The role of male contest competition over mates in speciation

Current Zoology

Volumn 58, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 493-509

  QvarnstrÖm, Anna ^a   Vallin, Niclas ^a   Rudh, Andreas ^a  

^a UPPSALA UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Contest competition; Male male competition; Population divergence; Reproductive isolation; Resource based breeding systems; Sexual selection; Speciation

Indexed keywords

EID: 84877786474     PISSN: 16745507     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/czoolo/58.3.493     Document Type: Article

References (152)

1. Alatalo RV, Gustafsson L, Lundberg A, 1994. Male coloration and species recognition in sympatric flycatchers. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 256: 113-118.
2. Alcock J, 1987. The effects of experimental manipulation of resources on the behavior of two calopterygid damselflies that exhibit resource-defense polygyny. Can. J. Zool.-Rev. Canad. De Zool. 65: 2475-2482.
3. Anderson CN, Grether GF, 2010. Interspecific aggression and character displacement of competitor recognition in Hetaerina damselflies. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 277: 549-555.
4. Andersson M, 1994. Sexual Selection. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
5. Arnqvist G, Rowe L, 2002. Antagonistic coevolution between the sexes in a group of insects. Nature 415: 787-789.
6. Arnqvist G, Rowe L, 2005. Sexual Conflict. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
7. Bateson PPG, 1966. The characteristics and context of imprinting. Biol. Rev. 41: 177-220.
8. Berenbaum M, 1983. Coumarins and caterpillars: A case for coevolution. Evolution 37: 163-179.
9. Berglund A, Bisazza A, Pilastro A, 1996. Armaments and ornaments: An evolutionary explanation of traits of dual utility. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 58: 385-399.
10. Birkhead TR, Martinez JG, Burke T, Froman DP, 1999. Sperm mobility determines the outcome of sperm competition in the domestic fowl. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 266: 1759-1764.
11. Bouton N, Seehausen O, van Alphen JJM, 1997. Resource partitioning among rock dwelling haplochromines (Pisces: Cichlidae) from Lake Victoria. Ecol. Freshw. Fish 6: 225-240.
12. Brazil-Boast J, van Rooij E, Pryke SR, Griffith SC, 2011. Interference from long-tailed finches constrains reproduction in the endangered goldian finch. J. Animal. Ecol. 80: 39-48.
13. Briffa M, Sneddon LU, 2007. Physiological constraints on contest behaviour. Func. Ecol. 21: 627-637.
14. Brown WL, Wilson EO, 1956. Character displacement. Syst. Zool. 5: 49-64.
15. Butlin RK, 1995. Reinforcement: An idea evolving. Trends. Ecol. Evol. 10: 432-434.
16. Candolin U, 2004. Opposing selection on a sexually dimorphic trait through female choice and male competition in a water boatman. Evolution 58; 1861-1864.
17. Chellappa S, Huntingford FA, 1989. Depletion of energy reserves during reproductive aggression in male three-spined stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus. J. Fish Biol. 35: 315-316.
18. Clayton NS, 1993. Song, sex and sensitive phases in the behavioural development of birds. Trends. Ecol. Evol. 4: 82-84.
19. Cooley JR, 2007. Decoding asymmetries in reproductive character displacement. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. 156: 89-96.
20. Coyne JA, Orr HA, 1989. Patterns of speciation in Drosophila. Evolution 43: 362-381.
21. Coyne JA, Orr HA, 2004, Speciation. Massachusetts, USA: Sinauer Associates.
22. Crothers L, Gering E, Cummings M, 2011. Aposematic signal variation predicts male-male interactions in a polymorphic poison frog. Evolution 65: 599-605.
23. Dieckmann U, Doebeli M, 1999. On the origin of species by sympatric speciation. Nature 400: 354-357.
24. Dieckmann U, Doebeli M, Metz JA, Tautz D, 2004. Adaptive Speciation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
25. Dijkstra PD, Seehausen O, Pierotti, MER, Groothuis TGG, 2007. Male-male competition and speciation: Aggression bias towards differently coloured rivals varies between stages of speciation in a Lake Victoria cichlid species complex. J. Evol. Biol. 20: 496-502.
