Children's Phthalate Intakes and Resultant Cumulative Exposures Estimated from Urine Compared with Estimates from Dust Ingestion, Inhalation and Dermal Absorption in Their Homes and Daycare Centers

PLoS ONE

Volumn 8, Issue 4, 2013, Pages

  Bekö, Gabriel ^a   Weschler, Charles J ^a,b   Langer, Sarka ^c   Callesen, Michael ^d   Toftum, Jørn ^a   Clausen, Geo ^a  

^a TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF DENMARK   (Denmark)

^b RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c IVL SWEDISH ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Sweden)

^d ODENSE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Denmark)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

DI(ISOBUTYL) PHTHALATE; DI(N BUTYL) PHTHALATE; PHTHALIC ACID; PHTHALIC ACID BENZYL BUTYL ESTER; PHTHALIC ACID BIS(2 ETHYLHEXYL) ESTER; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; DUST; PHTHALIC ACID DERIVATIVE; POLLUTANT;

AMBIENT AIR; ARTICLE; CHILD; CONTROLLED STUDY; DANISH; DAY CARE; DIETARY INTAKE; DUST EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ETHNIC GROUP; FEMALE; HUMAN; INHALATION; MALE; PRESCHOOL CHILD; RESIDENTIAL HOME; SKIN ABSORPTION; URINE LEVEL; DENMARK; DUST; INDOOR AIR POLLUTION; METABOLISM; POLLUTANT; URINE;

AIR POLLUTION, INDOOR; CHILD; CHILD DAY CARE CENTERS; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; DENMARK; DUST; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; HUMANS; INHALATION; PHTHALIC ACIDS; SKIN ABSORPTION;

EID: 84876513894     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19326203     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062442     Document Type: Article

References (141)

1. Jurewicz J, Hanke W, (2011) Exposure to phthalates: Reproductive outcome and children health. a review of epidemiological studies. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health 24: 115-141.
2. Martino-Andrade AJ, Chahoud I, (2010) Reproductive toxicity of phthalate esters. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 54: 148-157.
3. Kimber I, Dearman RJ, (2010) An assessment of the ability of phthalates to influence immune and allergic responses. Toxicology 271: 73-82.
4. Bornehag CG, Nanberg E, (2010) Phthalate exposure and asthma in children. International Journal of Andrology 33: 333-345.
5. Meeker JD, Sathyanarayana S, Swan SH, (2009) Phthalates and other additives in plastics: Human exposure and associated health outcomes. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 364: 2097-2113.
6. Swan SH, (2008) Environmental phthalate exposure in relation to reproductive outcomes and other health endpoints in humans. Environmental Research 108: 177-184.
7. Sathyanarayana S, (2008) Phthalates and children's health. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care 38: 34-49.
8. Jaakkola JJK, Knight TL, (2008) The role of exposure to phthalates from polyvinyl chloride products in the development of asthma and allergies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives 116: 845-853.
9. Hauser R, Calafat AM, (2005) Phthalates and human health. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 62: 806-18.
10. Whyatt RM, Liu X, Rauh VA, Calafat AM, Just AC, et al. (2012) Maternal prenatal urinary phthalate metabolite concentrations and child mental, psychomotor, and behavioral development at 3 years of age. Environmental Health Perspectives 120: 290-295.
11. Kim Y, Ha E, Kim E, Park H, Ha M, et al. (2011) Prenatal exposure to phthalates and infant development at 6 months: Prospective mothers and children's environmental health (MOCEH) study. Environmental Health Perspectives 119: 1495-1500.
12. Engel SM, Miodovnik A, Canfield RL, Zhu C, Silva MJ, et al. (2010) Prenatal phthalate exposure is associated with childhood behavior and executive functioning. Environmental Health Perspectives 118: 565-571.
