.M. and SKAKKEBAEK, N.E. (1993). Are oestrogens involved in falling sperm counts and disorders of the male reproductive tract? Lancet 341: 1392-1395.
102. SHIRAYAMA, M., SETH, M., LEE, H.C., GU, W., ISHIDATE, T., CONTE, D., JR. and MELLO, C.C. (2012). piRNAs Initiate an Epigenetic Memory of Nonself RNA in the C. elegans Germline. Cell 150: 65-77
103. SKAKKEBAEK, N.E., RAJPERT-DE MEYTS, E. and MAIN, K.M. (2001). Testicular dysgenesis syndrome: an increasingly common developmental disorder with environmental aspects. Hum Reprod 16: 972-978.
104. SMIRAGLIA, D.J., SZYMANSKA, J., KRAGGERUD, S.M., LOTHE, R.A., PELTOMAKI, P. and PLASS, C. (2002). Distinct epigenetic phenotypes in seminomatous and nonseminomatous testicular germ cell tumors. Oncogene 21: 3909-3916.
105. SPIERINGS, D.C., DE VRIES, E.G., STEL, A.J., TE RIETSTAP, N., VELLENGA, E. and DE JONG, S. (2004). Low p21Waf1/Cip1 protein level sensitizes testicular germ cell tumor cells to Fas-mediated apoptosis. Oncogene 23: 4862-4872.
106. STOOP, H., KIRKELS, W., DOHLE, G.R., GILLIS, A.J., DEN BAKKER, M.A., BIERMANN, K., OOSTERHUIS, W. and LOOIJENGA, L.H. (2011). Diagnosis of testicular carcinoma in situ'(intratubular and microinvasive)' seminoma and embryonal carcinoma using direct enzymatic alkaline phosphatase reactivity on frozen histological sections. Histopathology 58: 440-446.
107. STORGAARD, L., BONDE, J.P. and OLSEN, J. (2006). Male reproductive disorders in humans and prenatal indicators of estrogen exposure. A review of published epidemiological studies. Reprod Toxicol 21: 4-15.
108. STRAHL, B.D. and ALLIS, C.D. (2000). The language of covalent histone modifica-tions. Nature 403: 41-45.
109. STROHSNITTER, W.C., NOLLER, K.L., HOOVER, R.N., ROBBOY, S.J., PALMER, J.R., TITUS-ERNSTOFF, L., KAUFMAN, R.H., ADAM, E., HERBST, A.L. and HATCH, E.E. (2001). Cancer risk in men exposed in utero to diethylstilbestrol. J Natl Cancer Inst 93: 545-551.
110. SUGIMURA, J., FOSTER, R.S., CUMMINGS, O.W., KORT, E.J., TAKAHASHI, M., LAVERY, T.T., FURGE, K.A., EINHORN, L.H. and TEH, B.T. (2004). Gene expres-sion profiling of early-and late-relapse nonseminomatous germ cell tumor and primitive neuroectodermal tumor of the testis. Clin Cancer Res 10: 2368-2378.
111. SUSNERWALA, S.S., PANDE, S.C., SHRIVASTAVA, S.K. and DINSHAW, K.A. (1991). Dysgerminoma of the ovary: review of 27 cases. J Surg Oncol 46: 43-47.
112. SWAIN, J.L., STEWART, T.A. and LEDER, P. (1987). Parental legacy determines methylation and expression of an autosomal transgene: a molecular mechanism for parental imprinting. Cell 50: 719-727.
113. TAHILIANI, M., KOH, K.P., SHEN, Y., PASTOR, W.A., BANDUKWALA, H., BRUDNO, Y., AGARWAL, S., IYER, L.M., LIU, D.R., ARAVIND, L. et al., (2009). Conversion of 5-methylcytosine to 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in mammalian DNA by MLL partner TET1. Science 324: 930-935.
114. TSUMURA, A., HAYAKAWA, T., KUMAKI, Y., TAKEBAYASHI, S., SAKAUE, M., MAT-SUOKA, C., SHIMOTOHNO, K., ISHIKAWA, F., LI, E., UEDA, H.R. et al., (2006). Maintenance of self-renewal ability of mouse embryonic stem cells in the absence of DNA methyltransferases Dnmt1, Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b. Genes Cells 11: 805-814.
115. UHLENHAUT, N.H. and TREIER, M. (2006). Foxl2 function in ovarian development. Mol Genet Metab 88: 225-234.
116. USHIDA, H., KAWAKAMI, T., MINAMI, K., CHANO, T., OKABE, H., OKADA, Y. and OKAMOTO, K. (2012). Methylation profile of DNA repetitive elements in human testicular germ cell tumor. Mol Carcinog. 51: 711-722.
117. WATANABE, T., TAKEDA, A., TSUKIYAMA, T., MISE, K., OKUNO, T., SASAKI, H., MINAMI, N. and IMAI, H. (2006). Identification and characterization of two novel classes of small RNAs in the mouse germline: retrotransposon-derived siRNAs in oocytes and germline small RNAs in testes. Genes Dev 20: 1732-1743.
118. WERMANN, H., STOOP, H., GILLIS, A.J., HONECKER, F., VAN GURP, R.J., AM-MERPOHL, O., RICHTER, J., OOSTERHUIS, J.W., BOKEMEYER, C. and LOOIJENGA, L.H. (2010). Global DNA methylation in fetal human germ cells and germ cell tumours: association with differentiation and cisplatin resistance. J Pathol 221: 433-442.
119. YANG, J.K. (2008). FLIP as an anti-cancer therapeutic target. Yonsei Med J 49: 19-27.
120. YOUNG, R.A. (2011). Control of the embryonic stem cell state. Cell 144: 940-954.