26. Dijkstra PD, Groothuis TGG, 2011. Male-male competition as a force in evolutionary diversification: Evidence in haplochromine cichlid fish. Int. J. Evol. Biol. 2011, Article ID 689254.
27. Dobzhansky T, 1935. A critique of the species concept in biology. Phil. of Science 2: 344-355.
28. Dobzhansky T, 1940. Speciation as a stage in evolutionary divergence. Am. Nat. 74: 312-321.
29. Dominey W, 1984. Effects of sexual selection and life history on speciation: Species flocks in African cichlids and Hawaiian Drosphila. In: Echelle AA, Kornfield I ed. Evolution of Fish Species Flocks. Orono, ME: University of Maine Press, 231-249.
30. van Doorn GS, Dieckmann U, Weissing FJ, 2004. Sympatric speciation by sexual selection, a critical re-evaluation. Am. Nat. 163: 709-725.
31. van Doorn GS, Edelaar P, Weissing FJ, 2009. On the origin of species by natural and sexual selection. Science 326: 1704- 1707.
32. Drost R, 1936. Über das Brutkleid männlicher Trauerfliegenfänger Muscicapa hypoleuca. Vogelzug 6: 179-186.
33. Dunn M, Copelston M, Workman L, 2004. Trade-offs and seasonal variation in territorial defense and predator evasion in the European Robin Erithacus rubecula. Ibis 146: 77-84.
34. Edwards SV, Kingan SB, Calkins JD, Balakrishnan CN, Jennings WB et al., 2005. Speciation in birds: Genes, geography, and sexual selection. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 102: 6550-6557.
35. Elmer KR, Kusche H, Lehtonen TK, Meyer A, 2010. Local variation and parallel evolution: Morphological and genetic diversity across a species complex of neotropical crater lake cichlid fishes. Philos. T. R. Soc. B. 365: 1763-1782.
36. Fabricius E, 1991. Interspecific mate choice following crossfostering in a mixed colony of greylag geese Anser anser and canada geese Branta canadensis: A study on development and persistence of species preferences. Ethology 88: 287-296.
37. Farr JA, 1977. Male rarity or novelty, female choice behaviour, and sexual selection in the guppy Poecilia reticulata. Evolution 31: 162-168.
38. Feder JL, Opp SB, Wlazlo B, Reynolds K, Go W et al., 1994. Host fidelity is an effective premating barrier between sympatric races of the apple maggot fly. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 91: 7990-7994.
39. Felsenstein J, 1981. Skepticism towards Santa Rosalia, or why are there so few kinds of animals? Evolution 35: 124-138.
40. Gavrilets S 2000. Rapid evolution of reproductive barriers driven by sexual conflict. Nature 403: 886-889.
41. Gavrilets S, 2004. Fitness landscapes and the origin of species. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
42. Grant BR, Grant PR, 1993. Evolution of Darwin finches caused by a rare climatic event. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 252: 253-253.
43. Grant PR, Grant BR, 1997. Genetics and the origin of bird species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 94: 7768-7775.
44. Grear DA, Perkins SE, Hudson PJ, 2009. Does elevated testosterone result in increased exposure and transmission of parasites? Ecol. Letters 12:528-537.
45. Grether GF, Losin N, Anderson CN, Okamoto K, 2009. The role of interspecific interference competition in character displacement and the evolution of competitor recognition. Biol. Rev. 84: 617-635.
46. Gross MR, 1996. Alternative reproductive strategies and tactics: Diversity within sexes. Trends Ecol. Evol. 11: 92-98.
47. Gröning J, Hochkirch A, 2008. Reproductive interference between animal species. Q. Rev. Biol. 83: 257-282.
48. Gustafsson L, Pärt T, 1991. Interspecific relations between collared and pied flycatchers. Proc. Int. Orn. Con. 20: 1425-1431.
49. Haldane JBS, 1922. Sex-ratio and unisexual sterility in hybrid animals. J. Gen. 12:101-109.
50. Harris MP, 1970. Abnormal migration and hybridization of Larus argentatus and L. fuscus after interspecies fostering experiments. Ibis 112: 488-498.
51. Hendry AP, Day T, 2005. Population structure attributable to reproductive time: Isolation by time and adaptation by time. Mol. Ecol. 14: 901-916.