13. Swan SH, Liu F, Hines M, Kruse RL, Wang C, et al. (2010) Prenatal phthalate exposure and reduced masculine play in boys. International Journal of Andrology 33: 259-267.
14. Lin L, Wang S, Chang Y, Huang P, Cheng J, et al. (2011) Associations between maternal phthalate exposure and cord sex hormones in human infants. Chemosphere 83: 1192-1199.
15. Just AC, Whyatt RM, Perzanowski MS, Calafat AM, Perera FP, et al. (2012) Prenatal exposure to butylbenzyl phthalate and early eczema in an urban cohort. Environmental Health Perspectives 120: 1475-1480.
16. Mendiola J, Jorgensen N, Andersson A, Calafat AM, Silva MJ, et al. (2011) Associations between urinary metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and reproductive hormones in fertile men. International Journal of Andrology 34: 369-378.
17. Testa C, Nuti F, Hayek J, De Felice C, Chelli M, et al. (2012) Di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and autism spectrum disorders. Asn Neuro 4: 223-229.
18. Cho S, Bhang S, Hong Y, Shin M, Kim B, et al. (2010) Relationship between environmental phthalate exposure and the intelligence of school-age children. Environmental Health Perspectives 118: 1027-1032.
19. Toft G, Jonsson BAG, Lindh CH, Jensen TK, Hjollund NH, et al. (2012) Association between pregnancy loss and urinary phthalate levels around the time of conception. Environmental Health Perspectives 120: 458-463.
20. Frederiksen H, Sorensen K, Mouritsen A, Aksglaede L, Hagen CP, et al. (2012) High urinary phthalate concentration associated with delayed pubarche in girls. International Journal of Andrology 35: 216-226.
21. Hatch EE, Nelson JW, Stahlhut RW, Webster TF, (2010) Association of endocrine disruptors and obesity: Perspectives from epidemiological studies. International Journal of Andrology 33: 324-331.
22. Ferguson KK, Loch-Caruso R, Meeker JD, (2011) Urinary phthalate metabolites in relation to biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress: NHANES 1999-2006. Environmental Research 111: 718-726.
23. Svensson K, Hernandez-Ramirez RU, Burguete-Garcia A, Cebrian ME, Calafat AM, et al. (2011) Phthalate exposure associated with self-reported diabetes among mexican women. Environmental Research 111: 792-796.
24. Stroheker T, Cabaton N, Nourdin G, Regnier JF, Lhuguenot JC, et al. (2005) Evaluation of anti-androgenic activity of di-(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. Toxicology 208: 115-121.
25. Chauvigne F, Menuet A, Lesne L, Chagnon M, Chevrier C, et al. (2009) Time- and dose-related effects of di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate and its main metabolites on the function of the rat fetal testis in vitro. Environmental Health Perspectives 117: 515-521.
26. Koch HM, Wittassek M, Bruening T, Angerer J, Heudorf U, (2011) Exposure to phthalates in 5-6 years old primary school starters in germany-A human biomonitoring study and a cumulative risk assessment. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 214: 188-195.
27. Heudorf U, Mersch-Sundermann V, Angerer J, (2007) Phthalates: Toxicology and exposure. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 210: 623-634.
28. Gray LE, Wilson VS, Stoker T, Lambright C, Furr J, et al. (2006) Adverse effects of environmental antiandrogens and androgens on reproductive development in mammals. International Journal of Andrology 29: 96-104.
29. Howdeshell KL, Furr J, Lambright CR, Rider CV, Wilson VS, et al. (2007) Cumulative effects of dibutyl phthalate and diethylhexyl phthalate on male rat reproductive tract development: Altered fetal steroid hormones and genes. Toxicological Sciences 99: 190-202.
30. Howdeshell KL, Wilson VS, Furr J, Lambright CR, Rider CV, et al. (2008) A mixture of five phthalate esters inhibits fetal testicular testosterone production in the sprague-dawley rat in a cumulative, dose-additive manner. Toxicological Sciences 105: 153-165.
