Are leadership constructs really independent?

Leadership and Organization Development Journal

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 20-43

  Rowold, Jens ^a   Borgmann, Lars ^a  

^a TU DORTMUND UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

Author keywords

Construct validity; Germany; Leadership; Multitrait multimethod

Indexed keywords

EID: 84873881688     PISSN: 01437739     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1108/01437731311289956     Document Type: Article

References (106)

1. Alban-Metcalfe, R.J. and Alimo-Metcalfe, B. (2000), "An analysis of the convergent and discriminant validity of the transformational leadership questionnaire" in International Journal of Selection and Assessment, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 158-75.
2. Alimo-Metcalfe, B. and Alban-Metcalfe, R.J. (2001), "The development of a new transformational leadership questionnaire" in Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, Vol. 74, No. 1, pp. 1-27.
3. Antonakis, J. and House, R.J. (2002), "The full-range leadership theory: the way forward" in Avolio, B.J. and Yammarino, F.J. (Eds.), Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead, JAI, Amsterdam, pp. 3-34.
4. Antonakis, J., Avolio, B.J. and Sivasubramaniam, N. (2003), "Context and leadership: an examination of the nine-factor full-range leadership theory using the multifactor leadership questionnaire" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 3, pp. 261-95.
5. Atwater, L., Waldman, D.A., Ostroff, C., Robie, C. and Johnson, K.M. (2005), "Self-other agreement: comparing its relationship with performance in the US and Europe" in International Journal of Selection and Assessment, Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 25-40.
6. Avolio, B.J. and Bass, B.M. (1995), "Individual consideration viewed at multiple levels of analysis: a multi-level framework for examining the diffusion of transformational leadership" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 199-218.
7. Avolio, B.J. and Bass, B.M. (2002), Developing Potential Across a Full Range of Leadership, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ.
8. Avolio, B.J. and Yammarino, F.J. (2002), Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead, JAI, Amsterdam.
9. Avolio, B.J., Yammarino, F.J. and Bass, B.M. (1991), "Identifying common method variance with data collected from a single source: an unresolved sticky issue" in Journal of Management, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 571-87.
10. Bagozzi, R.P., Youjae, Y. and Phillips, L.W. (1991), "Assessing construct validity in organizational research" in Administrative Science Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 3, pp. 421-58.
11. Bandalos, D.L. (2002), "The effects of item parcelling on goodness-of-fit and parameter estimate bias in structural equation modeling" in Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 78-102.
12. Barling, J., Weber, T. and Kelloway, E.K. (1996), "Effects of transformational leadership training on attitudinal and financial outcomes: a field experiment" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 81, No. 6, pp. 827-32.
13. Bass, B.M. (1985), Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations, Free Press, New York, NY.
14. Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (1990), "The implications of transactional and transformational leadership for individual, team, and organizational development" in Research in Organizational Change and Development, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 231-72.
15. Bass, B.M. and Avolio, B.J. (2000), MLQ Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire, Mind Garden, Redwood City.
16. Biesanz, J.C. and West, S.G. (2004), "Towards understanding assessments of the big five: multitrait-multimethod analyses of convergent and discriminant validity across measurement occasion and type of observer" in Journal of Personality, Vol. 72, No. 4, pp. 845-76.
17. Bono, J.E. and Judge, T.A. (2004), "Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analysis" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 89, No. 5, pp. 901-10.
18. Brodbeck, F.C., Frese, M. and Javidan, M. (2002), "Leadership made in Germany: low on compassion, high on performance" in Academy of Management Executive, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 16-30.
19. Brown, D.J. and Keeping, L.M. (2005), "Elaborating the construct of transformational leadership: the role of affect" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 245-72.
20. Burns, J.M. (1978), Leadership, Harper & Row, New York, NY.
21. Bycio, P., Hackett, R.D. and Allen, J.S. (1995), "Further assessments of Bass (1985) conceptualization of transactional and transformational leadership" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 80, No. 4, pp. 468-78.
22. Byrne, B.M. (2001), Structural Equation Modeling with Amos: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Lawrence Erlbaum Ass, New York, NY.
23. Campbell, D.T. and Fiske, D.W. (1959), "Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix" in Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 56, No. 2, pp. 81-105.
24. Carless, S.A. (1998), "Assessing the discriminant validity of transformational leader behavior as measured by the MLQ" in Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, Vol. 71, No. 4, pp. 353-8.
25. Cheung, G.W. and Rensvold, R.B. (2002), "Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance" in Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 233-55.
26. Cohen, J. (1988), Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NY.