52. Higashi M, Takimoto G, Yamamura N, 1999. Sympatric speciation by sexual selection. Nature 402: 523-526.
53. Hoekstra HE, Hirschmann RJ, Bundey RA, Insel PA, Crossland JP, 2006. A single amino acid mutation contributes to adaptive beach mouse color pattern. Science 313: 101-104.
54. Hofreiter M, Schöneberg T, 2010. The genetic and evolutionary basis of colour variation in vertebrates. Cell. Mol. Life. Sci. 67: 2591-2603.
55. Hoskin CJ, Higgie M, 2010. Speciation via species interactions: The divergence of mating traits within species. Ecol. Lett. 13:409-420.
56. Hoskin CJ, Higgie M, McDonald KR, Moritz C, 2005. Reinforcement drives rapid allopatric speciation. Nature 437: 1353-1356.
57. Hostert EE, 1997. Reinforcement: A new perspective on an old controversy. Evolution 51: 697-702.
58. Howard DJ, 1993. Reinforcement: Origin, dynamics, and fate of an evolutionary hypothesis. In: Harrison RG ed. Hybrid Zones and the Evolutionary Process. New York, New York, USA: Oxford University Press, 46-69.
59. Huhta E, Siikamäki P, Jokimäki J, 1997. Small scale geographical variation in plumage colour of pied flycatcher males. J. Avian. Biol. 28: 92-94.
60. Hunt J, Simmons LW, 2000. Maternal and paternal effects on offspring phenotype in the dung beetle Onthophagus taurus. Evolution 54: 936-941.
61. Hunt J, Breuker CJ, Sadowski JA, Moore AJ, 2009. Male-male competition, female mate choice and their interaction: Determining total sexual selection. J. Evol. Biol. 22: 13-26.
62. Huntingford FA, Turner AK, 1987. Animal Conflict. London: Chapman and Hall.
63. Hurtado-Gonzales JL, Uy JAC, 2009. Alternative mating strategies may favour the persistence of a genetically based colour polymorphism in a pentamorphic fish. Anim. Behav. 77: 1187-1194.
64. Jakobsson S, Brick O, Kullberg C, 1995. Escalated fighting behaviour incurs increased predation risk. Anim. Behav. 49: 235-239.
65. Irwin DE, Price T, 1999. Sexual imprinting, learning and speciation. Heredity 82: 347-354.
66. Kimura K, Chiba S, 2010. Interspecific interference competition alters habitat use patterns in two species of land snails. Evol. Ecol. 24: 815-825.
67. Kirkpatrick M, 1987. Sexual selection by female choice in polygynous animals. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18: 43-70.
68. Kirkpatrick M, Ravigné V, 2002. Speciation by natural and sexual selection: models and experiments. Am. Nat. 159: 22-35.
69. Kirkpatrick M, Nuismer SL, 2004. Sexual selection can constrain sympatric speciation. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 271:687-693.
70. Knight ME, Turner GF, 2004. Laboratory mating trials indicate incipient speciation by sexual selection among populations of the cichlid fish Pseudotropheus zebra from Lake Malawi. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 271:675-680.
71. Kozak GM, Head ML, Boighman JW, 2011. Sexual imprinting on ecologically divergent traits leads to sexual isolation in sticklebacks. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 278:2604-2610.
72. Kraaijeveld K, Kraaijeveld-Smit FJL, Maan ME, 2011. Sexual selection and speciation: The comparative evidence revisited. Biol. Rev. 86: 367-377
73. Král M, Järvi T, Biclk V, 1988. Inter-specific aggression between the collared flycatcher and the pied flycatcher: The selective agent for the evolution of light colored male pied flycatcher populations. Ornis. Scand. 19: 287-289.
74. Labonne J, Hendry AP, 2010. Natural and sexual selection giveth and taketh away reproductive barriers: Models of population divergence in guppies. Am. Nat. 176: 26-39.
75. Lande R, 1981. Models of speciation by sexual selection on poly genic traits. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 78: 3721-3725.
76. Lank DB, Smith CM, Hanotte O, Burke TA, Cooke F, 1995. Genetic polymorphism for alternative mating behavior in lekking male ruff Philomachus pugnax. Nature 378: 59-62.
77. Maan ME, Cummings ME, 2008. Female preferences for aposematic signal components in a polymorphic poison frog. Evolution 62: 2334-2345.