31. Howdeshell KL, Rider CV, Wilson VS, Gray LE, (2008) Mechanisms of action of phthalate esters, individually and in combination, to induce abnormal reproductive development in male laboratory rats. Environmental Research 108: 168-176.
32. Rider CV, Furr J, Wilson VS, Gray LE, (2008) A mixture of seven antiandrogens induces reproductive malformations in rats. International Journal of Andrology 31: 249-262.
33. Rider CV, Wilson VS, Howdeshell KL, Hotchkiss AK, Furr JR, et al. (2009) Cumulative effects of in utero administration of mixtures of "antiandrogens" on male rat reproductive development. Toxicologic Pathology 37: 100-113.
34. Rider CV, Furr JR, Wilson VS, Gray LE, (2010) Cumulative effects of in utero administration of mixtures of reproductive toxicants that disrupt common target tissues via diverse mechanisms of toxicity. International Journal of Andrology 33: 443-462.
35. Christiansen S, Scholze M, Dalgaard M, Vinggaard AM, Axelstad M, et al. (2009) Synergistic disruption of external male sex organ development by a mixture of four antiandrogens. Environmental Health Perspectives 117: 1839-1846.
36. Hannas BR, Lambright CS, Furr J, Howdeshell KL, Wilson VS, et al. (2011) Dose-response assessment of fetal testosterone production and gene expression levels in rat testes following in utero exposure to diethylhexyl phthalate, diisobutyl phthalate, diisoheptyl phthalate, and diisononyl phthalate. Toxicological Sciences 123: 206-216.
37. NRC (2008) Phthalates and cumulative risk assessment - The tasks ahead. Committee on the Health Risks of Phthalates, Board on Environmental Science and Technology, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, DC, USA.
38. Kortenkamp A, Faust M, (2010) Combined exposures to anti-androgenic chemicals: Steps towards cumulative risk assessment. International Journal of Andrology 33: 463-472.
39. Teuschler LK, Hertzberg RC, (1995) Current and future risk assessment guidelines, policy, and methods development for chemical mixtures. Toxicology 105: 137-144.
40. Søeborg T, Frederiksen H, Andersson AM, (2012) Cumulative risk assessment of phthalate exposure of danish children and adolescents using the hazard index approach. International Journal of Andrology 35: 245-252.
41. Wormuth M, Scheringer M, Vollenweider M, Hungerbuhler K, (2006) What are the sources of exposure to eight frequently used phthalic acid esters in europeans? Risk Analysis 26: 803-824.
42. Itoh H, Yoshida K, Masunaga S, (2007) Quantitative identification of unknown exposure pathways of phthalates based on measuring their metaholites in human urine. Environmental Science & Technology 41: 4542-4547.
43. Guo Y, Kannan K, (2011) Comparative assessment of human exposure to phthalate esters from house dust in china and the united states. Environmental Science & Technology 45: 3788-3794.
44. Kang Y, Man YB, Cheung KC, Wong MH, (2012) Risk assessment of human exposure to bioaccessible phthalate esters via indoor dust around the pearl river delta. Environmental Science & Technology 46: 8422-8430.
45. Romero-Franco M, Hernandez-Ramirez RU, Calafat AM, Cebrian ME, Needham LL, et al. (2011) Personal care product use and urinary levels of phthalate metabolites in mexican women. Environment International 37: 867-871.
46. Koniecki D, Wang R, Moody RP, Zhu J, (2011) Phthalates in cosmetic and personal care products: Concentrations and possible dermal exposure. Environmental Research 111: 329-336.
47. Sathyanarayana S, Karr CJ, Lozano P, Brown E, Calafat AM, et al. (2008) Baby care products: Possible sources of infant phthalate exposure. Pediatrics 121: E260-E268.