27. Cohen, P., Cohen, J., West, S.G. and Aiken, L.S. (2002), Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, NJ.
28. Conger, J.A. and Kanungo, R.N. (1998), Charismatic Leadership in Organizations, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
29. Conway, J.M. (1996), "Analysis and design of multitrait-multirater performance appraisal studies" in Journal of Management, Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 139-62.
30. Den Hartog, D.N. and Van Muijen, J.J. (1997), "Transactional versus transformational leadership: an analysis of the MLQ" in Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, Vol. 70, No. 1, pp. 19-34.
31. Dionne, S.D., Yammarino, F.J., Atwater, L.E. and James, L.R. (2002), "Neutralizing substitutes for leadership theory: leadership effects and common-source bias" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 87, No. 3, pp. 454-64.
32. Dumdum, U.R., Lowe, K.B. and Avolio, B.J. (2002), "A meta-analysis of transformational and transactional leadership correlates of effectiveness and satisfaction: An update and extension" in Avolio, B.J. and Yammarino, F.J. (Eds.), Transformational and Charismatic Leadership: The Road Ahead, JAI, Amsterdam, pp. 35-66.
33. Eid, M. (2000), "A multitrait-multimethod model with minimal assumptions" in Psychometrika, Vol. 65, No. 2, pp. 241-61.
34. Erdogan, B., Kraimer, M.L. and Liden, R.C. (2004), "Work value congruence and intrinsic career success: the compensatory roles of leader-member exchange and perceived organizational support" in Personnel Psychology, Vol. 57, No. 2, pp. 305-32.
35. Fittkau-Garthe, H. and Fittkau, B. (1971), Fragebogen zur Vorgesetzten-Verhaltens-Beschreibung (FVVB) [Survey for the Assessment of Leader's Behavior], Hogrefe, Göttingen.
36. Fleishman, E.A. (1953), "The description of supervisory behavior" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 37, No. 1, pp. 1-6.
37. Fleishman, E.A. (1973), "Twenty years of consideration and structure" in Fleishman, E.A. and Hunt, J.G. (Eds.), Current Developments in the Study of Leadership, Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale & Edwardsville, pp. 1-40.
38. Gerstner, C.R. and Day, D.V. (1997), "Meta-analytic review of leader-member exchange theory: correlates and construct issues" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 82, No. 6, pp. 827-44.
39. Geyer, A.L.J. and Steyrer, J.M. (1994), "Transformationale Führung, klassische Führungstheorien und Erfolgsindikatoren von Bankbetrieben (Transformational leadership, classic leadership theories, and indicators of success in banks)" in Zeitschrift für Betriebswirtschaftslehre, Vol. 64, No. 4, pp. 961-79.
40. Graen, G. (1995), "Relationship-based approach to leadership: development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: applying a multi-level multi-domain perspective" in The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 219-47.
41. Graen, G., Rowold, J. and Heinitz, K. (2010), "Issues in operationalizing and comparing leadership constructs" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 563-75.
42. Graen, G.B. and Uhl-Bien, M. (1995), "Relationship-based approach to leadership: development of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory of leadership over 25 years: applying a multi-domain perspective" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 6, pp. 219-47.
43. Hair, J.F., Anderson, R.E., Tatham, R.L. and Black, W.C. (1998), Multivariate Data Analysis, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 5th ed.
44. Hancock, G.R. and Nevitt, J. (2001), "Performance of bootstrapping approaches to model test statistics and parameter standard error estimation in structural equation modeling" in Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 8, No. 3, p. 353.
45. Heeler, R.M. and Ray, M.L. (1972), "Measure validation in marketing" in Journal of Marketing Research (JMR), Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 361-70.
46. Heinitz, K. and Rowold, J. (2007), "Gütekriterien einer deutschen Adaptation des Transformationale Leadership Inventory (TLI) von Podsakoff (Psychometric properties of a German adaptation of the Transformational Leadership Inventory)" in Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 1-15.
47. House, R.J. and Aditya, R.M. (1997), "The social scientific study of leadership: Quo Vadis?" in Journal of Management, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 409-73.
48. Howell, J.M. and Boies, K. (2004), "Champions of technological innovation: the influence of contextual knowledge, role orientation, idea generation, and idea promotion on champion emergence" in The Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 123-43.
49. Howell, J.M. and Hall-Merenda, K.E. (1999), "The ties that bind: the impact of leader-member exchange, transformational and transactional leadership, and distance on predicting follower performance" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 84, No. 5, pp. 680-94.
50. Howell, J.M., Shea, C.M. and Higgins, C.A. (2005), "Champions of product innovations: defining, developing, and validating a measure of champion behavior" in Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 641-61.
51. Hu, L.T. and Bentler, P.M. (1995), "Evaluating model fit" in Hoyle, R.H. (Ed.), Structural Equation Modeling: Concepts, Issues and Applications, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 33-67.
52. Hu, L.T. and Bentler, P.M. (1999), "Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives" in Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 1-55.