78. Maan ME, Seehausen O, 2011. Ecology, sexual selection and speciation. Ecol. Lett. 14:591-602.
79. Mallet J, 1989. The genetics of warning colour in Peruvian hybrid zones of Heliconius erato and H. melpomene. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 236: 163-185.
80. Manceau M, Domingues VS, Mallarino R, Hoekstra HE, 2011. The developmental role of agouti in color pattern evolution. Science 331: 1062-1065.
81. Martinez-Sanchis S, Arnedo MT, Salvador A, Moya-Albiol L, Gonzales-Bono E, 2003. Effects of chronic administration with high doses of testosterone propionate on behavioral and physiological parameters in mice with differing basal aggressiveness. Aggress. Behav. 29: 173-189.
82. Mayr E, 1963. Animal Species and Evolution. Cambridge: Belknap Press.
83. Mendelson TC, 2003. Sexual isolation evolves faster than hybrid inviability in a diverse and sexually dimorphic genus of fish (Percidae: Etheostoma). Evolution 57:317-327.
84. Mikami OK, Kohda M, Kawata M, 2004. A new hypothesis for species co-existence, male-male repulsion promotes co-existence of competing species. Pop. Ecol. 46: 213-217.
85. Milligan BG, 1985. Evolutionary divergence and character displacement in two phenotypically-variable, competing species. Evolution 39: 1207-1222.
86. Moczek AP, Emlen DJ, 1999. Proximate determination of male horn dimorphism in the beetle Onthophagus taurus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae). J. Evol. Biol. 12:27-37.
87. Moczek AP, Emlen DJ, 2000. Male horn dimorphism in the scarab beetle Onthophagus taurus: Do alternative reproductive tactics favor alternative phenotypes? Anim. Behav, 59: 459-466.
88. Mougeot F, Irvine JR, Seivwright L, Redpath SM, Piertney S, 2004. Testosterone, immunocompetence, and honest sexual signaling in male red grouse. Behav. Ecol. 15: 930-937.
89. Mougeot F, Evans SA, Redpath SM, 2005. Interactions between population processes in a cyclic species: Parasites reduce autumn territorial behaviour of male red grouse. Oecologia 144: 289-298.
90. Muller HJ, 1940. Bearing in the Drosophila work on systematics. In: Huxley JS ed. The New Systematics. Oxford: Clarenton Press, 185-268.
91. Nagl S, Tichy H, Mayer WE, Takezaki N, Takahata N et al., 2000. The origin and age of haplochromine fishes in Lake Victoria, East Africa. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 267: 1049-1061.
92. Nosil P, Crespi BJ, Sandoval CP, 2003. Reproductive isolation driven by the combined effects of ecological adaptation and reinforcement. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 207: 1911-1918.
93. Nosil P, Harmon LJ, Seehausen O, 2009. Ecological explanations for (incomplete) speciation. Trends. Ecol. Evol. 24:145-156.
94. Noor MA, 1995. Speciation driven by natural selection in Drosophila. Nature 375: 674-675.
95. Noor MAF, 1999. Reinforcement and other consequences of sympatry. Heredity 83: 503-508.
96. Ortiz-Barrientos D, Grealy A, Nosil, P. 2009. The genetics and ecology of reinforcement: Implications for the evolution of prezygotic isolation in sympatry and beyond. Ann. Ny. Acad. Sci. 1168: 156-182.
97. Panhuis TM, Butlin R, Zuk M, Tregenza T, 2001. Sexual selection and speciation. Trends Ecol. Evol. 16: 364-371.
98. Parker GA, 1979. Sexual selection and sexual conflict. In: Blum MS, Blum NA ed. Sexual Selection and Reproductive Competition in Insects. New York: Academic, 23-166.
99. Pearce D, Pryke SR, Griffith SC, 2011. Interspecific aggression for nest sites: Model experiments with long-tailed finches Poephilla acuticauda and endangered gouldian finches Erythrura gouldiae. Auk 128: 497-505.
100. Pfennig KS, Pfennig DW, 2009. Character displacement: Ecological and reproductive responses to a common evolutionary problem. Q. Rev. Biol. 84: 253-276.
101. Polak M, Starmer WT, 1998. Parasite-induced risk of mortality elevates reproductive effort in male Drosophila. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 265: 2197-2201.