48. Janjua NR, Mortensen GK, Andersson A, Kongshoj B, Skakkebaek NE, et al. (2007) Systemic uptake of diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, and butyl paraben following whole-body topical application and reproductive and thyroid hormone levels in humans. Environmental Science & Technology 41: 5564-5570.
49. Janjua NR, Frederiksen H, Skakkebaek NE, Wulf HC, Andersson A, (2008) Urinary excretion of phthalates and paraben after repeated whole-body topical application in humans. International Journal of Andrology 31: 118-129.
50. Weschler CJ, Nazaroff WW, (2008) Semivolatile organic compounds in indoor environments. Atmospheric Environment 42: 9018-9040.
51. Weschler CJ, Nazaroff WW, (2012) SVOC exposure indoors: Fresh look at dermal pathways. Indoor Air 22: 356-377.
52. Xu Y, Hubal EAC, Clausen PA, Little JC, (2009) Predicting residential exposure to phthalate plasticizer emitted from vinyl flooring: A mechanistic analysis. Environmental Science & Technology 43: 2374-2380.
53. Xu Y, Hubal EAC, Little JC, (2010) Predicting residential exposure to phthalate plasticizer emitted from vinyl flooring: Sensitivity, uncertainty, and implications for biomonitoring. Environmental Health Perspectives 118: 253-258.
54. Little JC, Weschler CJ, Nazaroff WW, Liu Z, Hubal EAC, (2012) Rapid methods to estimate potential exposure to semivolatile organic compounds in the indoor environment. Environmental Science & Technology 46: 11171-11178.
55. Gevao B, Al-Ghadban AN, Bahloul M, Uddin S, Zafar J (2013) Phthalates in indoor dust in Kuwait: Implications for non-dietary human exposure. Indoor Air: in press, doi:10.1111/ina.12001.
56. Weschler CJ, Nazaroff WW, (2010) SVOC partitioning between the gas phase and settled dust indoors. Atmospheric Environment 44: 3609-3620.
57. Needham LL, Calafat AM, Barr DB, (2007) Uses and issues of biomonitoring. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 210: 229-238.
58. Nomiyama T, Omae K, Ishizuka C, Yamauchi T, Kawasumi Y, et al. (2000) Dermal absorption of N,N-dimethylacetamide in human volunteers. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 73: 121-126.
59. Nomiyama T, Nakashima H, Chen LL, Tanaka S, Miyauchi H, et al. (2001) N,N-dimethylformamide: Significance of dermal absorption and adjustment method for urinary N-methylformamide concentration as a biological exposure item. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 74: 224-228.
60. Mielke H, Partosch F, Gundert-Remy U, (2011) The contribution of dermal exposure to the internal exposure of bisphenol A in man. Toxicology Letters 204: 190-198.
61. Kohn MC, Parham F, Masten SA, Portier CJ, Shelby MD, et al. (2000) Human exposure estimates for phthalates. Environmental Health Perspectives 108: A440-A442.
62. Koch HM, Drexler H, Angerer J, (2003) An estimation of the daily intake of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and other phthalates in the general population. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 206: 77-83.
63. Koch HM, Becker K, Wittassek M, Seiwert M, Angerer J, et al. (2007) Di-n-butylphthalate and butylbenzylphthalate- urinary metabolite levels and estimated daily intakes: Pilot study for the german environmental survey on children. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 17: 378-387.
64. Koch HM, Lorber M, Christensen KLY, Pälmke C, Koslitz S, et al. (2013) Identifying sources of phthalate exposure with human biomonitoring: Results of a 48 h fasting study with urine collection and personal activity patterns. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health: in press, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2012.12.002.
65. Wittassek M, Heger W, Koch HM, Becker K, Angerer J, et al. (2007) Daily intake of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) by german children- A comparison of two estimation models based on urinary DEHP metabolite levels. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 210: 35-42.
66. Wittassek M, Wiesmueller GA, Koch HM, Eckard R, Dobler L, et al. (2007) Internal phthalate exposure over the last two decades- A retrospective human biomonitoring study. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 210: 319-333.