53. Hunt, J.G. and Conger, J.A. (1999), "From where we sit: an assessment of transformational and charismatic leadership research" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 3, pp. 335-43.
54. Hunter, S.T., Bedell-Avers, K.E. and Mumford, M.D. (2007), "The typical leadership study: assumptions, implications, and potential remedies" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 5, pp. 435-46.
55. Judge, T.A. and Piccolo, R.F. (2004), "Transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analytic test of their relative validity" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 89, No. 1, pp. 755-68.
56. Judge, T.A., Piccolo, R.F. and Ilies, R. (2004), "The forgotten ones? The validity of consideration and initiating structure in leadership research" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 89, No. 5, pp. 36-51.
57. Judge, T.A., Bono, J.E., Ilies, R. and Gerhardt, M.W. (2002), "Personality and leadership: a qualitative and quantitative review" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 87, No. 4, pp. 765-80.
58. Keller, R.T. (2006), "Transformational leadership, initiating structure, and substitutes for leadership: a longitudinal study of research and development project team performance" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 91, No. 1, pp. 202-10.
59. Kline, R.B. (2005), Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, Guilford Press, New York, NY.
60. Kuchinke, K.P. (1999), "Leadership and culture: work-related values and leadership styles among one company's US and German telecommunication employees" in Human Resource Development Quarterly, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 135-54.
61. Landis, R.S., Beal, D.J. and Tesluk, P.E. (2000), "A comparison of approaches to forming composite measures in structural equation models" in Organizational Research Methods, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 186-207.
62. Liden, R.C. and Graen, G.B. (1980), "Generalizability of the vertical dyad linkage model of leadership" in Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 451-65.
63. Lievens, F., Van Geit, P. and Coetsier, P. (1997), "Identification of transformational leadership qualities: an examination of potential biases" in European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 415-30.
64. Likert, R. (1955), "Developing patterns in management", American Management Association, New York, General Management Series No. 178.
65. Likert, R. (1961), New Patterns in Leadership, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
66. Little, T.D., Cunningham, W.A., Shahar, G. and Widaman, K.F. (2002), "To parcel or not to parcel: exploring the question, weighing the merits" in Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 151-73.
67. Looney, S.W. (1995), "How to use tests for univariate normality to assess multivariate normality" in American Statistician, Vol. 49, No. 1, p. 64.
68. Lowe, K.B., Kroeck, K.G. and Sivasubramaniam, N. (1996), "Effectiveness correlates of transformational and transactional leadership: a meta-analytic review of the MLQ literature" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 385-425.
69. Marsh, H.W. (1993), "Multitrait-multimethod analyses: inferring each trait-method combination with multiple indicators" in Applied Measurement in Education, Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 49-81.
70. Marsh, H.W. and Bailey, M. (1991), "Confirmatory factor analyses of multitrait-multimethod data: a comparison of alternative models" in Applied Psychological Measurement, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 47-70.
71. Marsh, H.W., Byrne, B.M. and Craven, R. (1992), "Overcoming problems in confirmatory factor analyses of MTMM data: the correlated uniqueness model and factorial invariance" in Multivariate Behavioral Research, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 489-507.
72. Mount, M.K., Judge, T.A., Scullen, S.E., Sytsma, M.R. and Hezlett, S.A. (1998), "Trait, rater and level effects in 360-degree performance ratings" in Personnel Psychology, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 557-76.
73. Nunnally, J.C. and Bernstein, I.H. (1967), Psychometric Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.
74. Podsakoff, N.P., MacKenzie, S.B., Moorman, R.H. and Fetter, R. (1990), "Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers' trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 107-42.
75. Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B. and Bommer, W.H. (1996), "Transformational leader behaviors and substitutes for leadership as determinants of employee satisfaction, commitment, trust, and organizational citizenship behaviors" in Journal of Management, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 259-98.
76. Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Lee, J.Y. and Podsakoff, N.P. (2003), "Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies" in Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 88, No. 5, pp. 879-903.
77. Rafferty, A.E. and Griffin, M.A. (2004), "Dimensions of transformational leadership: conceptual and empirical extensions" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 329-54.
78. Rowold, J. and Heinitz, K. (2007), "Transformational and charismatic leadership: assessing the convergent, divergent and criterion validity of the MLQ and the CKS" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 121-33.
79. Rowold, J. and Kersting, M. (2008), "The assessment of charismatic leadership: validity of a German version of the Conger-Kanungo Scales" in European Journal of Psychological Assessment, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 124-30.