102. Price T, 1998. Sexual selection and natural selection in bird speciation. Philos. T. R. Soc. B. 353: 251-260.
103. Price TD, 2002. Domesticated birds as a model for the genetics of speciation by sexual selection. Genetica 116: 311-327.
104. Price TD, Bouvier MM, 2002. The evolution of F1 postzygotic incompatibilities in birds. Evolution 56:2083-2089.
105. Price TD, 2007. Speciation in Birds. Greenwood Village, CO: Roberts & Company.
106. Pröhl H, 2005. Territorial behavior in dendrobatid frogs. J. Herpet. 39: 354-365.
107. Qvarnström A, Forsgren E, 1998. Should females prefer dominant males? Trends Ecol. Evol. 13: 498-501.
108. Qvarnström A, Blomgren V, Wiley C, Svedin N, 2004. Female collared flycatchers learn to prefer males with an artificial novel ornament. Behav. Ecol. 15: 543-548.
109. Qvarnström A, Brommer JE, Gustafsson L, 2006. Testing the genetics underlying the co-evolution of mate choice and ornament in the wild. Nature 441: 84-86.
110. Qvarnström A, Wiley C, Svedin N, Vallin N, 2009. Life-history divergence facilitates regional coexistence of competing Ficedula flycatchers. Ecology 90: 1948-1957.
111. Reynolds RG, Fitzpatrick BM, 2007. Assortative mating in poison-dart frogs based on an ecologically important trait. Evolution 61: 2253-2259.
112. Rice WR, Chippendale AK, 2001. Sexual recombination and the power of natural selection. Science 294: 555-559.
113. Rice AM, Rudh A, Ellegren H, Qvarnström A, 2011. A guide to the genomics of ecological speciation in natural animal populations. Ecol. Lett. 14: 9-18.
114. Ritchie MG, 2007. Sexual selection and speciation. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. S. 38: 79-102.
115. Roskaft E, Järvi T, 1992. Interspecific competition and the evolution of plumage-color variation in three closely related old-world flycatchers Ficedula spp. J. Zool. 228: 521-532.
116. Rudh A, Rogell B, Håstad O, Qvarnström A, 2011. Rapid population divergence linked with co-variation between coloration and sexual display in Strawberry poison frogs. Evolution 65: 1271-1282.
117. Rundle HD, Nosil P, 2005. Ecological speciation. Ecol. Lett. 8: 336-352.
118. Saporito RA, Zuercher R, Roberts M, Gerow KG, Donnelly MA, 2007. Experimental evidence for aposematism in the dendrobatid poison frog Oophaga pumilio. Copeia 4: 1006-1011.
119. Sætre G-P, Král M, Bičík V, 1993. Experimental evidence for interspecific female mimcry in sympatric Ficedula flycatchers. Evolution 47: 939-945.
120. Sætre G-P, Moum T, Bures T, Král M, Adamjan M et al., 1997. A sexually selected character displacement in flycatchers reinforces premating isolation. Nature 387: 589-592.
121. Schluter D, 2000. The Ecology of Adaptive Radiation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
122. Schluter D, Price T, 1993. Honesty, perception and population divergence in sexually selected traits. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 253: 117-122.
123. Seehausen O, Bouton N, 1997. Microdistribution and fluctuations in niche overlap in a rocky shore cichlid community in Lake Victoria. Ecol. Freshw. Fish 6: 161-173.
124. Seehausen O, Schluter D, 2004. Male-male competition and nuptial-colour displacement as a diversifying force in Lake Victoria cichlid fishes. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 271: 1345-1353.
125. Seehausen O, van Alphen JJM, 1999. Can sympatric speciation by disruptive sexual selection explain rapid evolution of cichlid diversity in Lake Victoria? Ecol. Lett. 2: 262-271.
126. Servedio MR, 2009. The role of linkage disequilibrium in the evolution of premating isolation. Heredity 102: 51-56.
127. Servedio MR, van Doorn GS, Kopp M, Frame AM, Nosil P, 2011. Magic traits in speciation: 'magic' but not rare? Trends. Ecol. Evol. 26: 389-397.
128. Shuster SM, Wade MJ, 1991. Equal mating success among male reproductive strategies in a marine isopod. Nature 350: 608-610.