67. Koch HM, Calafat AM, (2009) Human body burdens of chemicals used in plastic manufacture. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 364: 2063-2078.
68. Wittassek M, Koch HM, Angerer J, Bruening T, (2011) Assessing exposure to phthalates- the human biomonitoring approach. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 55: 7-31.
69. Fromme H, Gruber L, Schlurnmer M, Wz G, Boehmer S, et al. (2007) Intake of phthalates and di(2-ethylhexyl)adipate: Results of the integrated exposure assessment survey based on duplicate diet samples and biomonitoring data. Environment International 33: 1012-1020.
70. Rudel RA, Gray JM, Engel CL, Rawsthorne TW, Dodson RE, et al. (2011) Food packaging and bisphenol A and bis(2-ethyhexyl) phthalate exposure: Findings from a dietary intervention. Environmental Health Perspectives 119: 914-920.
71. Meek ME, Chan PKL, (1994) Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate- evaluation of risks to health from environmental exposure in Canada. Environmental Carcinogenesis & Ecotoxicology Reviews-Part C of Journal of Environmental Science and Health 12: 179-194.
72. Chan PKL, Meek ME, (1994) Di-N-butyl phthalate- evaluation of risks to health from environmental exposure in Canada. Environmental Carcinogenesis & Ecotoxicology Reviews-Part C of Journal of Environmental Science and Health 12: 257-268.
73. Clark K, Cousins I, MacKay D (2003) Assessment of critical exposure pathways. In: Staples CA (editor). The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, 3Q. Phthalate Esters. New York: Springer. 227-262.
74. Clark KE, David RM, Guinn R, Kramarz KW, Lampi MA, et al. (2011) Modeling human exposure to phthalate esters: A comparison of indirect and biomonitoring estimation methods. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment 17: 923-965.
75. Fromme H, Lahrz T, Piloty M, Gebhart H, Oddoy A, et al. (2004) Occurrence of phthalates and musk fragrances in indoor air and dust from apartments and kindergartens in berlin (germany). Indoor Air 14: 188-195.
76. Bosgra S, Bos PMJ, Vermeire TG, Luit RJ, Slob W, (2005) Probabilistic risk characterization: An example with di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 43: 104-113.
77. Franco A, Prevedouros K, Alli R, Cousins IT, (2007) Comparison and analysis of different approaches for estimating the human exposure to phthalate esters. Environment International 33: 283-291.
78. Clausen G, Host A, Toftum J, Bekö G, Weschler C, et al. (2012) Children's health and its association with indoor environments in danish homes and daycare centres- methods. Indoor Air 22: 467-475.
79. Langer S, Weschler CJ, Fischer A, Bekö G, Toftum J, et al. (2010) Phthalate and PAH concentrations in dust collected from Danish homes and daycare centers. Atmospheric Environment 44: 2294-2301.
80. Langer S, Weschler CJ, Bekö G, Toftum J, Brive L, et al. (2013) Phthalate metabolites in urine samples of danish children and correlations with phthalates in dust samples from their homes and daycare centers. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health: Submitted.
81. Miller LA, Stapleton FB, (1989) Urinary volume in children with urolithiasis. Journal of Urology 141: 918-920.
82. Szabo L, Fegyverneki S, (1995) Maximum and average urine flow-rates in normal-children- the miskolc nomograms. British Journal of Urology 76: 16-20.
83. Barr DB, Silva MJ, Kato K, Reidy JA, Malek NA, et al. (2003) Assessing human exposure to phthalates using monoesters and their oxidized metabolites as biomarkers. Environmental Health Perspectives 111: 1148-1151.
84. Kato K, Silva MJ, Reidy JA, Hurtz D, Malek NA, et al. (2004) Mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate and mono-(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate as biomarkers for human exposure assessment to di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate. Environmental Health Perspectives 112: 327-330.