80. Sashkin, M. (2004), "Transformational leadership approaches: a review and synthesis" in Antonakis, J., Cianciolo, A.T. and Sternberg, R.J. (Eds.), The Nature of Leadership, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 171-96.
81. Schmitt, N. and Stults, D.M. (1986), "Methodology review: analysis of multitrait-multimethod matrices" in Applied Psychological Measurement, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 1-22.
82. Schyns, B. (2002), "Überprüfung einer deutschsprachigen Skala zum Leader-Member-Exchange-Ansatz (Testing a German Scale for the Leader-Member-Exchange approach)" in Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 235-45.
83. Seltzer, J. and Bass, B.M. (1990), "Transformational leadership: beyond initiation and consideration" in Journal of Management, Vol. 16, No. 4, pp. 693-703.
84. Seltzer, J. and Numeroff, R.E. (1988), "Supervisory leadership and subordinate burnout" in Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 439-46.
85. Shin, S.J. and Zhou, J. (2003), "Transformational leadership, conservation, and creativity: evidence from Korea" in Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 46, No. 6, pp. 703-14.
86. Steenkamp, J.E.M. and Baumgartner, H. (1998), "Assessing measurement invariance in cross-national consumer research" in Journal of Consumer Research, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 78-89.
87. Stogdill, R.M. (1948), "Personal factors associated with leadership: a survey of the literature" in Journal of Psychology, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 35-71.
88. Tejeda, M.J., Scandura, T.A. and Pillai, R. (2001), "The MLQ revisited - psychometric properties and recommendations" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 31-52.
89. Tepper, B.J. and Percy, P.M. (1994), "Structural validity of the multifactor leadership questionnaire" in Educational and Psychological Measurement, Vol. 54, No. 3, pp. 734-44.
90. Tepper, B.J., Moss, S.E., Lockhart, D.E. and Carr, J.C. (2007), "Abusive supervision, upward maintenance communication, and subordinates psychological distress" in Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 50, No. 5, pp. 1169-80.
91. Tosi, H.L., Misangyi, V.F., Fanelli, A., Waldman, D.A. and Yammarino, F.J. (2004), "CEO charisma, compensation, and firm performance" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 15, No. 3, pp. 405-20.
92. Vandenberg, R.J. and Lance, C.E. (2000), "A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research" in Organizational Research Methods, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 4-70.
93. Waldman, D.A. and Yammarino, F.J. (1999), "CEO charismatic leadership: levels-of-management and levels-of-analysis effects" in Academy of Management Review, Vol. 24, No. 2, pp. 266-85.
94. Walumbwa, F.O. and Lawler, J.J. (2003), "Building effective organizations: transformational leadership, collectivist orientation, work-related attitudes and withdrawal behaviors in three emerging economies" in International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 14, No. 7, pp. 1083-101.
95. Walumbwa, F.O., Avolio, B.J., Gardner, W.L., Wernsing, T.S. and Peterson, S.J. (2008), "Authentic leadership: development and validation of a theory-based measure" in Journal of Management, Vol. 34, No. 1, pp. 89-126.
96. Wang, H., Law, K.S., Hackett, R.D., Wang, D. and Chen, Z.X. (2005), "Leader-member exchange as a mediator of the relationship between transformational leadership and followers' performance and organizational citizenship behavior" in Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 48, No. 3, pp. 420-32.
97. Ximénez, C. (2006), "A Monte Carlo study of recovery of weak factor loadings in confirmatory factor analysis" in Structural Equation Modeling, Vol. 13, No. 4, pp. 587-614.
98. Yukl, G. (1999), "An evaluative essay on current conceptions of effective leadership" in European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 33-48.
99. Yukl, G. (2002), Leadership in Organizations, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 5th ed.
100. Browne, M.W. and Cudeck, R. (1993), "Alternative ways of assessing model fit" in Bollen, K.A. and Long, J.S. (Eds.), Testing Structural Equation Models, Sage Publications, Newbury Park, CA, pp. 136-62.
101. Frese, M., Beimel, S. and Schoenborn, S. (2003), "Action training for charismatic leadership: two evaluations of studies of a commercial training module on inspirational communication of a vision" in Personnel Psychology, Vol. 56, No. 3, pp. 671-98.
102. Heck, R.H. (1998), "Factor analysis: exploratory and confirmatory approaches" in Marcoulides, G.A. (Ed.), Modern Methods for Business Research, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ, pp. 177-215.
103. Muthén, L.K. and Muthén, B.O. (2007), Mplus: Statistical Analysis with Latent Variables: User's Guide, Muthén & Muthén, Los Angeles, CA.
104. Podsakoff, P.M. and Dalton, D.R. (1987), "Research methodology in organizational studies" in Journal of Management, Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 419-41.
105. Podsakoff, P.M., MacKenzie, S.B., Ahearne, M. and Bommer, W.H. (1995), "Searching for a needle in a haystack: trying to identify the illusive moderators of leadership behaviors" in Journal of Management, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp. 422-70.
106. West, M.A., Borill, C.S., Dawson, J.F., Brodbeck, F., Shapiro, D.A. and Haward, B. (2003), "Leadership clarity and team innovation in health care" in Leadership Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 4, pp. 393-410.