129. Siddiqi A, Cronin TW, Loew ER, Vorobyev M, Summers K, 2004. Interspecific and intraspecific views of color signals in the strawberry poison frog Dendrobates pumilio. J. Exp. Biol. 207: 2471-2485.
130. Sinervo A, Lively CM, 1996, The rock-paper-scissors game and the evolution of alternative male strategies. Nature 380: 240-243.
131. Summers K, Symula R, Clough M, Cronin T, 1999. Visual mate choice in poison frogs. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B. 266: 2141-2145.
132. Summers K, Clough ME, 2001. The evolution of coloration and toxicity in the poison frog family (Dendrobatidae). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 98: 6227-6232.
133. Summers K, Cronin TW, Kennedy T, 2003. Variation in spectral reflectance among populations of Dendrobates pumilio, the strawberry poison frog, in the Bocas del Toro Archipelago, Panama. J. Biogeo. 30: 35-53.
134. Svensson EI, Gosden TP, 2007. Contemporary evolution of secondary sexual traits in the wild. Func. Ecol. 21: 422-433.
135. Svensson EI, Eroukhmanoff F, Karlsson K, Runemark A, Brodin A, 2010. A role of learning in population divergence of mate preference. Evolution 64: 3101-3113.
136. Théron A, Combes C, 1995. Asynchrony of infection timing, habitat preference, and sympatric speciation of Schistosome parasites. Evolution 49: 372-375.
137. Trivers R, 1972. Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Champell B ed. Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man. London: Heinemann, 136-179.
138. Tuttle EM, 2003. Alternative reproductive strategies in the white-throated sparrow: Behavioral and genetic evidence. Behav. Ecol. 14: 425-432.
139. Tynkkynen K, Rantala MJ, Suhonen J, 2004. Interspecific aggression and character displacement in the damselfly Calopteryx splendens. J. Evol. Biol. 17: 759-767.
140. Tynkkynen K, Kotiaho JS, Luojumaki M, Suhonen J, 2005. Interspecific aggression causes negative selection on sexual characters. Evolution 59: 1838-1843.
141. Tynkkynen K, Kotiaho JS, Luojumaki M, Suhonen J, 2006. Interspecific territoriality in Calopteryx damselflies: The role of secondary sexual characters. Anim. Behav. 71: 299-306.
142. Vallin N, Qvarnström A, 2011. Learning the hard way: Imprinting can enhance enforced shifts in habitat choice. Int. J. Ecol., in press.
143. Vallin N, Rice AM, Arntsen H, Kulma K, Qvarnström A, 2012a. Combined effects of interspecific competition and hybridization impede local coexistence of Ficedula flycatchers. Evol. Ecol. in press
144. Vallin N, Rice AM, Bailey RI, Husby A, Qvarnström A, 2012b. Positive feedback between ecological and reproductive character displacement in a young avian hybrid zone. Evolution in press.
145. Wang IJ, Shaffer HB, 2008. Rapid color evolution in an aposematic species: A phylogenetic analysis of color variation in the strikingly polymorphic strawberry poison-dart frog. Evolution 62: 2742-2759.
146. West-Eberhard MJ, 1983. Sexual selection, social competition, and speciation. Q. Rev. Biol. 58: 155-183.
147. Wirtz P, 1999. Mother species - father species: Unidirectional hybridization in animals with female choice. Anim. Behav. 58: 1-12.
148. Wong BBM, Candolin U, 2005. How is female mate choice affected by male competition? Biol. Rev. 80: 559-571.
149. Wu C-I, Davies AW, 1993. Evolution of post-mating reproductive isolation: The composite nature of Haldane's rule and its genetic basis. Am. Nat. 142:187-212.
150. Wu C-I. Johnson NA, Palopolo MF, 1996. Haldane's rule and its legacy: Why are there so many sterile males? Trends. Ecol. Evol. 11: 281-284.
151. Young KA, Whitman JM, Turner GF, 2009. Secondary contact during adaptive radiation: A community matrix for Lake Malawi cichlids. J. Evol. Biol. 22: 882-889.
152. Zimmerer EJ, Kallman KD, 1989. Genetic basis for alternative reproductive tactics in the pygmy swordtail Xiphophorus nigrensis. Evolution 43: 1298-1307.