85. Silva MJ, Reidy A, Preau JL, Samandar E, Needham LL, et al. (2006) Measurement of eight urinary metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate as biomarkers for human exposure assessment. Biomarkers 11: 1-13.
86. Silva MJ, Samandar E, Preau JL, Needham LL, Calafat AM, (2006) Urinary oxidative metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate in humans. Toxicology 219: 22-32.
87. Frederiksen H, Skakkebaek NE, Andersson A, (2007) Metabolism of phthalates in humans. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 51: 899-911.
88. Wittassek M, Angerer J, (2008) Phthalates: Metabolism and exposure. International Journal of Andrology 31: 131-136.
89. Koch HM, Bolt HM, Preuss R, Angerer J, (2005) New metabolites of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) in human urine and serum after single oral doses of deuterium-labelled DEHP. Archives of Toxicology 79: 367-376.
90. US EPA (2009) Child-specific exposure factors handbook. Available: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=199243. Accessed 2012 December 17.
91. Kanazawa A, Saito I, Araki A, Takeda M, Ma M, et al. (2010) Association between indoor exposure to semi-volatile organic compounds and building-related symptoms among the occupants of residential dwellings. Indoor Air 20: 72-84.
92. Rudel RA, Camann DE, Spengler JD, Korn LR, Brody JG, (2003) Phthalates, alkylphenols, pesticides, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and other endocrine-disrupting compounds in indoor air and dust. Environmental Science & Technology 37: 4543-4553.
93. Morgan MK, Sheldon LS, Croghan CW, Chuang JC, Lordo RA, et al. (2004) A pilot study of children's total exposure to persistent pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants (CTEPP). Contract number 68-D-99-011, Task order 0002. US EPA National Exposure Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC.
94. Fromme H, Lahrz T, Hainsch A, Oddoy A, Piloty M, et al. (2005) Elemental carbon and respirable particulate matter in the indoor air of apartments and nursery schools and ambient air in berlin (germany). Indoor Air 15: 335-341.
95. Dubois D, Dubois EF, (1916) A formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known. Archives of Internal Medicine 17: 863-871.
96. Hawley JK, (1985) Assessment of health risk from exposure to contaminated soil. Risk Analysis 5: 289-302.
97. US EPA (1993) Integrated risk information system (IRIS). Butyl benzyl phthalate (CASRN 85-68-7). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available: http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0293.htm. Accessed 2012 December 17.
98. US EPA (1997) Integrated risk information system (IRIS). Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) (CASRN 117-81-7). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Available: http://www.epa.gov/IRIS/subst/0014.htm. Accessed 2012 December 17.
99. Williams DT, Blanchfield BJ, (1975) Retention, distribution, excretion, and metabolism of dibutyl phthalate-7-C-14 in rat. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 23: 854-858.
100. Koch HM, Bolt HM, Angerer J, (2004) Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) metabolites in human urine and serum after a single oral dose of deuterium-labelled DEHP. Archives of Toxicology 78: 123-130.
101. Koch HM, Christensen KLY, Harth V, Lorber M, Bruening T, (2012) Di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP) metabolism in a human volunteer after single oral doses. Archives of Toxicology 86: 1829-1839.
102. EFSA (2005) Opinion of the scientific panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food (AFC) on a request from the commission related to butylbenzylphthalate (BBP) for use in food contact materials. EFSA J 3(9): 241, 1-14.
103. EFSA (2005) Opinion of the scientific panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food (AFC) on a request from the commission related to di-butylphthalate (DBP) for use in food contact materials. EFSA J 3(9): 242, 1-17.
104. EFSA (2005) Opinion of the scientific panel on food additives, flavourings, processing aids and materials in contact with food (AFC) on a request from the commission related to bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) for use in food contact materials. EFSA J 3(9): 243, 1-20.
105. COT (2011) COT statement on dietary exposure to phthalates - data from the total diet study (TDS). Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment. p.1-28. Available: http://cot.food.gov.uk/pdfs/cotstatementphthalates201104.pdf. Accessed 2012 December 17.
106. Guo Y, Wu Q, Kannan K, (2011) Phthalate metabolites in urine from china, and implications for human exposures. Environment International 37: 893-898.
107. Ye X, Pierik FH, Angerer J, Meltzer HM, Jaddoe VWV, et al. (2009) Levels of metabolites of organophosphate pesticides, phthalates, and bisphenol A in pooled urine specimens from pregnant women participating in the norwegian mother and child cohort study (MoBa). International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 212: 481-491.
108. Chen M, Chen J, Tang C, Mao I, (2008) The internal exposure of taiwanese to phthalate- an evidence of intensive use of plastic materials. Environment International 34: 79-85.
109. CDC (2012) Fourth national report on human exposure to environmental chemicals, Updated tables. Atlanta: Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
110. Koch HM, Drexler H, Angerer J, (2004) Internal exposure of nursery-school children and their parents and teachers to di(2-ethylhexyl)phtha late (DEHP). International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 207: 15-22.
111. Silva MJ, Barr DB, Reidy JA, Malek NA, Hodge CC, et al. (2004) Urinary levels of seven phthalate metabolites in the US population from the national health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES) 1999-2000. Environmental Health Perspectives 112: 331-338.
112. Becker K, Seiwert M, Angerer J, Heger W, Koch HM, et al. (2004) DEHP metabolites in urine of children and DEHP in house dust. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 207: 409-417.
113. Frederiksen H, Aksglaede L, Sorensen K, Skakkebaek NE, Juul A, et al. (2011) Urinary excretion of phthalate metabolites in 129 healthy danish children and adolescents: Estimation of daily phthalate intake. Environmental Research 111: 656-663.
114. Lin S, Ku H, Su P, Chen J, Huang P, et al. (2011) Phthalate exposure in pregnant women and their children in central taiwan. Chemosphere 82: 947-955.
115. Calafat AM, McKee RH, (2006) Integrating biomonitoring exposure data into the risk assessment process: Phthalates [diethyl phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate] as a case study. Environmental Health Perspectives 114: 1783-1789.
116. CDC (2005) Third national report on human exposure to environmental chemicals. Atlanta: Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
117. Brock JW, Caudill SP, Silva MJ, Needham LL, Hilborn ED, (2002) Phthalate monoesters levels in the urine of young children. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 68: 309-314.
118. Goeen T, Dobler L, Koschorreck J, Mueller J, Wiesmueller GA, et al. (2011) Trends of the internal phthalate exposure of young adults in germany-follow-up of a retrospective human biomonitoring study. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 215: 36-45.
119. Colacino JA, Harris TR, Schecter A, (2010) Dietary intake is associated with phthalate body burden in a nationally representative sample. Environmental Health Perspectives 118: 998-1003.
120. Koo HJ, Lee BM, (2004) Estimated exposure to phthalates in cosmetics and risk assessment. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health-Part A-Current Issues 67: 1901-1914.
121. Buckley JP, Palmieri RT, Matuszewski JM, Herring AH, Baird DD, et al. (2012) Consumer product exposures associated with urinary phthalate levels in pregnant women. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 22: 468-475.
122. Guo Y, Zhang Z, Liu L, Li Y, Ren N, et al. (2012) Occurrence and profiles of phthalates in foodstuffs from china and their implications for human exposure. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 60: 6913-6919.
123. Aylward LL, Lorber M, Hays SM, (2011) Urinary DEHP metabolites and fasting time in NHANES. Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology 21: 615-624.
124. Tsumura Y, Ishimitsu S, Saito I, Sakai H, Kobayashi Y, et al. (2001) Eleven phthalate esters and di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate in one-week duplicate diet samples obtained from hospitals and their estimated daily intake. Food Additives and Contaminants 18: 449-460.
125. Duty SM, Ackerman RM, Calafat AM, Hauser R, (2005) Personal care product use predicts urinary concentrations of some phthalate monoesters. Environmental Health Perspectives 113: 1530-1535.
126. Deisinger PJ, Perry LG, Guest D, (1998) In vivo percutaneous absorption of [C-14]DEHP from [C-14]DEHP-plasticized polyvinyl chloride film in male Fischer 344 rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology 36: 521-527.
127. Carlstedt F, Jönsson BAG, Bornehag CG, (2013) PVC flooring is related to human uptake of phthalates in infants. Indoor Air 23: 32-39.
128. Hagedorn-Leweke U, Lippold BC, (1995) Absorption of sunscreens and other compounds through human skin in-vivo- derivation of a method to predict maximum fluxes. Pharmaceutical Research 12: 1354-1360.
129. Hannas BR, Furr J, Lambright CS, Wilson VS, Foster PMD, et al. (2011) Dipentyl phthalate dosing during sexual differentiation disrupts fetal testis function and postnatal development of the male sprague-dawley rat with greater relative potency than other phthalates. Toxicological Sciences 120: 184-193.
130. Takeuchi T, Tsutsumi O, Ikezuki Y, Takai Y, Taketani Y, (2004) Positive relationship between androgen and the endocrine disruptor, bisphenol A, in normal women and women with ovarian dysfunction. Endocrine Journal 51: 165-169.
131. Kodavanti PRS, Coburn CG, Moser VC, MacPhail RC, Fenton SE, et al. (2010) Developmental exposure to a commercial PBDE mixture, DE-71: Neurobehavioral, hormonal, and reproductive effects. Toxicological Sciences 116: 297-312.
132. Schossler P, Schripp T, Salthammer T, Bahadir M, (2011) Beyond phthalates: Gas phase concentrations and modeled gas/particle distribution of modern plasticizers. Science of the Total Environment 409: 4031-4038.
133. Anderson WAC, Castle L, Scotter MJ, Massey RC, Springall C, (2001) A biomarker approach to measuring human dietary exposure to certain phthalate diesters. Food Additives and Contaminants 18: 1068-1074.
134. Seckin E, Fromme H, Voelkel W, (2009) Determination of total and free mono-n-butyl phthalate in human urine samples after medication of a di-n-butyl phthalate containing capsule. Toxicology Letters 188: 33-37.
135. Hauser R, Duty S, Godfrey-Bailey L, Calafat AM, (2004) Medications as a source of human exposure to phthalates. Environmental Health Perspectives 112: 751-753.
136. Fromme H, Bolte G, Koch HM, Angerer J, Boehmer S, et al. (2007) Occurrence and daily variation of phthalate metabolites in the urine of an adult population. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 210: 21-33.
137. Hauser R, Meeker JD, Park S, Silva MJ, Calafat AM, (2004) Temporal variability of urinary phthalate metabolite levels in men of reproductive age. Environmental Health Perspectives 112: 1734-1740.
138. Teitelbaum SL, Britton JA, Calafat AM, Ye X, Silva MJ, et al. (2008) Temporal variability in urinary concentrations of phthalate metabolites, phytoestrogens and phenols among minority children in the united states. Environmental Research 106: 257-269.
139. Preau JL, Jr., Wong L, Silva MJ, Needham LL, Calafat AM, (2010) Variability over 1 week in the urinary concentrations of metabolites of diethyl phthalate and di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate among eight adults: An observational study. Environmental Health Perspectives 118: 1748-1754.
140. Jakubowski M, Czerczak S, (2009) Calculating the retention of volatile organic compounds in the lung on the basis of their physicochemical properties. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology 28: 311-315.
141. Abraham K, Mielke H, Huisinga W, Gundert-Remy U, (2005) Elevated internal exposure of children in simulated acute inhalation of volatile organic compounds: Effects of concentration and duration. Archives of Toxicology 79: 63-73.